_____ Notes _____

CHAPTER CONTENTS

9.0 Line Coding

9.1 Binary Line Codes

9.2 Bipolar and Biphase Line Codes

9.2.1 AMI
9.2.1.1 Binary N Zero Substitution
9.2.3 Block Line Codes

9.3 M-ary Correlation Codes

9.3.1 2B1Q
9.3.2 Correlation Coding

9.4 Nyquist Channels

9.4.1 Brick Wall Filter (Ideal LPF)
9.4.2 Cosine Channel (Duo-binary Channel)
9.4.2.1 Bipolar Encoding
9.4.2.2 Differential Encoding
9.4.3 Raised Cosine Channel
9.4.4 Sine or Modified Duo-binary Channel

9.5 Gaussian Pulse Shaping

Review Questions

For Further Research

Digital Communications Principles 9-1

 _____ Notes _____

9.0 Line Coding

Objectives

This section will:

• Review the basic types of binary line codes
• Examine bipolar line codes
• Examine M-ary correlation codes
• Introduce the idea of baud reduction by using controlled ISI

Hewlett Packard has produced an excellent application note summarizing the

various forms of digital modulation.
Digital Modulation in Communications Systems - An Introduction by hp

9.1 Binary Line Codes

The term line code refers to the physical shape of the signal that is placed on the
loop. Some of the more common two level or binary line codes include:

Signal Comments
NRZ–L Non return to zero level. This is the standard positive logic
signal format used in digital circuits.
1 forces a high level
0 forces a low level
NRZ–M Non return to zero mark
1 forces a transition
0 does nothing
NRZ–S Non return to zero space
1 does nothing
0 forces a transition
RZ Return to zero
1 goes high for half the bit period
0 does nothing
Biphase–L Manchester. Two consecutive bits of the same type force a
transition at the beginning of a bit period.
1 forces a negative transition in the middle of the bit
0 forces a positive transition in the middle of the bit
Biphase–M There is always a transition at the beginning of a bit period.
1 forces a transition in the middle of the bit
0 does nothing
Biphase–S There is always a transition at the beginning of a bit period.
1 does nothing
0 forces a transition in the middle of the bit
Differential There is always a transition in the middle of a bit period.
Manchester 1 does nothing
0 forces a transition at the beginning of the bit
Bipolar The positive and negative pulses alternate.
1 forces a positive or negative pulse for half the bit period
0 does nothing

A bipolar signal is not actually a binary signal since it has 3 distinct levels.

Digital Communications Principles 9-1

 Line Coding
_____ Notes _____

Binary Line Code Waveforms

1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0

NRZ–L

NRZ–M

NRZ–S

RZ

Biphase–L

Biphase–M

Biphase–S
Differential
Manchester

Bipolar

Each line code has advantages and disadvantages. The particular line code used
is chosen to meet one or more of the following criteria:
• Minimize transmission hardware
• Facilitate synchronization
• Ease error detection and correction
• Minimize spectral content
• Eliminate a dc component

9.2 Bipolar and Biphase Line Codes

Bipolar line codes have two polarities, are generally implemented as RZ and
have a radix of three since there are three distinct output levels One of the
principle advantages of this type of code, is that it can completely eliminate any
DC component. This is important if the signal must pass through a transformer
or a long transmission line.

Biphase line codes require at least one transition per bit time. This makes it
easier to synchronize the transceivers and detect errors however; the baud rate is
greater than that of NRZ codes.

9-2 Digital Communications Principles

 Line Coding
_____ Notes _____

NRZ and Biphase Spectral Density1

NRZ codes are more bandwidth efficient than bipolar RZ ones since their baud
rate is half that of RZ codes and their spectral components go all the way down
to 0 Hz.

CMI

In CMI†, marks are encoded as alternate polarity, full period pulses. Spaces are
encoded by half a period pulse at the negative voltage and half period pulse at
the positive voltage. This coding scheme has the advantage that it uses only two
voltage levels instead of three, as does AMI.

