SENSORY ORGANS

Animals possess some specialised structures to perceive the different type of changes (=stimuli) occurring
in their external environment. These structrures are known as sense organs. After receiving these stimuli,
sensory organs transmit these to the central nervous system through the sensory nerve fibres.
A sensory organ is only sensitive to a specific kind of stimulus to which it is specialized like temperature,
chemicals, touch, light etc. Based on their location in the body sensory organs are of three. types :
1. Exteroceptors : These sense organs receive stimuli from external environment because they remain
in contact with the external environment. Example- nose, eyes, tongue, ears and skin.
2. Interoceptor s : These sensory organs are associated with internal environment of body and receive
the changes taking place in the internal environment. Examples- changes in the composition of blood,
concentration of carbon-dioxide, hunger, thirst, asphyxia etc.
3. Proprioceptors : These sensory organs are present in joints, tendons, muscles and connective tissues
which perceive the tension and pressure exerted during the activities of equilibrium maintenance and
orientainons of body.
In human body, five types of exteroceptors are found which are known as sense organs. The main
sense organs include skin, eye, nose, ear and tongue.
CUTANEOUS RECEPTORS
Skin envelopes the entire body, and it is considered as tangoreceptor (fig.) Numerous sensory papillae
are found in the dermis of skin to receive the stimuli of touch, pressure, cold, heat, temperature and
pain. All these are of simple type of receptors. These sensory structures of skin receive impulses from
the nerve endings in skin. These are of following types-

Hair Shaft

Stratum corneum

Stratum lucidum
Frigidoreceptor

Meissner's corpuscles
Sweat gland

Hair papilla
Caloreceptor

Hair root
Pacinain corpuscles

1. Tact i le Receptor s : These receptors are present as naked endings of sensory nerve fibres on the
hair follicles in the dermis of skin. These are excited when the hairs come in contact with some object.
Extensivly branched (arborized) endings are of sensory nerves are found in the papillae of dermis. These
endings are very small sized encapsulated structures called sensory corpuscles. Those which are cylindrical
and sensitive to touch are called Meissner's corpuscles. Their number is much more in nipples, lips,
glans penis, palm, sole and in fingers. The number of these corpuscles decreases as a person grows
older. The corpuscles sensitive to the strong and sustained contacts (pressure) are situated deep in the
dermis and called as Pacinian corpuscles.
2. Pain Receptors (Algesireceptors) : Numerous branched sensory nerve fibres are scattered among the
epidermis as well as dermal cells of skin. These possess naked nerve endings. These nerve endings are
sensitive to chemical, electrical, and mechanical stimuli, which cause the sensations of pain in body.
3. Thermo Cause Receptors : A network of sensory nerve fibres is situated closely to the hair follicles
in dermis of skin. These nerve fibres are sensitive to the stimuli related to temperature, These thermoreceptors
make a person aware to stimuli of cold, heat etc. Because of this sense perception our hairs get erected
during excessive cold. The sensory organs excited by cold and heat are known as frigidoreceptors
and caloreceptors respectively.

EYE
 Eye and ear are also called "teleoreceptors", because these receive impulse from far places.
(A) Eye (Photoreceptor) :-

 These are photosensitive organs.

 Each eye is an hollow ball like round structure, it is called eye ball. Each eye - ball is situated in the notch
of bone in the skull. It is called "Eye - orbit". Human eyes are situated in eye orbit lateral to nose.
 Only 1/5 th part of whole eye is seen from out side in between the eye lashes.
Remaining 4/5 th part is in the eye orbit.
(1) Eye lids or palpebrae :-
There are two muscular eyelids for the protection which having lashes at one side. Both the eyelids are named
according to their situation i.e. upper & lower eyelids.
 Eyelids are immovable in snakes. Eyelids of fishes are absent.

 There is present one more transparent membrane in the eye. It is called nictitating
membrane or third eye lid. it is actively working in rabbit. It is found constricted at one corner of eye ball
, but at the time of need, it may be expanded over entire eye ball.
 Nictitating membrane is vestigeal in human. It is also called "Plicasemilunaris".

 Eye lashes are found at both the eyelids.

(2) Glands :- For the cleaning and for lubrication/moisturising the exposure part of eye.
Following glands are founds in each eye.
(a) Meibomian glands :- These are present at Inner surface of eyelids. They secrete an oily substance,
which is scattered at the edges of eye lids.
It prevent friction between two eye lid.
(b) Lacrimal glands :- At outer angle of each eye ball and associated with accessory lacrimal gland, which
secrete water like substance, which moistures the cornea, eyelids and conjunctiva and cleans it. this
water like substance is called "Tear". (Slightly alkaline contains bacteriolytic enzyme Lysozyme)
 Tear glands activate after four months of birth in human child.
(c) Gland of zeis : It is situated in margin of eye lid.
Harderian glands :- These are found inside the lower eye lids. These moisten the nictitating membrane.
 Harderian glands are absent in rabbit & human.

