PPRE – Electric Power Systems 9 53

9 Synchronous Machines

9.1 Introduction
Synchronous machines rotate at a constant synchronous speed in steady state. Unlike induction ma-
chines, the rotating stator field and the rotor rotate at the same speed. They are primarily used as
generators in all kind of power stations. Like most rotating machines, the synchronous machine can
operate as both a generator and a motor.

An important feature of a synchronous machine is its ability to draw/supply either lagging or leading
reactive current from/to the AC power system.

9.2 Construction
The stator has a 3-phase distributed winding similar to that of an induction machine. The stator wind-
ings (also called armature windings) are connected to the AC supply. The rotor carries the field wind-
ing which is fed from an external DC source through slip rings and brushes.

Stator
Winding a-a'
a'

N
b c N

Rotor

S
b' S
c'
Rotor w ith salient Rotor w ith cylindrical or
a pole for low speed nonsalient pole for high
machines speed machines

Fig-EPS9.2-1 Construction of a synchronous machine

Fig-EPS9.2-2 Synchronous Generator in a wind power

station

Fig-EPS9.2-3 Synchronous Generator of a hydro power

station

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9.3 Synchronous Generators

The rotor of the synchronous generator is moved by a
a prime mover (turbine, diesel engine, dc motor, wind
Fig-EPS9.3-1 drive). The current through the field winding If produces
The turning rotor a so-called excitation field, its flux rotates in the air gap.
c'
a'
produces a rotating This rotating flux induces a voltage in the three stator
b' excitation field windings called excitation voltages Ef which are phase-
c
shifted by 120° electrically. The rotor speed and the fre-
Stator b quency of the induced voltages are related by
120  f
n (9.2-1)
 p
Rotor If
n p
+ - f  (9.2-2)
120

Infinite Bus (or Grid)

Synchronous generators are applied individually, mainly they are connected to a power supply system
called infinite bus or grid. Due to the large number of generators connected, voltage and frequency of
the grid hardly change. Transmission of energy is at higher voltage levels to achieve a better efficien-
cy.
Wind Thermal Nuclear Hydro
Interruptible Tie-
~ ~ ~ ~ line to other states
or countries

Transformer Transformer Transformer Transformer

230kV
grid

Transformer
44kV
Load centers Transformer
Transformer

4.16kV

Fig-EPS9.3-2
Typical infinite bus system (North America) Transformer
230V 115V
load load
Industrial loads Domestic loads
600V or 480V

The operation of connecting a synchronous generator to the infinite bus is known as paralleling with
the infinite bus. Before this connection can be performed, both the generator and the infinite bus
must have the same
1. voltage
2. frequency
3. phase sequence
4. phase angle

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In power plants these conditions are checked by infinite bus

a so-called synchroscope. In practice a set of
synchronizing lamps may be sufficient. Deviat-
ing from any of the above mentioned conditions
the lamps will glow (or flicker) any way. The con-
necting circuit breaker cannot be closed before all synchronizing lamps
lamps are dark permanently (see figure 9.3-3).
circuit
After the connection the speed of the generator breaker
cannot be changed further. However, the real
power transfer from the generator to the infinite
bus can be controlled by adjusting the prime
mover. Even the controlling of the reactive power
(i.e. the machine PF) is possible by adjusting the
field current, as we will see later. Prime Synchronous
Mover Generator

Fig-EPS9.3-3 Paralleling of a
synchronous generator w ith the
infinite bus If

9.4 Synchronous Motors

When a synchronous machine is used as a motor, it is not able to self-start as induction and DC ma-
chines do. If the rotor field is excited by a DC current and the stator terminals are connected to the AC
supply, the motor will only vibrate, but not start. The stator field is rotating so fast that the rotor poles
cannot catch up or lock onto it, in contrary to an induction machine where the rotor field moves with
synchronous speed with respect to the stator, i.e. with the same speed as the stator field does. There
are two commonly used methods to start a synchronous motor:
U, f
Start with Variable-Frequency Supply 3P Frequency Synchronous
The f converter starts with a low frequency allowing supply Converter Motor
the poles of the rotor to follow. Afterward, it is grad-
ually increased to the synchronous speed. Those
converters are expensive and so this method is f control U control If
mostly applied where the synchronous motor has to
Fig-EPS9.4-1 Starting of a synchronous motor
run at variable speed.
by a variable frequency supply