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1

Binary NRZ

Binary RZ

CMI

9.2.1 AMI
AMI† is a bipolar line code. Each successive mark is inverted and the average or
DC level of the line is therefor zero. This system is used on T-carrier systems,
but cannot be used on fiber optic links.

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1

Binary NRZ

Binary RZ

AMI

AMI is usually implemented as RZ pulses.

1 Digital Telephony (2nd ed.), John Bellamy, Figure 4.13

† Coded Mark Inversion
† Alternate Mark Inversion

Digital Communications Principles 9-3

 Line Coding
_____ Notes _____

One of the weaknesses of transmitting only marks is that long strings of zeros
cause the receivers to loose lock. It is essential to maintain lock because the T-
carrier multiplexing scheme organizes data as a series of concatenated channels.
If synchronism is lost, the specific channels cannot be identified. It is therefore
necessary to impose additional rules on the signal to eliminate long strings of
zeros.

9.2.1.1 Binary N Zero Substitution

Long strings of zeros can be prevented by substituting a sequence of 3, 6, or 8

zeros with a special code of the same length. The substitution code contains
bipolar violations, which alerts the receiver to note the changes.

In an AMI system, two consecutive pulses of the same polarity constitute a

violation. Therefor, if controlled violations are substituted for strings of zeros,
the receiver can distinguish between substitutions and errors.

B6ZS

B6ZS† is used on 6.312 Mbps, T2 AMI transmission links.

Since the last mark preceding a string of zeros may have been either positive or
negative, two types of substitutions are used:

Polarity of previous mark Substitution

- 0 - + 0 + -
+ 0 + - 0 - +

These substitutions force two consecutive violations. A single bit error does not
create this condition.

B6ZS Example:
Original data: 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1

AMI data: 0 + 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 - 0 + -

B6ZS data: 0 + 0 + - 0 - + 0 - 0 + -

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1

Binary RZ

AMI RZ

B6ZS

† Binary 6 Zero Substitution

9-4 Digital Communications Principles

 Line Coding
_____ Notes _____

B8ZS

This scheme uses the same substitution as B6ZS. Since the example above has a
string of 7 zeros, no substitution would be made.

Polarity of previous mark Substitution

- 0 0 0 - + 0 + -
+ 0 0 0 + - 0 - +

B3ZS

B3ZS† is more involved than B6ZS, and is used on DS–3 carrier systems. The
substitution is not only dependent on the polarity of the last mark, but also on the
number of marks (even and odd) since the last substitution. It should be
remembered that the number zero is by definition even.

Previous Mark Polarity Number of marks since the last

substitution
Odd Even
- 00- +0+
+ 00+ -0-

B3ZS Example:

Assuming an odd number of marks since the last substitution, we obtain:

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1

Binary RZ

AMI RZ

B3ZS

From the above example, it seems that there are more negative pulses than
positive ones, thus crating a DC component. It should be noted however, that
this is statistically eliminated over longer data sequences.

HDB3

HDB3† is used in Europe and introduces bipolar violations when four

consecutive zeros occur. The second and thirds zeros are left unchanged, but the
fourth zero is given the same polarity as the last mark. The first zero may be
modified to a one to make sure that successive violations are of alternate
polarity.2

† Binary 3 Zero Substitution

† High Density Binary 3
2 Freeman, Telecommunication Handbook, & Stallings W., ISDN an
Introduction

Digital Communications Principles 9-5

 Line Coding
_____ Notes _____

Previous Mark Polarity Number of marks since the last

substitution
Odd Even
- 000- +00+
+ 000+ -00-

HDB3 Example:

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1

Binary RZ

AMI RZ

HDB3

From the above example, it seems that there are more positive pulses than
negative ones, thus crating a DC component. It should be noted however, that
this is statistically eliminated over longer data sequences.

The last pulse in the substitution is the V or violation pulse. If there have been an
even number of substitutions, a B or balancing pulse is added to prevent a dc
buildup.3

9.2.3 Block Line Codes

Block codes with a radix of 2 or 3 can be used on digital loops.