 In place of harderian glands, in mammals, meibomian glands are present. But in some mammals e.g.
rats, shrews, whales etc., these harderian glands are found.
 These glands are also found in frog and birds.
(d) Gland of moll :- These are modified sweat gland found in the eye lashes.
(3) Muscles of eye balls :-
There are present 6 skeletal muscles in the eyeball
which help in rotation of eye ball into eyeorbit. Out
of these 4 are rectus muscles and 2 are oblique
muscles. They are also called as extra occular
muscles.
 Lateral or External rectus muscle rotates the eyeball
towards outside i.e. from nose to ear. Medial or
Internal rectus muscle rotates the eyeball toward
inside i.e. from ear to nose.
 Superior rectus muscle and inferior oblique muscle
collectively help the eyeball to rotate upwards.
 Inferior rectus muscle and superior oblique muscle
collectively help the eyeball to rotate downwards.
 Rectus and oblique muscles collectively rotate the
eye ball to all the sides around its axis.
 Any defect in one of the these eyeball muscles (e.g. muscle may remain small or extra large than required)
causes strabismus or squint eyes . In this defect, eye ball remains inclined to any of the one side. Eye
muscles are innervated by occulomotor (III). Pathetic (IV) and Abducens (VI) Nerve.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF EYE BALL :-
The wall of remaining eye ball has three layers.
(1) Fibrous tunic :-
It is the outermost covering of eye ball. It is made up of hard and thick connective tissue.

Macula lutea
(yellowish pigmented spot)
Aqueous chamber Vitreous chamber Fovea centralis
(Cornea/Lens) (Lens/Retina) (only cones great
visual acuity resolution)

Blind spot
Lens (Photo receptor cells are absent)

Cornea Optic nerve

Iris
Choroid
Sclera
Ciliary body
Retina

Diagram showing part of an eye

The layer is divided into 2 parts.

(a) Cornea :-
It is the outer visible part of fibrous tunic. Covered by st. nonkeratinized squamous epithelium.
 The joint between cornea and sclerotic layer is called "Limbus" or "Sclero - corneal junction".
Cornea transplantation is successful because it lacks blood vessels.
(b) Sclerotic layer/Sclera :-
It is made up of white, hard, opaque thick fibrous connective tissue in rabbit but in frog, it is made up of
cartilage. It is the inner portion of eye ball. It is non-vascularised. This layer is of white colour, so it is also
called "White of eye".
 This part of eye is mesodermal in origin.
Inner layer of eyelids remain streched over anterior part of sclera (limbus) in the form of translucent membrane.
It is called conjunctiva. It is made up of epidermis of skin. The thinnest epidermis is extend up to margin
of cornea i.e. conjunctiva is the thinnest epidermis in animal body.
(2) Vascular tunic :-
It is the middle layer of eyeball. It is coloured part of eyeball. It is richly supplied with blood capillaries. Due
to the presence of network of blood capillaries it is highly vascularized.
Melanin pigment is found in this layer. Due to the presence of melanin pigment eye looks like green, blue,
brown, black in colour. Eyes of rabbit are red due to red melanin pigments, and in man eyes may be brown,
black, blue, green according to the melanin present in it.
This layer has three parts :-
(a) Choroid layer :-
Choroid layer is the part of vascular tunic which lie below the sclerotic layer.
It contains abundant pigment cells & blood vessels.
It is dark brown. It darkens the cavity of eyeball to prevent internal reflection of light.
It nourishes the retina.
(b) Ciliary body :-
It is the lower swollen portion below limbus.
It has ciliary processes which project into eyeball.
It has ciliary muscles (i) circular (ii) meridional.
Inner end of meridional is attached to choroid & outer end at the junction of sclera and cornea.
(c) IRIS :-
Choroid layer or vascular tunic sepa-
rates from sclerotic layer (Just after
the cornea) inclines towards inner side
and forms a coloured screen, it is called
iris. Muscles of iris are ectoder-
mal in origin where as the muscles
of body are mesodermal in origin.
There is present an aperture in the
Centre of iris, it is called Pupil. Light
rays enter in the eyeball through pupil.
2 types of muscles are related with
iris.
(a) Radial dilatory muscles :-
These are outer unstriated muscles,
these are expanded in the iris breadth
wise. Iris becomes constricted if these
muscles contract and diameter of pupil
is increased at that time. It happens
in dim light, it is called Mydriasis.
(b) Circular sphincter muscles :-
These are scattered in inner part of iris. Due to the contraction (In bright day light or high flashes of light)
of these muscles in high light, Iris expands breadth wise and diameter of pupil is decreased. It is called miosis.
Iris controls the intensity of light by increasing or decreasing the diameter of pupil i.e. Iris acts as diaphragm
of a camera. Except muscle of iris & ciliary body all vascular tunic of eye ball is mesodermal in origin.
The parasympathetic fibres constrict & sympathetic fibre dilate the pupil. Colour of eye like blue, gray, brown
is layer of pigmented cells.
(3) Neurosensor y tunic :-
It is the inner most layer of eye ball and has 3 parts :-
(1) Pars ciliaris :- This part is attached with ciliary bodies. There are present spine like projections at the
surface of ciliary body, these are called "Orra ser rata:
(2) Pars iridica :- This part lies just after the iris. It has a layer of pigmented cells.
Pars iridica and pars ciliaris are made up of simple cuboidal epithelium.
(3) Pars optica :- It is also called Retina It is the part just below the choroid layer.
Structure of retina is complicated. It has following layers -
(a) Pigmented layer :- It is the outer most layer. In the cells of this layer, pigment is found called melanin
(receptor cells).
(b) Sensory layer :- This layer is made up of specialized sensory cells. Rods and cones are found in
this layer. Receptor cells are also known as photoreceptors/visual cells.