Start as an Induction Motor

The rotor of the synchronous motor carries an additional winding, which
resembles the cage of an induction motor, known as damper or amor- N
tisseur winding. To start the motor the field winding is left unexcited
(often just shunted by a resistor). The stator windings connected to the
AC source accelerate the rotor until approaching the synchronous
speed. Now if the field winding is excited by a DC source, the rotor
poles, closely to the speed of the stator poles, will be locked to them.
The rotor will then run at synchronous speed. S
At synchronous speed no current will be induced in the damper winding.
Nevertheless, if the speed differs from the synchronous speed because Fig-EPS9.4-2 Starting of a
of sudden load changes, a current will be induced in the damper winding synchronous motor as induction
to produce a torque to restore the synchronous speed. This restorative motor by a cage-type damper
torque gives the name “damper”. This effect may also be used in gener- w inding on the rotor
ators (carrying an apparently useless damper winding because it is not
needed for start) to damp out transient oscillations!

9.5 Power and Torque Characteristic

A synchronous machine is normally connected to a fixed-voltage bus system. It operates at constant
speed. There is a limit on the power a generator can deliver to the infinite bus and on the torque ap-
plied to a motor without losing synchronism.

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jXs In the per-phase equivalent circuit of the figure the constant

bus voltage U1 (or terminal voltage) is considered as the ref-
erence phasor:
Generator

Ia U 1  U 10 (9.5-1)
M otor

~ U1 E f  E f  (9.5-2)
Ef
Z s  jX s  X s 90 (9.5-3)
(the stator resistance Ra is negligible)
U1 - terminal voltage (stator) [V]
Fig-EPS9.5-1 Per-phase equivalent circuit Ef - excitation voltage induced by the rotor field [V]
Xs - synchronous reactance [Ω]
The real power for a 3-P synchronous machine is given by
P, T Fig-EPS9.5-2 Pow er and torque
3 U1  E f
angle characteristics P  sin( ) (9.5-4)
Pmax Xs
P
If the stator losses are neglected, the power devel-
Tmax oped at the terminals is also the air gap power.
Then the torque is:
T
P
T
s
0 3 U1  E f
δ T  sin( ) (9.5-5)
90° 180°
s  X s
P - el. power of the machine [W]
T - mechanical torque [Nm]
ωs - synchronous angular frequency (speed)
δ - power angle or torque angle

Both curves vary sinusoidally with the angle δ, which is called T

power angle and represents the angle between the excitation Tmax
voltage (derived from the rotor field) and the terminal voltage
(stator). The machine can be loaded gradually up to the limit of
Pmax and Tmax (pull-out torque), known as stability limits. The n
machine loses synchronism if δ becomes greater 90°. As the ns
speed remains constant at ns the speed-torque characteristic is
a straight line, as shown in figure 9.5-3. -Tmax
0 Fig-EPS9.5-3 Speed-
torque characteristics

9.6 Power Factor Control

Locus of Ia for const. (real) pow er An exclusive advantage of the synchro-
nous machine is that the power factor of
Ia1 Locus of Ef for const. pow er the machine can be controlled as being
lagging or leading by varying the field cur-
Ef0 Ef2
Ef1 jXs ·Ia1 rent.
This behaviour can be explained by means of
jXs ·Ia0 jXs ·Ia2 Ef·sin(δ) the phasor diagrams of machine voltages and
currents.
φ(2) Ia0 U1 Assume a synchronous generator connected
δ(2)
to an infinite bus is operating with constant
real power. For a 3-phase machine the real
power transfer is
P  3  U 1  I a  cos( ) (9.6-1)
Fig-EPS9.6-1 Phasor diagram for
Ia2 different pow er factors