These schemes operate on bytes rather than bits. Some transmit the signal as
binary levels, but most use multi-level pulses.

A binary block code has the designation nBmB, where n input bits are encoded
into m output bits. The most common of these is the 3B4B code.

3B4B Coding
Input Output
000 - - + - or + + - +
001 --++
010 -+-+
011 -++-
100 +--+
101 +-+-
110 ++--
111 - + - - or + - + +

In Europe 4B3T, which encodes 4 binary bits into 3 ternary levels, has been
selected as the BRA for ISDN.

Some block codes do not generate multilevel pulses. For example, 24B1P or
24B25B simply adds a P or parity bit to a 24-bit block.

3 Freeman, Telecommunication Handbook, & Stallings W., ISDN an

Introduction

9-6 Digital Communications Principles

 Line Coding
_____ Notes _____

9.3 M-ary Codes

Line codes with a radix of 4 or more are also block codes, and have the potential
to significantly reduce the baud rate.

9.3.1 2B1Q
In North America, 2B1Q which encodes 2 binary bits into 1 quaternary level has
been selected for BRA.

2B1Q Coding
Input Output
00 -3
01 -1
10 +1
11 +3

9.3.2 Correlation Coding

One of the chief aims of digital communications technology is to pack as many
bits of information though a system as possible. This is particularly true in long
haul, fixed bandwidth systems such as digital microwave radio and satellites.
Although it is not possible to exceed the Shannon-Hartly limit, the Nyquest bit
rate [2 bits per Hz] can be exceeded. This is accomplished by introducing a
controlled amount of inter-symbol interference in the signal.

Partial response signaling alters the shape of a data pulse to control the signal
spectrum and make efficient use of the transmission channel.

In order to do this, it is necessary to determine the time and frequency domain

characteristics of the communications channel or system. This requires the use of
the Fourier transform.

In most cases, signal shapes are specified in the time domain, but
communications channels are specified in the frequency domain. Since the
physical channel represents the ‘real world’, it is necessary to first examine the
channel frequency characteristics and then determine the most suitable shape of
the data signal in the time domain.

A communications transmission link or channel can be regarded as a sort of

filter. The filter characteristic may be defined by the physical attributes of the
channel or by government regulations and industry standards. Radio based
systems for example, have severe restrictions placed on user frequency bands
and each broadcast channel may be viewed as a bandpass filter.

It is often difficult to find a mathematical expression defining the frequency

response of actual filters and transmission systems. Consequently, the analysis is
generally performed on simpler functions, which can then be used to
approximate complex systems. The most common family of channel types are
Nyquist channels.

Digital Communications Principles 9-7

 Line Coding
_____ Notes _____

9.4 Nyquist Channels

The principle channel types of interest are the cosine, raised cosine, and sine.
The brick wall response is also of interest since it provides the basic tool needed
to evaluate the other channel types.

Nyquist Communications Channel Categories4

Class Channel Channel Response H (ω ) Impulse Radix
Name Notation f[δ]
1 Ideal LPF 1 1 2
1 Cosine
[Duo-binary] πω 1,1 3
2 cos
2B
2 Raised
πω 1,2,1 5
Cosine 4 cos 2
2B
3
πω 2πω 2,1,-1 5
2 + cos − cos
B B
πω 2πω
+ j sin − sin
B B
4 Sine
[Modified πω 1,0,-1 3

Duo-binary]
2 sin
B
5
πω 1,0,-2,0,1 5
4 sin 2
B

The output of each channel type is naturally slightly different.

Fourier Analysis Simplifications

Fourier analysis can often be simplified by observing the function symmetry:

• For even functions, use the inverse cosine transform
• For odd functions use the inverse sine transform
• Functions that do not exhibit symmetry must use both parts of the
transform

1
h(t ) = H (ω ) cos(ω t ) + j sin (ω t ) dω
B

2π 0
Real part Imaginary part
for even functions for odd functions

• This is often called the impulse response because it is obtained by

injecting a Dirac Delta pulse [δ] into the input.