CHOROID SURFACE
Pigmented epithelium

Cone
Rods and cones layer
Rod

Cone end bulb

Outer plexiform
Horizontal cell

Bipolar cell

Inner Plexiform layer

Ganglion cells layer Ganglion cell

Optic nerve fibres

VITREOUS HUMOUR SURFACE

 Rods are long, thin, cylindrical structures/cells. These are numerous in number.(1110-1125 Lacs)
 Rods differentiates between light and dark. These are more sensitive than cones.
 A purple coloured pigment is found in rods called Rhodopsin/Visual purple.
 Cones are thick and small cells which differentiate among different colours in full light.(65 Lacs)
Iodopsin/Visual violet is present in cones.
 Only rods are found in the retina of owl, because it is nocturnal animal, unlike hen which has only cones
in its retina.
 A horizontal neurons layer is present just below the rods and cones, it is called outer plexiform layer. This
layer connects rods and cones together.
 Then comes the layer of bipolar neurons. Each bipolar neuron has a dendron and one axon. Presence of
bipolar neurons is a speciality of retina. Rest parts of body have multipolar neurons. Their dendrites form
synapses between rods & cones.
 Axons are jointed together by specific nerve cells, called Amacrine cells. Such neurons do not have nerve
fibres.
 The layer of amacrine cells is called "Inner plexiform layer".
 In between bipolar neurons, supporting cells are found and called Muller's cells.
(c) Ganglionic layer :- This layer is made up of nerve ganglia. These nerve ganglia form synapses with axons
of bipolar neurons.
Axons of all nerve cells combine to form optic nerve. This optic nerve penetrates the retina and goes to
brain.
At the point, at which retina is pierced by optic nerve, cones and rods are absent. So no image will be formed
at that place. This point is known to be "Blind spot"/Optic disc.
Just above the blind spot at the optical axis of eye ball, there is a place, where only cones are present. Yellow
pigments are found (xanthophyl) in these cones. So this place is known as yellow spot or macula lutea
or Area centralis.
A groove or notch is found in area centralis, called fovea centralis.
 Fovea centralis is most sensitive part of eye. Cones are some what obliquely placed at this place. An enlarged
image of object is formed here.
 Neurosensory tunic or retina of eye ball is ectodermal in origin.
 Lens :- A transparent, ectodermal, biconvex lens is present just after iris. In frog, lens is spherical in eyeball
Lens is connected by ciliary body with the help of "Suspensory ligaments" called zonula of zinn" or
zonules. These ligaments are flexible and this can slide the lens and can change it's focal length. Lens divides
the cavity of eyeball into two chambers.
(a) Aqueous chamber :-
The part of eye ball which lies between cornea and lens is filled with an alkaline fluid, it is called aqueous
humor. It is a type of transparent tissue fluid.
Iris divides this aqueous chamber into two parts :-
(i) Anterior chamber :-
This chamber lies between cornea and iris, it is called Venous chamber. Veins carry CO2, metabolic wastes
outside from here.
(ii) Posterior Chamber :-
This chamber lies between iris and lens, it is called arterial chamber. Arteries supply O2 and nutrients here.
(b) Vitreous chamber :- Cavity of eye ball which lies between lens and retina is called vitreous chamber. A
jelly like fluid (transparent and thick like albumin) is filled in this chamber, This is called vitreous humor.
 In this fluid 99% water, some salts, a mucoprotein called vitrin and a mucopolysaccharide- Hyaluronic acid
are present. Gelatinous nature of vitreous humor is depend upon fibrillar protein & hyaluronic acid. It is form
during embryonic stage. In this chamber Hyalocytes cells are found.
 Aqueous humor and vitreous humor both the fluids are secreted by the glands of ciliary body. Aqueous humor
leak out by canal of schlemm into blood capillaries and again reach upto their veins.
 Both these fluid maintain proper pressure inside the cavity of eye ball. These check the eye ball from collapsing.
 If this canal of schlemm is blocked by any reason and fluids do not return back to veins fluid is increased
in the chambers of eye.
 When amount of this humor is increased in the eye chambers then pressure is increased inside the eye ball.
Thus retina pressure is increased. This is known as glaucoma.
 A thin Hyaloid canal or Cloquet's canal is also found in vitreous humor from blind spot to central point
of lens. It provide nourishment to the developing lens which gradually atrophied.
WORKING OF EYES

 Light rays emitted by any object enter the eye. A small, real and inverted image of object is formed at retina.
Sensory cells of retina are sensitized, and optic nerve carries this impulse to brain. At this time animal is
able to see the object.

 Cornea, aqueous humor and biconvex lens completely refract the light rays coming from object. As a result
of this an inverted image is formed at retina. Just like diaphragm of a camera iris of eye, decreases or increases
the diameter of pupil according to light. Iris expands to decrease the pupil in high intensity of light so a
small amount of light touches the retina.
When light is dim, iris itself constricts to increase the diameter of pupil.
ACCOMMODATION OR FOCUSSING –
The ability to change the focal length of lens by changing the curvature of lens, is called accommodation
power.
Only mammals and birds have this accommodation power in their eyes.

 This ability is very less in frog and it depends on the sliding of lens forward and backward to some extent.

