16

Difference Equations and

z-Transforms

Part A : Difference Equations

16.A.1 Introduction, 16.A.2 Definitions, 16.A.3 Formation of Difference Equations, 16.A.4 Linear Difference
Equations with Constant Coefficients, 16.A.5 Rules for Finding Complementary Function, 16.A.6 Rules
for Finding Particular Integral, 16.A.7 Simultaneous Difference Equations with Constant Coefficients.

16.A.1 INTRODUCTION
Difference equations arise in the situations in which the discrete values of the independent variable
involve. Many practical phenomena are modelled with the help of difference equations. In engineering,
difference equations arise in control engineering, digital signal processing, electrical networks, etc. In
social sciences, difference equations arise to study the national income of a country and then its variation
with time, Cobweb phenomenon in economics, etc. Analogue to differential equation, difference equation
is the most powerful instrument for the treatment of discrete processes.

16.A.2 DEFINITIONS
A difference equation is an equation which expresses a relation between an independent variable and
the successive values of the dependent variable or the successive differences of the dependent variable.
For example, y x +3 + 2 y x + 2 − 3 y x +1 + 5 y x = x2 ...(i)
∆4 y x − 3∆3 y x + 2 ∆2 y x + 5 ∆y x + yx = 3x ...(ii)
are two difference equations.
Since the differences are dsicrete values, eqn. (i) can be written in the following form :
y(x + 3) + 2y(x + 2) – 3y(x + 1) + 5y(x) = x2 ...(iii)
Without loss of generality, the presentation as given in eqn. (iii) will be considered in this chapter.
Order of a Difference Equation :
The difference between the largest and smallest arguments appearing in the difference equation is called
its order.

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e.g. The order of eqn. (i) (or, iii) is (x + 3) – x = 3. Whereas the order of eqn. (ii) can be determined only
after operating the ∆ operators on the functions.
Solution of a Difference Equation :
A solution of a difference equation is a relation between the independent variable and the dependent
variable satisfying the equation.
e.g., The relation y(x) = cax is a solution of the difference equation y(x + 1) – ay(x) = 0, a ≠ 1 where c is
an arbitrary constant.
The solution of a difference equation of order n shall generally contain n arbitrary constants.
A solution involving as many arbitrary constants as is the order of the equation, is called the
general solution.
Any solution obtained from the general solution by assigning particular values to the arbitrary
constants is called a particular solution.
In the above example, y(x) = cax is the general solution and y(x) = 3ax is a particular solution.

16.A.3 FORMATION OF DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS

A difference equation is formed by eliminating the arbitrary constants from a relation giving the order of
the equation is equal to the number of arbitrary constants. The following examples illustrate the formation
of difference equations :
Example 1. Form the difference equation from
y(n) = A.3n + B5n
by eliminating the constants A and B.
We have, y(n) = A.3n + B.5n
y(n + 1) = 3A.3n + 5B.5n
y(n + 2) = 27A.3n + 125B.5n
Eliminating A and B we obtain
y ( n) 1 1
y(n + 1) 3 5 =0
y( n + 2 ) 27 125
⇒ y(n + 2) {5 – 3} – y(n + 1) {125 – 27} + y(n) {375 – 135} = 0
⇒ 2y(n + 2) – 98y(n + 1) + 240y(n) = 0
which is the desired difference equation.
Example 2. Form the difference equation corresponding to the relation.
y = bx2 – ax
We have, y = bx2 – ax ...(i)
∆y = b∆(x2) – a.∆(x) = b . {(x + 1)2 – x2} – a{x + 1 – x}
⇒ ∆y = b(2x – 1) – a ...(ii)
and ∆2y = 2b{(x + 1) – x} = 2b
1
⇒ b = ∆2y ...(iii)
2

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1
From (ii) a = b(2x – 1) – ∆y = . ∆2y . (2x – 1) – ∆y ...(iv)
2
Substituting these values of a and b in (i) we obtain
x2 2 1
y=. ∆ y − . (2x – 1) x∆2y + x∆y
2 2
⇒ (x2 – x)∆2y – 2x∆y + 2y = 0
⇒ (x2 – x) y(x + 2) – 2x2y(x + 1) + (x2 + x + 2) y(x) = 0
which is the desired difference equation.