4 Digital, Analog, and Data Communication, William Sinnema, Table 8-2

9-8 Digital Communications Principles

 Line Coding
_____ Notes _____

• The complex transform is also used in a more mathematically rigorous

regime when the negative frequency domain is considered.

9.4.1 Brick Wall Filter (Ideal LPF)

The ideal low pass channel has an infinite roll-off at the cutoff frequency. This is
of course not technically achievable.

Ideal LPF
(Brick Wall Filter)
1

B
ω
2πf c

H (ω ) = 1 0≤ω ≤ B
(Some textbooks take a more rigorous approach and include negative
frequencies. From an engineering perspective, the idea of LPFs having a
negative frequency response is not particularly meaningful. For a more thorough
discussion of the Fourier Transform, please see Appendix 3)

The time domain response (also called the impulse response) is found by taking
the inverse Fourier transform of the channel:

1
h(t ) = F -1 {H (ω )} = H (ω ) cos(ωt )dω
B

2π 0

B
1 1
= sin ω t
2π t 0

1
= sin Bt
2πt
A plot of this function resembles:

1.0
0.8 sin( 2πfct)
h( t ) =
0.6 2π t
0.4
1 1 3 2
0.2 2 fc fc 2 fc fc
t
-0.2 π 2π 3π 4π
B B B B

Digital Communications Principles 9-9

 Line Coding
_____ Notes _____

This function is the familiar sync or sampling function and forms the basic time
domain element used to analyze M-ary pulses.

It should be noted, that if a time domain pulse of this exact shape were created, it
would have an ideal cutoff in the frequency domain. Time domain pulses of this
exact type however, are not practical, since the leading and trailing tails never
completely vanish.

The data input stream 1110100010001111110 produces the following output

response:

Brick Wall Response (Ideal LPF)

Since the impulse response of an ideal LPF consists of one sinc pulse, it is
sometimes written as f[δ] = 1.

Actual time domain

response

δ
Filter Input
Ideal LPF Filter Output

9 - 10 Digital Communications Principles

 Line Coding
_____ Notes _____

1
If two δ pulses separated by t = occur at the filter input, the peak of the
2 fc
second sync response will occur at a zero crossing of the first response. This
suggests that at that precise moment, it is possible to distinguish between both
pulses even though a great deal of overlap or ISI has occurred.

By normalizing the bandwidth to unity, it can be observed that the maximum bit
rate with no ISI is:

1 1
Maximum Bit Rate = = = 2bits/Hz
t 0 .5
1.

Massive ISI at this instant

No ISI at this instant
t
0.5 1.0
-1.0 -0.5

[Bandwidth Normalized to Unity]

Sampling Instants

Controlling ISI forms the bases of M-ary signaling theory and allows the
Nyquest rate to be exceeded. If a transmitted pulse waveform consists of sinc
components, it is possible to separate the sinc components at the receiver, thus
exceeding the Nyquest rate.

9.4.2 Cosine Channel (Duo-binary Channel)

The cosine shape is well defined mathematically, being the first quarter of a
cosine waveform. Its impulse response consists of 2 sinc components.

For the impulse response to be comprised of unit sinc pulses, the cosine filter is
often modified by giving it an amplitude of 2:

Digital Communications Principles 9 - 11

 Line Coding
_____ Notes _____

2 Cosine Filter
πω
1.5 H (ω ) = 2 cos
2B
H (ω ) 1

0.5

0 ω
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

πω
H (ω ) = 2 cos 0≤ω ≤ B
2B
The data input 1110100010001111110 produces the following output responses:

Cosine Channel Response

Cosine filters are also known as duo-binary filters and are used RD3 digital
microwave radio systems and ISDN transmission systems using the 4B3T line
format.