3
1 2 2 3
4
4
FOCUS 1 FOCUS
CORNEA 5 ON CORNEA 5 ON
RETINA NEAR RETINA
OBJECT
DISTANT LENS LENS
OBJECT
SUSPENSORY LIGAMENT CILIARY
MUSCLE
CILIARY MUSCLE
1. Parallel light reach eye 1. Diverging light rays strike eye
2. Cornea refracts light rays 2. Cornea refracts light rays
3. Ciliary muscle relaxed 3. Ciliary muscle contracted
4. Suspensory ligament under maximum tension 4. Suspensory ligament loose
5. Lens flattened 5. Lens thickened
Diagram showing changes during accommodation

 In normal condition muscle fibres of ciliary body remain relaxed and lens is stretched by its suspensory ligaments,
and due to this lens is flat. A flat lens has more focal length. As a result of this eye can see long distant
objects easily.
 To see near by objects, sphincter muscles of ciliary body contract and ciliary body becomes broad, suspensory
ligaments becomes loose and relaxed. As a result of this relaxation of ligament lens becomes biconvex, and
now its focal length is reduced. Now animal is able to see near by object easily.
TYPES OF VISION :-
(a) Monocular vision or panoramic vision:- Most of the vertebrates have their eyes situated on the lateral
sides of head and due to this animal is capable to see large area of both the sides. It is called monocular
vision.
e.g. rabbit, frog, horse (Most of the herbivorous animals have this type of vision)
(b) Binocular vision:- Most of the carnivorous mammals have eyes in front of their heads and side by side,
so as to focus on one object by both the eyes. It is called binocular vision. e.g. Man, monkeys and apes.
(c) Stereoscopic vision:- It is three dimensional vision found in human.
(d) Telescopic vision:- This is found in birds.
 Sharpest vision is found in eagle.
 Shortest sight is found in monkey.
Chemical explanation of vision –
Cones and rods of eye are stimulated by light rays. It is a chemical event.
 A shiny visual purple pigment is found in rods of retina called Rhodopsin. It is formed by a protein opsin
and a coloured pigment Retinal, just like haemoglobin of blood.
 Opsin is also called scotopsin.
 In bright light, rhodopsin is decomposed into opsin protein and retinal pigments. This chemical change is sight
impulse. This sight impulse is carried by optic nerve to the brain, and animal is able to see.
 In dark, rods synthesize rhodopsin again with the help of opsin, retinal and enzyme.
 This is the reason that we can not see any thing, when we move to dark place from a enlighted place (for
some time only) In the same way we are unable to see in light if we are coming from dark place because
it will take time to synthesize or decompose the rhodopsin
It is called adaptation
 For resynthesis of rhodopsin, animal blinks its eyelids.
 Retinin is formed by vitamin A so deficiency of vit A causes night blindness.
 Cones able us to differentiate among colours and bright light. Cones have a pigment called Iodopsin in place
of rhodopsin of rods. It is decomposed into photopsin and ret inal.
There are three types of cones in retina:-
(a) Erythrolab - Red cones
(b) Chlorolab - Green cones
(c) Cynolab - Blue cones.
 We are able to acknowledge different colours due to these three types of cones and their combination.
 Red, green and blue are t he primar y colour s.
Dimlight vision - Scotopic vision
Bright light vision - Photopic vision
 The eyes of some animals shine at night, because in the eyes of these animals, there is a pigment just outside
the retina in the choroid layer of eyeball, which reflects the light rays coming from retina. This layer is called
Tapetum. Due to this layer, these animals are capable to see in dark also.
 Kangaroo, hoofed mammals, elephants, whales etc. are having a silver shining layer of fibrous connective
t issue called Tapetum fibrosum.
 In Elasmobranch fishes a reflecting colour pigment called Guanine is present in tapetum layer so it is called
tapetum lucidum.
 Hunters and carnivorrus mammals like dogs, cats, tiger etc. have a layer in their retina called tapetum
cellulosum.
 In the eyes of birds pecten is found.
 Emmetropia:- Normal vision of eyes is called emmetropia.
Some important defects of eye :-
1. Hypermatropia (far sightedness):-
 In this defect of eye, person is able to see objects placed at far distance but is unable to see objects close
to him or her.
 This defect is due to small size of eyeball or flatness of lens. In this defect image is formed behind the
retina. To cure this defect person should wear convex lenses in spectacles.
 Sometimes in old age this defect may occur due to reduction in the flexibility of lens or ciliary body, then
it is known as pre sbyopia.
2. Myopia or Nearsightedness or short sightedness:-
 In this defect of eye, person is able to see objects near/ close to him or her but is unable to see objects
placed at far distance.
 This is due to enlargement of eyeball or increased convexity of lens.
 In this defect image is formed before the retina because light rays coming from distant objects converge before
retina.
 To overcome this defect person should wear concave lenses in spectacles.
3. Astigmatism:- In this defect curvature of cornea is changed as a result of that light rays do not focus on
macula lutea but somewhere else, causing incomplete and blurred vision. This defect may be cured by cylindrical
lenses.
4. Night blindness:- This is due to deficiency of vit A. In this disorder synthesis of Rhodopsin is reduced,
as a result of this person is unable to see in dim light or night.
5. Xerophthalmia:- It is due to keratinisation of cunjunctiva and cornea, and conjuctiva becomes solid. It is
also due to deficiency of vit A.
6. Trachoma:- In this defect of eye, a watery liquid oozes out from eyes in excess amount so eyes become
red due to irritation. It is caused by a microbe Chlamydia trachomatis.
7. Strabismus:- It is due to loosening or contraction of the any of 6 skeletal muscles which give the proper
position to the eye ball in its orbit. Thus eye ball inclines towards one side of orbit. It is strabismus or squint
eyes.
Particular muscle may be cured by operation and this defect is cured.
8. Cataract:- In this defect, lens becomes more solid, brown or more flat. It occurs in old age mostly. The lens
becomes opaque, and reduces its power of accommodation. At this stage person can not see. A new lens
is administered in place of defective lens by operation.
9. Glaucoma:- If the canal of schlemm is blocked in eyeball, aqueous humour can not return to veins again
as a result pressure is increased in eye chambers and retina is damaged, and person becomes totally blind.
10. Photophobia:- In this defect proper image is not formed in bright light.
11. Colour blindness:- It is genetic disorder of X- chromosome. It is due to recessive gene. Colourblind persons
can not differentiat in red and green colour.

