Introduction to Fibonacci series

1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144,233,377,…
This is called the Fibonacci sequence, and the terms in this sequence
are called the Fibonacci numbers. In modern mathematical terms, this
sequence is defined recursively by f1=1,f2=1f1=1,f2=1,
and fn=fn−1+fn−2fn=fn−1+fn−2 for n≥3n≥3. Despite their simple
definition, these numbers have been studied extensively and possess a
frankly ridiculous number of interesting properties. Below is a tiny
sampling of some of them.
 They have interesting divisibility properties. For
example, gcd(fm,fn)=fgcd(m,n)gcd(fm,fn)=fgcd(m,n).
 Any three successive Fibonacci numbers are pairwise relatively
prime: gcd(fn,fn+1)=gcd(fn+1,fn+2)=gcd(fn,fn+1)=gcd(fn+1,fn+2)= 1.
 With the exceptions of f1=f2,f6f1=f2,f6, and f12, every Fibonacci number
has a prime factor that is not a factor of any smaller Fibonacci number.
 Every positive integer can be written as a sum of Fibonacci numbers,
where any one number is used once at most.
 There is an explicit formula for the Fibonacci numbers, and it involves
irrational numbers: fn=1√5((1+√52)n−(1−√52)n)
There are many more interesting properties that come out of a
result of Fibonacci sequence which we will come to in the later part
of this project
History of Fibonacci series:
The Fibonacci sequence appears in indian mathematics in connection
with Sanskrit prosody, as pointed out by Parmanand Singh in 1985. In the
Sanskrit poetic tradition, there was interest in enumerating all patterns of
long (L) syllables of 2 units duration, juxtaposed with short (S) syllables of
1 unit duration. Counting the different patterns of successive L and S with
a given total duration results in the Fibonacci numbers: the number of
patterns of duration m units is Fm + 1.
Knowledge of the Fibonacci sequence was expressed as early as Pingala
(c. 450 BC–200 BC). Singh cites Pingala's cryptic formula misrau cha
("the two are mixed") and scholars who interpret it in context as saying
that the number of patterns for m beats (Fm+1) is obtained by adding one
to the Fm cases and one to the Fm−1 cases. Bharata Muni also
expresses knowledge of the sequence in the Natya Shastra (c. 100 BC–c.
350 AD). However, the clearest exposition of the sequence arises in the
work of Virahanka (c. 700 AD), whose own work is lost, but is available in
a quotation by Gopala (c. 1135)
Variations of two earlier meters [is the variation]... For example, for [a
meter of length] four, variations of meters of two [and] three being mixed,
five happens. [works out examples 8, 13, 21]... In this way, the process
should be followed in all mātrā-vṛttas [prosodic combinations].
Hemachandra (c. 1150) is credited with knowledge of the sequence as
well,[7] writing that "the sum of the last and the one before the last is the
number ... of the next mātrā-vṛtta."
Outside India, the Fibonacci sequence first appears in the book Liber Abaci
(1202) by Fibonacci.[6][17] using it to calculate the growth of rabbit
populations.[18][19] Fibonacci considers the growth of a hypothetical, idealized
(biologically unrealistic) rabbit population, assuming that: a newly born pair of
rabbits, one male, one female, are put in a field; rabbits are able to mate at the
age of one month so that at the end of its second month a female can produce
another pair of rabbits; rabbits never die and a mating pair always produces one
new pair (one male, one female) every month from the second month on.
Fibonacci posed the puzzle: how many pairs will there be in one year?

At the end of the first month, they mate, but there is still only 1 pair.
At the end of the second month the female produces a new pair, so now there
are 2 pairs of rabbits in the field.
At the end of the third month, the original female produces a second pair,
making 3 pairs in all in the field.
At the end of the fourth month, the original female has produced yet another
new pair, and the female born two months ago also produces her first pair,
making 5 pairs.
At the end of the nth month, the number of pairs of rabbits is equal to the
number of new pairs (that is, the number of pairs in month n − 2) plus the
number of pairs alive last month (that is, n − 1). This is the nth Fibonacci
number.[20]

The name "Fibonacci sequence" was first used by the 19th-century number
theorist Édouard Lucas.
Golden ratio

The Golden ratio is a special number found by dividing a line into two
parts so that the longer part divided by the smaller part is also equal to
the whole length divided by the longer part. It is often symbolized
using phi, after the 21st letter of the Greek alphabet. In an equation
form, it looks like this:

a/b = (a+b)/a = 1.6180339887498948420 …

Where We See This Golden Ratio:

As with pi (the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter),
the digits go on and on, theoretically into infinity. Phi is usually
rounded off to 1.618. This number has been discovered and
rediscovered many times, which is why it has so many names — the
Golden mean, the Golden section, divine proportion, etc. Historically,
the number can be seen in the architecture of many ancient creations,
like the Great Pyramids and the Parthenon. In the Great Pyramid of
Giza, the length of each side of the base is 756 feet with a height of 481
feet. The ratio of the base to the height is roughly 1.5717, which is
close to the Golden ratio.