9 - 12 Digital Communications Principles

 Line Coding
_____ Notes _____

RD3 Radio Transmitter5

Notice the use of a cosine filter at the transmitter output.

The cosine impulse response is found by taking the real (or even) part of the
inverse Fourier transform:

πω
h(t ) = cos(ωt )dω
B
1
2π 2 cos
0 2B
sin (t − 2πB )ω sin (t + 2πB )ω sin (t − 2πB )B sin (t + 2πB )B
B

= 1
+ = + −0−0
π
2(t − 2πB ) 2(t + 2πB ) 0
2π (t − 2πB ) 2π (t + 2πB )
sin (Bt − 2 ) sin (Bt + 2 )
π π
= +
2π (t − 2πB ) 2π (t + 2πB )

But B = ω c and ω c = 2πf c

normalizing to f c = 1, we obtain :

sin[(t − 14 )2π ] sin[(t + 14 )2π ]

h(t ) = +
(t − 14 )2π (t + 14 )2π
a sync pulse a sync pulse

5 Digital, Analog, and Data Communication, William Sinnema, Figure 8-24a

Digital Communications Principles 9 - 13

 Line Coding
_____ Notes _____

A duo-binary pulse can be decomposed into two sinc pulses:

1.273
COS Impulse Response
1.5

h( t ) 1

Amplitude
h1( t )
0.5
h2( t )

2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

0.217
0.5

2 t 2

Time

Total Response
1st Sinc Pulse
2nd Sinc Pulse

Since the overall response is composed of two sinc pulses the impulse response
is written as f[δ] = 1, 1. Since the maximum bit rate is 1/t and the first zero
crossing occurs at t = 3/4fc, and it would appear that the maximum bit rate is:

1 4 fc
Apparent Maximum Bit Rate = = = 1.33 f c
t 3
This means that 1.33 bits/Hz can be transmitted through this filter or channel.

When the bandwidth B is normalized to unity, the overall pulse shape is

composed of two sinc pulses shifted by t = ± 0.25 This is identical to that
obtained from a brick wall filter excited by two impulses separated by t = 0.5,
applied to the input!

δ Cosine Filter
Input Output

δ δ Ideal LPF
.5T Output
Input
If two impulses are applied to a cosine channel, the response is:

9 - 14 Digital Communications Principles

 Line Coding
_____ Notes _____

δ δ
Cosine Filter
Input Output
If they are spaced 0.5T apart. The leading sinc envelope of one pulse completely
overlaps the trailing sinc envelope of the previous pulse.

Combined Response

δ δ Cosine Filter
.5T Output
Input
If the leading sinc envelope of the second pulse completely overlaps the trailing
sinc envelope of the first pulse, a correlation over 1 bit period occurs and the
overall output resembles:

2.0

1.0

1 1 3 2
2 fc fc 2 fc fc

t
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

π 2π 3π 4π
B B B B

At first glance, it would appear that this represents only one bit of information,
but if a receiver can decompose this pulse into its sinc components, two bits of
data can be extracted.

To do this, the RD3 radio receiver has a 1 bit delay feedback loop. This
performs a 1-bit correlation since it relates the current signal state to the previous
state.

Digital Communications Principles 9 - 15

 Line Coding
_____ Notes _____

RD3 Radio Receiver6

Injecting a controlled amount of ISI has given rise to a multilevel waveform:

Input Peak Output

Zero or space 0
Single mark 1.2
2 or more consecutive marks 2.0

Using delta pulses as input marks while leaving spaces as zero, causes
synchronization problems in the receiver when long strings of zeros occur. This
can be avoided by using a very simple bipolar encoding scheme.

9.4.2.1 Bipolar Encoding

In order to eliminate synchronization problems associated with long strings of

zero, a mark [1] is used to create a positive impulse [+δ] response, and a space
[0] is used to create a negative impulse [-δ] response. This generates a minimum
of three output levels.