EAR
SENSE ORGAN - EAR :
(B) Statoacoustic organ ear :- These are also called phonoreceptors.
 All the vertebrates have one pair of ears back to the eyes,
There are two main functions of ears :-
(1) To receive sound waves (hearing)
(2) To maintain body balance. Main function of ear is to maintain the balance of body.
 Structurally ear may be divided into three parts :-
(a) External ear
(b) Middle ear
(c) Internal ear
(a) External ear :-
It is the outer part of ear. It is well developed in mammals only. External ear may be divided again into 2 parts
(i) Ear pinna,
(ii) Ear canal
(i) Ear pinna :- These may be small or large, fan like structure, important feature of mammals, but absent
in whale, seal, Ornithorhynchus etc. The skin of ear pinna is hairy. These are having yellow elastic
cartilage. A rabbit can move its pinna according to its will, just like dog, cat, cow etc. but a man can not
move his pinnae. Muscles of man's ear pinna are vestigeal. Pinna covers some of the ear canal, this part
is called choncha.
(ii) Ear canal or External auditory meatus :- It is a 24 mm long canal which is expanded from base of
pinna to inner side.
 Along with mammals, birds and reptiles also have ill or less developed ear canal.
 At the end of ear canal a stretched, thin, obliquely placed membrane is present, it is called ear drum or
tympanic membrane. It separates the ear canal to middle ear.
 In the wall of external auditory meatus or ear canal there are found modified sweat glands called ceruminous
glands. These secrete cerumen or ear wax, which moisten the ear drum and protects it.
 Ear drum remains always in stretched position because malleus ear ossicle/bone pulls it towards tympanic
cavity by tensor tympani muscle.
 Ear drum is a part of middle ear.

Semicircular Membranous
ducts labyrinth
Temporal bone
of skull
Incus Vestibular
Pinna

nerve
Malleus
Auditory
nerve
Helix

Cochlear
nerve
Cartilage

Cochlea

Tympanum Stapes
Tympanic Fenestra
External rotundus
auditory cavity Fenestra
meatus ovalis
Eustachian
Lobule tube

External ear Middle ear Internal ear

(b) Middle ear :- Middle ear is also called tympanic cavity. It is filled with air. This cavity is covered by a flask like
bone called tympanic bulla. This bone is a part of temporal bone of skull.
 Middle ear cavity is connected by pharyngeal cavity through a canal. It is called Eustachian duct.
Due to this tube, pressure at both the side of tympanic membrane remains always equal. This duct maintain
sound equilibrium. It expels high volume sounds through mouth, to avoid the damage of ear drum.
 Tympanic cavity is connected by internal ear cavity by two apertures
(i) Oval aperture fenestra ovalis (oval window) and
(ii) Spherical aperture fenestra rotundus (round window). A thin and firm membrane covers each aperture.
 Three ear ossicles are present and arranged in a chain with movable joints connected together in tympanic
cavity. These ear ossicles are :-
(a) Malleus :- It is situated towards outer ear. It is the largest of three and of hammer shaped malleus is
formed by the modification of articular bone of jaw.
 Inner broad part of malleus is connected by incus. Malleus and incus are Joint together by synovial hinge
joint.
(b) Incus :- The ossicle is anvil shaped. It is formed by the modification of quadrate bone of jaw. Its outer
broad part is connected by malleus and inner thin part is connected by stapes. Incus is joined by stapes
by ball and socket joint.
(c) Stapes :- It looks like stirrup of horse. It is formed by the modification of hyomandibular bone of jaw.
 It is the smallest bone of body
 Stapes is connected to incus at one side and on the other side it is connected to membrane stretched over
fenestra ovalis.
 [In the tympanic cavity of frog only one ear ossicle is found it is called columella auris. Malleus and incus are
absent here.]
All the three ear ossicles are arranged in ear cavity by ligaments. These carry sound wave from ear drum
to internal ear through fenestra ovalis.

Internal ear :-
It consist of (1) Bony Labyrinth (2) Membranous Labyrinth.

AMPULLA OF SUPERIOR SUPERIOR

SEMICIRCULAR DUCT SEMICIRCULAR DUCT

COCHLEAR DUCT
CRUS COMMUNE

POSTERIOR
UTRICULUS SEMICIRCULAR DUCT

AMPULLA OF LATERAL
SACCULUS SEMICIRCULAR DUCT

LATERAL
SEMICIRCULAR DUCT

DUCTUS REUNIENS

ENDOLYMPHATIC DUCT AMPULLA OF POSTERIOR

SEMICIRCULAR DUCT
SACCULO-UTRICULAR DUCT

ENDOLYMPHATIC SAC

Scheme of membranous labyrinth

 Internal ear is enclosed in the petrous part temporal bone which form a bony capsule out side the internal ear
it is called bony labyrinth. It is the cavity of hearing apparatus.
 Internal ear is a complex structure made up of semi transparent membrane. It is called membranous labyrinth.

 Bony labyrinth and membranous labyrinth are connected by a cavity called perilymph cavity. Perilymph liquid is
filled in it.
 Endolymph is filled in membranous labyrinth.

 There are two main bag like chambers in membranous labyrinth, utriculus and sacculus.
Both these chambers are connected together by a thin canal called sacculo - utricular duct.