PROBLEMS
1. Write the difference equations ∆3yk + ∆2yk + ∆yk + yk = 0 in the subscript notation.
2. Find the difference equation for the equations
(i) y = A3x + B(– 2)x (ii) y = A2n + n3n–1 (iii) y = (A + Bn) 3n
1
3. Show that yk = k(k – 1) is a solution of the difference equation yk+1 – yk = k.
2

ANSWERS
1. yk+3 – 2yk+2 + 2yk+1 = 0
2. (i) y(x + 2) – y(x + 1) – 6y(x) = 0 (ii) y(n + 1) – 2y(n) = (n + 3) . 3n–1
(iii) y(n + 2) – 6y(n + 1) – 9y(n) = 0

16.A.4 LINEAR DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS

A difference equation of the form
y(n + r) + k1 y(n + r – 1) + ...... + kr y(n) = g(n) ...(i)
where k1, k2, ......, kr are constants and g(n) is functions of n or constant, is called linear difference
equation with constant coefficients. If g(n) = 0, the equation is said to be homogeneous, otherwise, it is
called non-homogeneous. Clearly equation (i) in homogeneous form can be rewritten as
(Er + k1 Er–1 + ...... + kr) y(n) = 0 ...(ii)
r
where E is the shift operator such that E .y(n) = y(n + r).
If f(E) = (Er + k1 Er–1 + ...... + kr, then f(E) = 0 is called the auxiliary equation and f(E) is called
the characteristic function of (ii).
Here the results are similar to differential equation. However, the following results can easily be
established.
(a) If the auxiliary equation has n distinct roots α1, α2, ......, αr, then the general solution of (ii) is
y(n) = c1 α1n + c2 α2n + ...... + cr . αrn
where c1, c2, ......, cr are arbitrary constants.
(b) If the auxiliary equation has real repeated roots, say α1 repeated p times, α2 repeated q times,
then the general solution of (ii) is
y(n) = (c1 + c2n + ...... + cpnp–1) α1p + (b1 + b2 n + ...... + bq nq–1) α2q .

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(c) If the auxiliary equation has non-repeated complex roots, say two of them be α1 = α + iβ, α2
= α – iβ, then the general solution of (ii) is
y(n) = rn (c1 cos nθ + c2 sin nθ) where r = α 2 + β 2 , θ = tan–1 (β/α) and c1, c2 are arbitrary
constants.
(d) If the auxiliary equation has repeated complex roots, say α + iβ and α – iβ both repeated twice
then the corresponding two terms of the general solution shall be
rn [(c1 + c2n) cos nθ + (c3 + c4n) sin nθ]
Example 1. Solve the difference equation
16y(n + 2) – 8y(n + 1) + y(n) = 0.
The given equation can be written as
(16E2 – 8E + 1) y(n) = 0
The auxiliary equation is 16E2 – 8E + 1 = 0
which has two equal roots 1/4, 1/4.
Thus the general solution is given by
y(n) = (c1 + c2n) (1/4)n, where c1, c2 are arbitrary constants.
Example 2. Solve the difference equation
yn+2 – 4yn+1 + 13yn = 0.
The given equation can be written as
(E2 – 4E + 13)yn = 0
The auxiliary equation is E2 – 4E + 13 = 0
which has complex roots 2 + 3i, 2 – 3i.
Thus the general solution is given by
yn = rn (c1 cos nθ + c2 sin nθ)
where r= 4 + 9 = 13 and θ = tan–1 (3/2).
Example 3. Solve 9y(n + 2) + 9y(n + 1) + 2y(n) = 0 with y(0) = 1 and y(1) = 1.
The given equation can be written as
(9E2 + 9E + 2) y(n) = 0
The auxiliary equation is 9E2 + 9E + 2 = 0
whose roots are – 1/3, – 2/3.
The general solution is
y(n) = c1 (– 1/3)n + c2(– 2/3)n
Now y(0) = 1 gives c1 + c2 = 1
y(1) = 1 gives – c1 – 2c2 = 3
Solving we obtain, c1 = 5 and c2 = – 4.
Hence the particular solution is
F 1I n
F 2I n

H 3K
y(n) = 5 − H 3K
−4 − .