Example:

An input data stream of 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 would resemble:

1 2 3 5 9

Mark
.5
t

Space

4 6 7 8 10 11 12

The corresponding cosine channel output response is:

6 Digital, Analog, and Data Communication, William Sinnema, Figure 8-24b

9 - 16 Digital Communications Principles

 Line Coding
_____ Notes _____

It is a little difficult to picture what the overall output shape is, but if each output
pulse is decomposed into its sinc pulse pairs, it becomes clear. Recall that for
every input δ pulse, there are 2 sinc pulses at the output.

2 3

1 5 9

10
4 6

7 8 11 12

Approximate output
The actual output is:

Notice that there is a reduction in the number of zero crossings in the signal, and
therefore a reduction in the channel bandwidth requirements. Note also that there
are three possible levels at the sampling instant:

Input Peak Signal

2 or more consecutive marks +2.0
Alternating marks and spaces 0
2 or more consecutive zeros or spaces -2.0

There is at least 1 interval at 0 when switching between ±2 levels. If the signal

returns to its original + or - 2 level, it must remain at 0 for an even number or
intervals.

In order to correctly sample the signal, the sampling instant must be shifted
slightly to correspond to the peak of the Sinc pulse.

Digital Communications Principles 9 - 17

 Line Coding
_____ Notes _____

Converting this back to a binary signal is somewhat of a challenge since:

• The binary value of any particular pulse depends on the past sample
• The zero level can correspond to a mark or a space
• Errors can propagate.

To overcome these problems, the binary input signal can be differentially

encoded before being shaped.

9.4.2.2 Differential Encoding

Differentially encoding the signal allows the output signal magnitude to be

directly related to the input data.

input B
output
A
Cosine Filter
τ
The exclusive OR gate goes high only when the current input and the past signal
input are different, a form of differential encoding. A mark will now correspond
to a 0 output level, and a space to the ±2 level.

Because of the delay, it is necessary to establish an initial condition when

differential encoding. In the following example, we will assume that the initial
logic state at point B was 1.

The example in the above MathCAD file, can be intuitively approximated:

9 - 18 Digital Communications Principles

 Line Coding
_____ Notes _____

data input 111010001000

A 101001111000
B 1 010011110000
initial
condition
The approximated XOR output resembles:

Sampling Instants
1 1 1
1 1 1

0 0 0
0 0 0 0

Note that by letting a mark equal zero and a space equal a positive or negative
pulse, the original data input can be read directly at the cosine channel output.

The exact output is:

In ISDN applications, 4 binary bits can be mapped into 3 ternary levels, resulting
in 4B3T† encoding. This results in some surplus states since 4 binary symbols
represent 16 possible conditions, but 3 ternary symbols represent 27 possible
conditions. These additional states can be used by the service provider to
maintain housekeeping functions without reducing the customer’s bit stream.

9.4.3 Raised Cosine Channel

This shape is also known as a Hanning window, and is a better approximation of
an analog filter since the response curve gradually tapers off.

1 πω
H (ω ) = 1 + cos 0≤ω ≤ B
2 B
This function is often written slightly differently so that the impulse response
will consist of unit sinc pulses:

† 4 Binary 3 Ternary

Digital Communications Principles 9 - 19

 Line Coding
_____ Notes _____

H( ω)
4

Raised Cosine Filter

2 πω
H( ω) = 4 cos
2B
ω
B

The filter impulse function is found by:

1 πω 2 1 πω
h(t ) = cos(ω t )dω = cos(ω t )dω
B B
4 cos 2 1 + cos
2π 0 2B π 0 2 B
1 πω
cos(ω t ) + cos(ω t ) cos
B
= dω
π 0 B
B
π π
sin −t ω sin +t ω
1 sin (ω t ) B B
= + +
π t π π
2 −t 2 +t
B B
0

sin (Bt ) sin (π − Bt ) sin (π + Bt )

= + +
πt π π
− t 2π + t 2π
B B

But B = 2πfc and by normalizing frequency to fc = 1, we obtain:

1 1
sin − t 2π sin + t 2π
sin (2π t ) 2 2
h(t ) = + +
πt 1 1
− t 2π + t 2π
2 2

9 - 20 Digital Communications Principles

 Line Coding
_____ Notes _____

The overall response is composed of three overlapping sinc pulses:

2 RACOS Impulse Response

2

h( t )

h1( t ) 1
Amplitude

h2( t )

h3( t )
2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

0.434
1

2 t 2

Time

Total Response
1st Sinc Pulse
2nd Sinc (doubled)
3rd Sinc Pulse

Using this function would appear to be a step backwards since the first zero
crossing occurs at T = 1.0. This however is not the case. Notice that the tail
portion of this response is quite small.

The raised cosine impulse response is composed of three sinc pulses separated
by T = 0.5, the middle one of which is twice as large as the outer ones. Therefor
this function is noted as f[δ] = 1, 2, 1.

In the cosine filter, the first sinc envelope of the second pulse was allowed to
completely overlap the second sinc envelope of the first pulse. Thus a correlation
over 1 bit period occurred.

Digital Communications Principles 9 - 21

 Line Coding
_____ Notes _____

First pulse

-0.1

Position of next pulse

for zero ISI

Position of next pulse

with controlled ISI

0
1 1 3 2
2 fc fc 2 fc fc
π 2π 3π 4π
B B B B

A correlation over 2 bit periods can be obtained by carefully controlling the ISI
and allowing two sinc envelopes on consecutive pulses to overlap. This results in
a 4 level transmission scheme:

Input Peak Output

Zero or space 0
Single mark 1
2 consecutive marks 3
3 or more consecutive marks 4

The data input 1110100010001111110 produces the following output responses:

9 - 22 Digital Communications Principles

 Line Coding
_____ Notes _____

Raised Cosine Channel Response

One disadvantage of this system is that the frequency components go all the way
down to DC. Some transmission methods cannot handle low frequency or DC.
One method which retains 4 level or quaternary signals found in a raised cosine
channel but has no DC component, is the modified duo–binary technique and is
characterized by sine filters.

It should be noted that the Raised Cosine channel is actually consists of a whole
family of curves. Each of these differs by the roll-off factor.

9.4.4 Sine or Modified Duo-binary Channel

1

Sine Filter
πω
H (ω) = sin
B
ω
B

πω
H (ω ) = sin 0 ≤ω ≤ B
B
In order to obtain unity sinc pulses, this function is normally written as:

πω
H (ω ) = 2 sin 0≤ω ≤ B
B
This is also known as a modified duo-binary system. It is used on single
sideband radio systems where the DC levels associated with cosine responses
cannot be tolerated.

Digital Communications Principles 9 - 23

 Line Coding
_____ Notes _____

SSB Radio Transmitter7

Notice that two bit precoding is used in the transmitter. This allows the receiver
to make each binary decision based on the present received value. It also
eliminates the possibility of error propagation.

SSB Radio Receiver8

Notice that two-bit correlation is performed in the receiver.

The impulse response of the sine filter is found by taking the imaginary [or odd]
part of the inverse Fourier transform.

7 Digital, Analog, and Data Communication, William Sinnema, Figure 8-30a

8 Digital, Analog, and Data Communication, William Sinnema, Figure 8-30b

9 - 24 Digital Communications Principles

 Line Coding
_____ Notes _____

1 πω
h(t ) = sin (ω t )dω
B
2 sin
2π 0 B
1 sin ([πB − t ]ω ) sin ([πB + t ]ω )
B

= −
π 2(πB − t ) 2(πB + t ) 0

1 sin (π − Bt ) sin (π + Bt )
= −
π 2(πB − t ) 2(πB + t )
Normalizing this function we obtain:

sin ([1 − 2t ]π ) sin ([1 + 2t ]π )

h(t ) = −
(1 − 2t )π (1 + 2t )π
This response is composed of two sinc pulses separated by t = 1.0.