 A thin endolymphatic duct opens into sacculo - utricular duct. This endolymphatic duct opens into endolymphatic
sac situated at back side of skull on the other side.
Utriculus is comparatively large. Three semicircular canals arise from utriculus at 900 angle to each other and
open into utriculus again. These are called
(i) Anterior or superior semicircular canal
(ii) Posterior semicircular canal
(iii) External or lateral or horizontal semicircular canal.
 Anterior and posterior canals arise in the form of a single canal called "Crus commune"

 The distal end of each semicircular canal is some what swollen, called Ampulla.

 Sacculus is smaller than utriculus. Its back side is coiled like spring. It is called cochlear canal. It is also known
as lagena.
 The length of cochlear canal of human, rabbit and whale are 2¾ , 2½ and 1½ coils respectively.

 Cochlear canal is connected by sacculus by a small duct called ductus reuniens.

 All the coils of cochlear canal are connected together by flexible ligaments.

 In the centre of coils of cochlea in human, there are present a pillar like structure called modiolus.
(D) Internal structure of inner ear:-

 The inner wall of membranous labyrinth is lined by cuboidal epithelium and outer wall is lined by connective
tissue richly supplied with blood capillaries.
 Membranous labyrinth is empty inside. Its cavity is filled by endolymph which is a milky, mucilagenous fluid.

 Distal end of each semicircular canal becomes swollen called ampulla. In this ampulla, internal cuboidal epithe-
lium forms a ridge like projection called acoustic ridge small immovable microvilli are found at the free edges
of sensory cells of acoustic ridge. These microvilli are numerous in number. These are called stereocilia, along
with these there are found single movable cilium called kinocillium. Otoconia are absent in crista of ampulla.
All the microvilli of ridge are bind together like a bag and form cupula.
 One structure each is present in utriculus and one in sacculus, these are called Maculae. Numerous CaCO 3
particles are found in endolymph these are called Otoconia.

 These sensory cells situated in internal ear are in contact with small nerves. All these thin nerve combine to form
vestibular nerve (branch of auditory nerve).
 Sensory crista and maculae are related with equilibruim of body

 Cristae control and maintain body equilibruim at the time of movement and maculae regulate this at static
position.
 Gelatinous
substance

Hair tufts

Hair cells

Supporting

Nerve fibres

STRUCTURE OF CRISTA
STRUCTURE OF MACULAE

(E) Internal Structure of Cochlea & Cochlear canal Scala media Scala vestibuli
Cochlear duct is connected by bony labyrinth in such a Reissner's
membrane
way that it divides the cavity of labyrinth into dorsal and Stria

ph
vascularis

ym
ventral chambers. So in a transverse section of cochlea Endolymph

ril
Tectorial

Pe
membrane
following three chambers are seen clearly. Spiral
ligament
(i) Scala vestibuli:- It is situated at dorsal side and is filled Basilar
membrane
with perilymph. Cochlear Organ
nerve of corti
(ii) Scala tympani:- It is situated at the ventral side below Perilymph
Scala
the cochlear duct. It is also filled by perilymph. tympani

TRANSVERSE SECTION OF COCHLEA

Tectorial
membrane Outer
hair cells
Inner
hair cells
Inner Stria
spiral sulcus vascularis

Outer
spiral sulcus
Cells of
Cells of hensen claudius

Tunnel of Phalangeal cells

corti (cells of deiters)
Inner pillar cell Outer pillar cell
(inner rod cell) (outer rod cell)
Cochlear
nerve fibres
ORGAN OF CORTI

(i i i ) Scala media:- It is the triangular cavity of cochlear duct that is situated between scala vestibuli and scala
tympani. It is filled with endolymph.
 Thin dorsal wall of cochlear duct is called vestibular membrane or Reissner's membrane.
 Ventral wall of scala media is thick called basilar membrane. Scala vestibuli and scala tympani are connected
through a small aperture at the free edge of cochlea. This aperture is called helicotrema.

 Scala media is blind (closed) at its both the sides.

(F) Organ of Corti:- A sensory ridge is present at the whole length of central line at epithelium lining of basilar
membrane of scala media. It is called organ of corti. It has two types of cells (i) Sensory cell (ii) Supporting
or suspensory cell. Three type of suspensory cell
(i) Cells of Dieter's or basal cells (ii) Pillar cells or rod cells (iii) Hensen's cells or rectangular cells.
 In between the empty spaces of sensory and suspensory cells a lymph like fluid cortilymph is filled. This space
is called tunnel of corti.

 Numerous microvilli called stereocilia (sensory hair) are present at the free surface of each sensory cell.

 At the ventral surface of sensory cells there are thin fibres of auditory nerve present that form cochlear branch.

 At the organ of corti a thin jelly like membrane is inclined called tectorial membrane. In this membrane,
all the sensory hair's free edges are embeded.

 Main credit of hearing goes to " Organ of corti".

(G) WORKING OF EAR:-

 Ears are stato- acoustic organs of body. Thus these help the body to hear and balancing the body.
(a) Equilibrium:- The first and basic function of ears is to maintain balance of body.
 This act is done by utriculus, sacculus and three semicircular canals. Equilibrium impulse/sensation is of two
types:-
(i) Static balancing:- Its relation is from the point of view of gravity and position of head in static conditions
of body and its changes.

 The senses of these changes (of head) are produced and carried mainly by utriculus, sacculus and their sensory
cristae i.e. maculae.
 Sensory hair of ridge are sensitized by otoconia or otolith or ear dust. These sensations or impulses are
carried to brain by auditory nerve After it messeges of appropriate reactions are send through motor fibres
to the skeletal muscles of body.
(ii) Dynamic equilibrium:-

 It is the action to maintain balance of body during movement.