Minimal Polynomial:
The golden ratio is also an algebraic number and even an algebraic integer. It
has minimal polynomial.
X2 - X -1
Having degree 2, this polynomial actually has two roots, the other being the
golden ratio conjugate.
Golden Ratio In Nature

Flower petals:
The number of petals in a flower consistently follows the Fibonacci sequence.
Famous examples include the lily, which has three petals, buttercups, which
have five (pictured at left), the chicory's 21, the daisy's 34, and so on. Phi
appears in petals on account of the ideal packing arrangement as selected by
Darwinian processes; each petal is placed at 0.618034 per turn (out of a 360°
circle) allowing for the best possible exposure to sunlight and other factors
Seed heads:
The head of a flower is also subject to Fibonaccian processes. Typically, seeds
are produced at the center, and then migrate towards the outside to fill all the
space. Sunflowers provide a great example of these spiralling patterns.
In some cases, the seed heads are so tightly packed that total number can get
quite high — as many as 144 or more. And when counting these spirals, the
total tends to match a Fibonacci number. Interestingly, a highly irrational
number is required to optimize filling (namely one that will not be well
represented by a fraction). Phi fits the bill rather nicely.

Pinecones:
Similarly, the seed pods on a pinecone are arranged in a spiral pattern. Each
cone consists of a pair of spirals, each one spiraling upwards in opposing
directions. The number of steps will almost always match a pair of consecutive
Fibonacci numbers. For example, a 3-5 cone is a cone which meets at the back
after three steps along the left spiral, and five steps along the right.
Tree Branches:
The Fibonacci sequence can also be seen in the way tree branches form or split.
A main trunk will grow until it produces a branch, which creates two growth
points. Then, one of the new stems branches into two, while the other one lies
dormant. This pattern of branching is repeated for each of the new stems. A
good example is the sneezewort. Root systems and even algae exhibit this
pattern.

Faces:
Faces, both human and nonhuman, abound with examples of the Golden Ratio.
The mouth and nose are each positioned at golden sections of the distance
between the eyes and the bottom of the chin. Similar proportions can been
seen from the side, and even the eye and ear itself (which follows along a
spiral).

It's worth noting that every person's body is different, but that averages across
populations tend towards phi. It has also been said that the more closely our
proportions adhere to phi, the more "attractive" those traits are perceived. As
an example, the most "beautiful" smiles are those in which central incisors are
1.618 wider than the lateral incisors, which are 1.618 wider than canines, and so
on. It's quite possible that, from an evo-psych perspective, that we are primed
to like physical forms that adhere to the golden ratio — a potential indicator of
reproductive fitness and health.
Mathematical Applications of
Fibonacci series
The pascals triangle:

Pascal’s Triangle, developed by the French Mathematician Blaise Pascal, is

formed by starting with an apex of 1. Every number below in the triangle is the
sum of the two numbers diagonally above it to the left and the right, with
positions outside the triangle counting as zero.

The numbers on diagonals of the triangle add to the Fibonacci series, as shown
below.

Pascal’s triangle has many unusual properties and a variety of uses:

1. Horizontal rows add to powers of 2 (i.e., 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, etc.)

2. The horizontal rows represent powers of 11 (1, 11, 121, 1331, 14641) for
the first 5 rows, in which the numbers have only a single digit.
 3. Adding any two successive numbers in the diagonal 1-3-6-10-15-21-28…
results in a perfect square (1, 4, 9, 16, etc.)

4. It can be used to find combinations in probability problems (if, for

instance, you pick any two of five items, the number of possible
combinations is 10, found by looking in the second place of the fifth row.
Do not count the 1’s.)

5. When the first number to the right of the 1 in any row is a prime number,
all numbers in that row are divisible by that prime number

Patterns In Fibonacci Sequence:

The final digits:
Here are some patterns people have already noticed in the final digits of the
Fibonacci numbers:
Look at the final digit in each Fibonacci number - the units digit:
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987, ...
There is a pattern in the final digits
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 3, 1, 4, 5, 9, 4, 3, 7, 0, 7, ...
It takes a while before it is noticeable. In fact, the series is just 60 numbers long
and then it repeats the same sequence again and again all the way through the
Fibonacci series - for ever. We say the series of final digits repeats with a cycle
length of 60.
Suppose we look at the final two digits in the Fibonacci numbers. Do they have a
pattern?
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, 610, 987, ...
Yes, there is a pattern here too. After Fib(300) the last two digits repeat the
same sequence again and again. The cycle length is 300 this time.
So what about the last three digits?
and the last four digits?
and so on??

 For the last three digits, the cycle length is 1,500

 for the last four digits,the cycle length is 15,000 and
 for the last five digits the cycle length is 150,000,and so on...