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PROBLEMS
Solve the following difference equations :
1. y(n + 2) + 6y(n + 1) + 25y(n) = 0. 2. yn+2 – 4yn+1 + 4yn = 0 with y0 = 1, y1 = 3.
3. y(n + 4) + yn = 0. 4. y(n + 2) – 2y(n + 1) – 3y(n) = 0.
5. y(n + 4) + 12y(n + 2) – 64y(n) = 0.
6. 9y(n + 2) – 6y(n + 1) + y(n) = 0 with y(0) = 1 and y(1) = 1.
7. yn+3 + 5yn+2 + 8yn+1 + 4yn = 0 with y(0) = 0, y(1) = – 1 and y(2) = 2.
8. yn = yn–1 + yn–2 with y(1) = 0, y(2) = 1 and n > 2.
(Fibonacci difference equation)

ANSWERS
1. y(n) = (5)n (c1 cos nθ + c2 sin nθ) where θ = tan–1 (– 4/3)
2. yn = (n + 2)2n–1
nπ nπ 3nπ 3nπ
3. y(n) = c1 cos + c2 sin + c3 cos + c4 sin .
4 4 4 4

F nπ nπ I
4. y(n) = c1 3n + c2(– 1)n H
5. y(n) = c1 2n + c2(– 2)n + 4n c3 cos
2
+ c4 sin
2 K
6 F 6 1 I
6. y(n) = 3n . (1/3)n 7. y(n) = –
5 H
. ( − 1)n +
5 5 K
− . n (– 2)n

5 − 5 1+ 5 F I n
F
5 + 5 1− 5 I n
8. yn =
10
.
2 GH JK +
10GH 2 JK
16.A.5 NON-HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS
Similar to the method of ordinary differential equations, the general solution of a non-homogeneous
linear difference equation is found by adding a particular solution called ‘Particular Integral’ (P.I.) of the
non-homogeneous equation to the general solution called ‘Complementary Function’ (C.F.) of the
corresponding homogeneous equation. Thus,
general solution = C.F. + P.I.
For causal system, the C.F. is referred as natural response and P.I. as forced response.
Consider equation (i) of the previous section (16.A.4) as
f(E) . y(n) = g(n) ...(i)
where f(E) = Er + k1 Er–1 + ...... + kr
Then the particular integral is given by
1
P.I. = . g( n) ...(ii)
f (E)
It can be evaluated by the method of operators. Various cases are given below :
Case I. When g(n) = an, a is a constant
1 1
P.I. = . an = . a n , provided f(a) ≠ 0
f (E) f ( a)

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If f(a) = 0 then for the equation

1
(a) (E – a) y(n) = an, P.I. = . an = n . an–1
( E − a)
n( n − 1) n − 2
(b) (E – a)2 y(n) = an, P.I. = .a
2!
n( n − 1)(n − 2) n −3
(c) (E – a)3 y(n) = an , P.I. = .a
3!
and so on.
Example 1. Solve (E2 – 5E + 6) y(n) = 4n.
Auxiliary equation, E2 – 5E + 6 = 0
Its roots are 2 and 3.
∴ C.F. = c1 2n + c2 3n
1
P.I. = 2 . 4n (put E = 4)
E − 5E + 6
1 1
= . 4n = . 4n
16 − 20 + 6 2
Hence the general solution is given by
1
y(n) = c1 . 2n + c2 . 3n + . 4n.
2
2
Example 2. Solve (E – 4E + 4) y(n) = 2 . n