 This act is done by sensory ridges of ampula of semicircular canals.

 At the time of movement the endolymph of ampula produces waves in it. Cupula of ampula are effected
by these waves and sensory cells cupula are irritated. This sensation or stimulation is carried to brain by auditory
nerve and proper messeges are send to muscle of legs in reply. Due to this body is balanced at the time
of walking.
(b) H ea r i ng : -
 This act is done by " Organ of Corti ".

 Sound waves are collected by ear pinnae. These sound waves travel through ear canal and hit the ear drum.
As a result of it ear drum get vibrated.

 These vibrations reach up to stretched membrane of fenestra ovalis through ear ossicles. Ear ossicles work
as lever.
 As a result of this travelling (from ear drum to fenestra ovalis) sound waves become more strong.
Mechanism of hearing

Sound Waves External ear Eardrum

auditory cortex area where (20-20,000 Hz)
sound analysed and recognised

Basilar Oval Malleus incus stapes

Cochlea
Afferent fibres via membrane window (Ear ossicles)
auditory nerves

Bend the hair cells pressing

them against tactorial membrane

 When the membrane of fenestra ovalis starts vibrating, perilymph of scala vestibuli also starts vibrating, some
vibrations reach up to scala tympani (fenestra rotundus) and its perilymph.
 Due to these vibrating waves, reissner membrane and basilar membrane of the walls of scala media also
start vibrating. These vibrations travel through endolymph reach upto organ of corti. The organ of corti also
starts vibrating.

 At this place, sensory hair of sensory cells (cells of organ of corti) hit by the tectoreal membrane. Now stimulation
of hearing takes place.
 Cochlear nerve carries this impulse to brain through auditory nerve. Appropriate messeges are send to receptor
organs by brain accordingly.

 Vibrations / waves produced by cochlea travel through perilymph, reach up to membrane stretched at fenestra
Rotandus and are destroyed.
 Some sound waves are also destroyed, when coming from helicotrema.

DIFFERENCES OF RECEPTORS BETWEEN RABBIT AND MAN

RABBIT MAN
Eye :
1. Monocular vision is present. 1. Bionocular vision is present.
2. Both eyes are located on the dorsal 2. Both eye are located at anterior part of face.
and lateral side of head.
3. Nictitating membrane is present. 3. Nictitating membrane is vestigeal which is
called as plica-semilunaris.
4. Eye is red coloured. 4. Eye is black, blue, brown coloured.
Ear
1. Ear pinna is funnel shaped. 1. Ear pinna is kidney shaped.
2. Ear pinna is motile. 2. Ear pinna are non-motile.

1 3
3. No. of coiling of cochlear canal is 2 3. No. of coiling of cochlear canal is 2
2 4
 NOSE

Frontal lobe of
cerebrum Olfactory tract
Olfactory bulb
Olfactory tract

Olfactory bulb Cribriform plate

of ethmoid bone

Cribriform plate
of ethmoid bone Olfactory (I) nen
fibre
Olfactory (I)
nerves (receptor) Lamina propria
Supporting cell
Olfactory
epithelium Olfactory cell
Olfactory hairs
(dendrites)
Superior nasal concha

Middle nasal concha

Substance being smelled

(b)

(a)

Olfactoreceptor :

– Olfactoreceptors are situated in the upper part of nasal chamber in olfactory epithelium.
– This membrane is called as schnederian membrane.
– Olfactoreceptors are related with olfactory bulb. It is the extension of limbic system.
– This bulb is situated below the frontal lobe of cerebral hemisphere and above the ethamoid bone of nasal
chamber.
– Three types of cells are found in the olfactoreceptors. These are –
(i) Bipolar olfactory nerve cells
(ii) Columnar epithelial cells
(iii) Mucous glands
(1) Bipolar olfactory nerve cells : It is special types of nerve cells
– Sensory hair are found at the anterior end of olfactory cells. They contact with external environment in
nasal chamber.
– Sensory hairs are related with dendrites of bipolar nerve cells.
– Middle part of olfactory cell is cyton.
– Posterior part of olfactory cell is axon which is nonmyleinated.
(2) Columnar epithelial cells : It is also called as supporting cells. They are present arounds the bipolar olfactory
cells.
– They provides support to the olfactory cells.
– Some small conical cells are also found at the basal part of olfactoreceptor and provide base to the
olfactoreceptor.
– A layer of connective tissue lies below the olfactoreceptor. It is also called as Lamina propria.
(3) Mucous glands : It is called as Bowman's gland. It is situated in the Lamina propria. It opens at the outer
part of olfacto receptor through fine duct. Their secretory mucous substance dissolve the smell particle and
carry to the sensory hair of olfactory cells. Nonmyleinated axons of all olfacto sensory cells makes the synapse
with dendrites of multipolar neurone of olfactory bulb. The number of receptors stimulated indicates the strength
of smell.
* In addition to smell receptor, a network of nerves is found in the nose, mouth and tongue.
The network formed by trigeminal nerve of V cranial nerve. It is also known as Dentist's nerve, reacts to
messages of pain of teeth. It also convey the message of smell to brain. Such as ammonia, vinegar etc.
The trigeminal can protect by warning about harmful chemical in the air. Bowman's glands inside the nose
release mucous fluid to get rid of the irritating susbtances.
Loss of the sense of smell is known as anosmia. It occur due to congenital abnormalities of Olfactory bulbs or
nerves.
TONGUE OR ORGAN OF TASTE
A thick, muscular and movable organ, the tongue is found in the mouth cavity. Tongue bears four types of small
papillae which are located with taste buds. Taste buds are much numerous in the circumvallate and foliate
papillae. Taste buds are formed by the transformation of epithelial cells of the tongue. A taste bud possesses two
types of cells -

1. Supporting Cells : These cells are elongated in middle region. They do not bear sensory hairs at their free
ends.

2. Sensory cells : These cells are elongated,

buldge in middle part, they bear sensory hair at Gustatory pore
Sensory hair Epithelium
their free ends.