1.042 Sine Impulse Response

2

h( t ) 1
Amplitude

h1( t )

h2( t ) 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

1.042
2

2 t 2

Time

Total Response
1st Sinc Pulse
2nd Sinc

This function is usually is presented with the positive cycle appearing first
[which is actually the inverse of the above expression].

In the previous types of channels, the sinc components were only separated by t
= 0.5. This function is written as f[δ] = 1, 0, -1.

The above waveform represents a mark. A space is represented by the inverse

response. Each input data pulse creates sinc pulse centered thus:

Mark
Space

T=1

The modified duobinary system can be implemented by cascading a delay

element equal to T, and inverter, with a standard duobinary filter as follows:

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+
Σ
-
Duo Binary Filter
τ
A Modified Duo Binary System
This system is used on digital single sideband radio and can carry 4 bits per Hz
of bandwidth.

Example

A data stream of 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0, in terms of δ pulses resembles:

1 2 3 5 9

Mark
.5 t

Space

4 6 7 8 10 11 12
The sinc envelope impulse equivalent resembles:

7 11

1 2 3 5 4 6 9 8 10 13 12

1 4 3 6 7 8 10 11 12 13

2 5 9

Approximate Output
Or more accurately, the transmitted output is:

The data input 1110100010001111110 produces the following output responses:

Note that this results in a quaternary or 4 level system.

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In ISDN applications, 2 binary bits can be mapped into 1 quaternary level,

resulting in 2B1Q† encoding. There are no surplus states since 2 binary symbols
represent 4 possible conditions, as does 1 quaternary symbol.

The process of correlation or sinc envelope overlap can theoretically be

continued indefinitely. However, in practice this approach is limited to 15
amplitude levels. This is because the S/N ratio requirements become more
stringent as the number of levels increases.

9.5 Gaussian Pulse Shaping

Gaussian channels are not the same as Nyquist channels, since there is no timing
criteria that can guarantee zero inter-symbol interference.

However, this kind of shape does offer the advantage of bandwidth efficiency
and clock recovery.

† 2 Binary 1 Quaternary

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Review Questions

Quick Quiz
1. What is the Nyquest bit rate in a 10 KHz ideal low pass filter?
_________________________________________________________

2. The [sine, cosine] channel has a bipolar impulse response.

3. The [sine, cosine] channel has a correlation over 2 bits.
4. A modified duo-binary SSB microwave transmitter has a correlation span of
[1, 2, 3] bits.

Analytical Problems
1. Given the frequency response H(ω) = 1 for 0 ω B , derive the impulse
response of an ideal brick wall filter:
Ideal LPF
(Brick Wall Filter)
1

ω
0 B

2. Given a modified duo-binary channel or sine filter:

a) Sketch the frequency response
b) Why is this function sometimes written as: f[δ] = 1, 0, -1?
c) Sketch the approximate time domain response
d) How does it differ from a duo-binary system?
e) How many bits per hertz can this system transmit?
f) Where is this system used?

Composition Questions
1. Describe the methods employed to remove long strings of zeros in binary
transmissions.

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2. What is the purpose of pulse shaping in data transmission systems?

3. Where is the duobinary transmission scheme used?
4. Discuss the operating principles and applications in correlation based
communications links.

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For Further Research

Hermann J. Helgert, Integrated Services Digital Networks, Addison-Wesley,

New York, (1991)
http://www.laruscorp.com/t1bklt.htm

http://www.national.com/design/

http://pilot.msu.edu/user/hsuhsuni/adsl.htm

http://ironbark.bendigo.latrobe.edu.au/courses/bcomp/c202/lectures/

http://stap.colorado.edu/~hintonm/prs/moreinfo.htm

http://www.minacom.com/DigitalModulationTechniques.htm

http://pioneer.hannam.ac.kr/doc/staffs/note/comm.html

http://www.comcore.com/

http://www.anl.gov/ECT/network/

http://www.teles.de/

Gaussian Processes
http://www.cs.utoronto.ca/~carl/gp.html

9 - 30 Digital Communications Principles