Factors In Fibonacci Sequence:

There are some fascinating and simple patterns in the Fibonacci numbers when
we consider their factors.
Every Fibonacci number is a factor of (an infinite number of) Fibonacci numbers,
that is:
 Every 3-rd Fibonacci number is a multiple of 2 i.e. a multiple of F(3)
 Every 4-th Fibonacci number is a multiple of 3 i.e. a multiple of F(4)
 Every 5-th Fibonacci number is a multiple of 5 i.e. a multiple of F(5)
 Every 6-th Fibonacci number is a multiple of 8 i.e. a multiple of F(6)
i 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 ...

Fib(i) 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 ...

F 2=Fib(3) Every 3rd Fib number

a
3=Fib(4) Every 4th Fib number
c
t 5=Fib(5) Every 5th Fib number
o
8=Fib(6) Every 6th Fib number
r
s F(k) ... F(all multiples of k)
From this we arrive at the general rule:
Every k-th Fibonacci number is a multiple of F(k)
Or expressed mathematically as:
F(nk) is a multiple of F(k) for all values of n and k from 1 up.

Every Number Is A Factor Of Some Fibonacci

Number:
there are an infinite number of Fibonacci numbers with any given
number as a factor
For instance, here is a table of the smallest Fibonacci numbers that
have each of the integers from 1 to 13 as a factor:
This index number for n is called the Fibonacci Entry Point of n
The smallest i for which Fib(i) is divisible by n

n 123456 7 89 10 11 12 13 ...

Fib(i) 1 2 3 8 5 144 21 8 144 610 55 144 13 ...

i 1 3 4 6 5 12 8 6 12 15 10 12 7 ...

Since Fib(15) is the smallest Fibonacci number with 10 as a factor, then, using
the result of the previous section, we then know that Fib( any multiple of 15 )
also has 10 as a factor.
Thus Fib(15), Fib(30), Fib(45), Fib(60), ..., Fib(15k), ... all have 10 as a factor. This
applies to all numbers n as the factor of some Fibonacci number.
Fibonacci Common Factors:
One of the fundamental divisibility properties of Fibonacci numbers concerns
factors common to two Fibonacci numbers.
If a number is a factor of both F(n) and F(m) then it is also a factor of F(m+n).
This is a consequence of the formula:
F(n+m) = F(m–1) F(n) + F(m) F(n+1)
But this is also part of a more general result about factors common to two
Fibonacci numbers.
If g is the greatest divisor of both F(m) and F(n) then it is also a Fibonacci
number. Which Fibonacci number? Its index number is the greatest divisor
common to the two indices m and n.
If we use gcd(a,b) to mean the greatest common divisor (factor) of a and b then
we have:
gcd( F(m), F(n) ) = F( gcd(m,n) )

Fibonacci Numbers And Primes:

Any Fibonacci number that is a prime number must also have a subscript that is
a prime number.(4 is an exception)
However, the converse is not always true:
that is, it is not true that if a subscript is prime then so is that Fibonacci number.

i 3 4 5 7 11 13 17 23 29 43 47 83
 99194853
F(i) 2 3 5 13 89 233 1597 28657 514229 433494437 2971215073 09475549
7

The first case to show this is the 19th position (and 19 is prime) but F(19)=4181
and F(19) is not prime because 4181=113x37.

Using The Fibonacci Numbers To Make A

Pythagorean Triangle:
There is an easy way to generate Pythagorean triangles using 4 Fibonacci
numbers. Take, for example, the 4 Fibonacci numbers:
1, 2, 3, 5
Let's call the first two a and b. Since they are from the Fibonacci series, the next
is the sum of the previous two: a+b and the following one is b+(a+b) or a+2b:-
a b a+b a+2b
1 2 3 5
You can now make a Pythagorean triangle as follows:
1. Multiply the two middle or inner numbers (here 2 and 3 giving 6);
2. Double the result (here twice 6 gives 12). This is one side, s, of the
Pythagorean Triangle.
3. Multiply together the two outer numbers (here 1 and 5 giving 5). This is
the second side, t, of the Pythagorean triangle.
4. The third side, the longest, is found by adding together the squares of the
inner two numbers (here 22=4 and 32=9 and their sum is 4+9=13). This is
the third side, h, of the Pythagorean triangle.
We have generated the 12, 5,13 Pythagorean triangle, or, putting the sides in
order, the 5, 12, 13 triangle this time.

Maths From The Fibonacci Spiral:

The diagram shows that

12 + 12 + 22 + 32 + 52 + 82 = 8×13
and also, the smaller rectangles show:
12 + 12 = 1×2

12 + 12 + 22 = 2×3

12 + 12 + 22 + 32 = 3×5

12 + 12 + 22 + 32 + 52 = 5×8

12 + 12 + 22 + 32 + 52 + 82 = 8×13

This picture actually is a convincing proof that the pattern will work for any
number of squares of Fibonacci numbers that we wish to sum. They always
total to the largest Fibonacci number used in the squares multiplied by the
next Fibonacci number.
That is a bit of a mouthful to say - and to understand - so it is better to
express the relationship in the language of mathematics:
12 + 12 + 22 + 32 + ... + F(n)2 = F(n)F(n+1)
and it is true for ANY n from 1 upwards.