Each taste bud is flask or barrel shaped. It's

upper part opens at the epithelial surface of
the tongue through a fine pore. These sensory Sensory cell
hairs, exposed to outside through the gustatory
Basal cell
pore are stimulated by the food substances. The
sensory cells are chemoreceptor in nature and Connective tissue
taste the food while it is dissolved in saliva. Food
substances get mixed with saliva to enter into Nerve fibre
the pores of taste buds (Fig.).

In human different regions of the tongue are sensitive to different taste. Anterior and free end of the tongue are
sensitive to sweet and salty, lateral sides to soury taste, while the posterior part is particularly sensitive to bitter
taste.

Types of receptors
 General Senses –
Touch – Tangoreceptors (Thigmoreceptor)
Temperature – Thermoreceptor
Heat – Caloreceptors
Cold – Frigidoreceptors
Pain – Algesireceptors
 Current of water – Rheoreceptors
Electric current – Galvanoreceptors
Gravity – Georeceptors
Muscle position – Proprioreceptors
Equilibrium – Statoreceptors
Hunger, thirst etc. – Interoceptors
Blood pressure – Baroreceptors
Osmotic pressure – Osmoreceptors
Chemical changes – Chemoreceptors
Vibration – Vibroreceptors
 Special Senses
Vision – Photoreceptors
Hearing – Phonoreceptors
Smell – Olfactoreceptors
Taste – Gustatoreceptors
(1) Receptors of vision, hearing and smell receive stimuli from distance, hence called teloreceptors.
(2) Tangoreceptors or mechanoreceptors
(i) Merkel's disc (Corpuscles) : Epidermis of non hairy (glabrous) skin, hollow cup shaped disc.
(ii) Meissner's corpusle : Dermis of skin of the finger tip, lips and nipples. Sense of touch and gentle pres-
sure.
(iii) Pacinian corpuscle : Present in subcutaneous tissue of palm, sole of finger etc. stimulated by strong
pressure contact.
(iv) Corpuscle of golgi : Subcutaneous tissue of fingers.
(v) Corpuscle of mazzoni : Sub cutaneous tissue of fingers.
(vi) Grandy's corpuscles : Beak of birds.
(vii) Herbst corpuscles : Mouth part of birds.
(viii) Free never ending : Present in skin, perceive the sensation of touch.
(3) Thermoreceptors
(i) Ampullae of lorenzini : Scoliodon (Fishes)
(ii) Organ of ruffini : Caloreceptor - Heat
(iii) End bulb of krause : Fridoreceptor - cold
(4) Tactile receptors in mammals are maximum on face
(5) Current of water : Rheoreceptors lateral line sense organ in fishes and tadpole of amphibians detect the water
current.
 Misc. Point :
1. Minimum distance for proper vision of eyes is 25cm.
2. Anterior - posterior diameter of eyeball is 17.5mm at the time of birth normally and in adults it is 20-21 mm.
3. The best colour differentiation is found in primates (Advanced mammals).
4. In the retina of man's eyes there are found 1110 - 1125 lacs rods and 65 lacs cones.
5. Healthy eye of a person can see clearly from 12 inch to 20 feet.
6. Image of object is formed on retina and it is always inverted & real.
7. Hyalocytes cells are found in vitreous humor.
8. Ciliary body secretes aqueous humor and vitreous humor.
9. In frog and other amphibians sclerotic layer of eyeball is Cartilaginous.
10. The largest eyes are found in deers in vertebrates with respect to body surface area.
11. The lens of man's eye ball has its diameter of 11 mm.
12. Circular canal present in limbus is called Canal of Schlemm.
13. Atropine, Beladona and Cocane medicines are used to dilate the pupil.
14. In a newlyborn child, eye balls are very small, i.e. babies are always very much hypermatropic.
15. Cornea and lens of eye lack blood supply.
16. Eyes are most sensitive to the light having approx 5000 A0 wavelength.
17. Internal or inner ear of rabbit is originated by ectoderm of embryo and middle ear
(Bony part-mesodermal) and eustachian tube are originated by endoderm layer of embryo.
18. Frog's vision is hypermatropic in water and myopic on land.
19. Light sensitive organ was discovered by Steven.
20. Gland of moll are modified sweat gland.
21. Stye is infection of gland of zeis.
22. The relationship of receptor to bipolar cells to ganglion cells is 1:1:1 with in the fovea.
23. From the fovea to the periphery, cones diminish and rods increase in number.
24. Electrical activity of retina is record in sequence of potential change known as elctroretinogram.
25. The horizontal cells which transmit signals horizontally in the outer plexiform layer from the rods and cones to
the bipolar cell dendrites.
26. The bipolar cells which transmit signals from the rods, cones and horizontal cells to the inner plexiform layer
where they synapse with ganglion cell and amacrine cells.
27. The amacrine cells which transmit signals in two direction directly from bipolar cells to ganglion.