Auxiliary equation E2 – 4E + 4 = 0
Its roots are 2 and 2
∴ C.F. = (c1 + c2n) . 2n
1 1
P.I. = 2 . 2n = . 2n (case fails)
E − 4E + 4 ( E − 2) 2
n( n − 1) n −2
= .2 [using (b)]
2!
n( n − 1) n
= .2 .
8
Case II. 1. When g(n) = sin αn
1
. sin αn =
1 LM
e iαn − e −iαn OP
N Q
P.I. = .
f (E) f (E) 2i
1 LM 1 . e iαn
−
1
. e − iαn
OP
=
2i N f ( E) f ( E) Q
1 L 1 OP
2i MN f ( E )
1
n
− . b n where a = eiα and b = e–iα
Q
= .a
f (E)
Now it is similar to case I.

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2. When g(n) = cos αn
1
. cos αn =
1 LM
e iαn + e − iαn OP
N Q
P.I. =
f (E) f (E) 2
1 1LM . e iαn +
1
. e − iαn
OP
N Q
= .
2 f ( E) f ( E)
1 LM 1 . a n
+
1 OP
. b n , as before.
N f ( E) Q
=
2 f (E)
Now it is similar to case I.
Example 3. Solve 2y(n + 2) + 3y(n + 1) + y(n) = cos 2n.
The given equation can be written as
(2E2 + 3E + 1) y(n) = cos 2n
∴ Auxiliary Equation is 2E2 + 3E + 1 = 0
whose roots are – 1 and – 1/2
∴ C.F. = c1 (– 1)n + c2 (– 1/2)n

1 1 FG
ei 2 n + e − i 2 n IJ
P.I. =
2 E 2 + 3E + 1
. cos 2n =
2 E 2 + 3E + 1
.
2 H K
LM
1 1
. e i2n +
1
. e − i2n
OP
N Q
= .
2 2 E + 3E + 1
2
2 E + 3E + 1
2

1 L OP
= .M
1 1
. ei2 n + −i4 . e −i2n
2 N 2e i4
+ 3e i 2 + 1 2 e + 3e − i 2 + 1 Q
1 (2e −i 4 + 3e − i 2 + 1) e i 2 n + ( 2e i 4 + 3e i 2 + 1) . e − i 2 n
= .
2 (2e i 4 + 3e i 2 + 1)(2e −i 4 + 3e − i 2 + 1)

=
1 2e
.
d
− ( 4 − 2 n )i
i d i d
+ e ( 4 − 2 n )i + 3 e − ( 2 − 2 n )i + e ( 2 − 2 n ) i + e 2 ni + e −2 ni i
2 2(e i 4 + e – i 4 ) + 9(e i 2 + e −i 2 ) + 12
1 2 cos ( 4 − 2 n) + 3 cos ( 2 − 2n) + cos 2n
= .
2 2 cos 4 + 9 cos 2 + 12
Case III. When g(n) = np
1 1
P.I. = . np = . np
f (E) f (1 + ∆ )
The above P.I. is evaluated in two steps.
1. Using Binomial theorem, expand [f(1 + ∆)]–1 upto the term ∆p,
2. Express np in the factorial form and operate the expansion terms on it.
Example 4. Solve y(n + 2) – y(n + 1) – 2y(n) = n2
The given equation can be written as
(E2 – E – 2) y(n) = n2.