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For U1=const follows (Ia·cos(φ))=const ,

i.e. the in-phase component of the stator cur-
rent on the phasor U1 axis is constant (see
phasor diagram fig. 9.6-1). The diagram
shows 3 different situations:
 Ia=Ia1 leading U1
 Ia=Ia2 lagging U1
 Ia=Ia0 in phase with U1

The relationship of the voltage phasors for a genera-

tor is as follows (compare the equivalent circuit in fig.
9.5-1): E f  U 1  jX s  I a (9.6-2)

The excitation voltage Ef changes linearly Ia

with the field current If. Therefore, as If is stability rated P = 1.0
changed, Ef will change along the locus of limit
0.75
1.0
Ef and Ia will change along the locus of Ia lagging PF
leading to a change of the power factor. 0.5
0.25
The variation of the stator current with the
field current for constant-power operation of 0
a synchronous motor is shown in the so- leading PF
called V-curve in figure 9.6-2. It is valid
also for generators but with reverse signs. cos(φ)=1
This unique feature of power factor control
by the field current can be utilized to im-
prove the power factor of a plant as
demonstrated in the next example. If0 2·If0 If
under-excited over-excited

Fig-EPS9.6-2 V-curves for a synchronous motor at

different real pow er loads

Example 9.6-1
In a factory a 3-phase, 4kV, 400kVA synchronous machine is installed along with other induction mo-
tors. The loads of them are:
Induction motors: 500kVA at 0.8 PF lagging
Synchronous motor: 300kVA at 1.0 PF.

a) Calculate the overall power Induction motors:

factor of the factory loads. PIM  S IM  PFIM  500  0.8  400 kW
QIM  S IM  sin( IM )  S IM  sin(arccos( PFIM ))
Q IM  500  sin(36.87)  300 kVAr
Synchronous motor:
PSM  300  1.0  300kW
QSM  0kVAr
Factory:
S PIM  PSM   QIM  QSM   762kVA
2 2

PIM  PSM 700

PF    0.92 lagging
S 762

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b) To improve the factory PF, the The rated apparent power of the synchronous motor is the meas-
synchronous machine is over- ure for the calculation of the allowed reactive power:
excited (to draw leading current)
without any change in its real
QSM  S SM
2
 PSM
2
 400 2  300 2
load. To what extent can the QSM  264.58kVAr leading!
factory PF be improved?
At this point it is determined to adjust the field excitation of the SM
(Approach: the rated power of the
so that it consumes leading power. Sure, an adjustment for a lag-
SM is higher than the actually
ging power consumption is possible as well, but here this is not
connected mechanical load. So,
desired. The new factory power quantities will be
there is a reserve of power which
shall be used for compensation!) Qnew  QIM  QSMnew  300  264.58  35.42kVAr
S new  P 2  Qnew
2
 400  3002  35.42 2
S new  700.9kVA
PIM  PSM 700
PFnew    0.996 lagging
S new 700.9
c) Determine the current of the S SM 400
synchronous motor … I SMnew    57.74 A
3 U 34

d) … and the new PF of the syn- PSM 300

chronous machine PFSMnew    0.75 leading
S SM 400

9.7 Independent Single Generators

In some applications a small synchronous generator is U1/U1rated

required as a standby emergency supply or for solitary cos(φ)=0, cap.
wind energy installations. In such a system, the termi-
nal voltage tends to change with varying load. This 1
relation is demonstrated in fig. 9.7-1, for which the field
cos(φ)=1
current (i.e. the excitation voltage Ef) is held constant.

I f/I fRated
cos(φ)=0, ind.
cos(φ)=0, ind.
2
0
1 I a/I aRated
Fig-EPS9.7-1 El. load characteristic
1 of solitary synchronous generator
cos(φ)=1

To maintain a constant terminal voltage in case of varying

cos(φ)=0, cap.
load currents the field current is changed, which in turn
0
I a/I aRated changes the excitation voltage. Fig. 9.7-2 shows how to
1
vary the field current at different load situations (magni-
Fig-EPS9.7-2 Excitation curve of a tude and PF). In practice an automatic voltage regulator
solitary synchronous generator that senses the terminal voltage adjusts the field current
appropriately.

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