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Auxiliary equation, E2 – E – 2 = 0
whose roots are – 1 and 2
∴ C.F. = c1 (– 1)n + c2.2n
1 1
∴ P.I. = 2 . n2 = . n2
E −E−2 (1 + ∆ ) 2 − (1 + ∆ ) − 2
LM F IJ OP −1

MN GH
1 1 ∆2 + ∆
=
∆ +∆−2
2
. n2 = –
2
1−
2 K PQ . n2

LM F IJ FG IJ + ......OP . n 2

=–
1
2
G
MN H
1+
∆2 + ∆
2 K H
+
∆2 + ∆
2 K PQ
2

1L O 1L ∆ 3 OP
= – M1 + + ......P n = – M1 + + ∆
∆ ∆ ∆ 2 2

2N Q
+ + 2 2
+ ...... n 2
2N 2 2 4 Q 2 4

= – L1 + + ∆ + ......O d n + n i
∆ 3
M PQ
1
2N
2 (2 ) (1)
2 4

= – LMnn + n s + n2n + 1s + n2.1. n sOP

1 1 3
2N Q
(2 ) (1) (1) ( 0)
2 4
1 2
=– (n + n + 2)
2
Hence the general solution is given by
1 2
y(n) = c1(– 1)n + c2 2n –
(n + n + 2)
2
Case IV. When g(n) = an . G(n), G(n) being a polynomial of degree n and a is a constant.
1 1
P.I. = . a n G( n) = a n . . G( n )
f (E) f ( aE)
which is evaluated using case III.
Example 5. Solve y(n + 2) + y(n + 1) + y(n) = n . 2n.
The given equation can be written as
(E2 + E + 1) y(n) = n . 2n.
Auxiliary equation is E2 + E + 1 = 0
− 1 ± 3i
whose roots are .
2
∴ C.F. = c1 cos nθ + c2 sin nθ where θ = tan–1 − 3 d i
1 1
P.I. = . n2 n = 2n . .n
E + E +1
2
(2 E ) + 2 E + 1
2

1 1
= 2n . . n = 2n . .n
4E + 2 E + 1
2
4(1 + ∆ ) + 2(1 + ∆ ) + 1
2

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2n
1 LM 2n
+
10 ∆ + 4∆2 OP −1

N Q
= . . n = 1 .n
7 + 10 ∆ + 4 ∆2 7 7
2 L 10 ∆ + 4 ∆ O 2 L 10 O
M P
n

M n− P
n 2

Q 7 N 7Q
1−
7 N
= n=
7
Hence the general solution is given by
2n F10 I
y(n) = (5/2)n/2 (c1 cos nθ + c2 sin nθ) +
7
n−
H 7 K
where θ = tan–1 (– 3).

PROBLEMS
Solve the following difference equations :
1. (E2 – 5E + 6) y(n) = n + 2n 2. y(n + 2) – 4y(n + 1) + 3y(n) = 5n
3. yn+2 – 5yn+1 + 6yn = 36 4. yn+1 – 2yn = n + 1
5. y(n + 2) + 4y(n + 1) + 4 = n 6. (E2 – 2E + 5) y(n) = 3.2n – 5.6n
7. y(n + 3) + y(n + 2) – 8y(n + 1) – 12y(n) = 2n2 + 5
8. y(n + 2) – y(n + 1) – 2y(n) = n2 9. y(n + 2) – 4y(n + 1) + 4y(n) = 3n + 2n
10. yn+2 – 2 cos a.yn+1 + yn = cos an, a is a constant
11. y(n + 2) – 7y(n + 1) + 12y(n) = cos n 12. y(n + 2) – 6y(n + 1) + 8y(n) = 3n2 + 2
13. yn+2 – 6yn+1 + 8yn = 3n2 + 2 – 5.3n 14. yn+3 – 5yn+2 + 8yn+1 – 4yn = n.2n
15. (E2 – 5E + 6) y(n) = 4n(n2 – n + 5) 16. y(n + 2) – 4y(n + 1) + 4y(n) = n2 . 2n

ANSWERS
1
1. y(n) = c1 2n + c2 3n + (2n + 2) – n2n–1 2. y(n) = c1 + c2.3n + 5n/8
4
3. yn = c1 . 2n + c2 .3n + 18 4. y(n) = c1.2n – (n + 2)
5n − 6
5. y(n) = c1 (– 4)n +
25
3 n 5
6. y(n) = 5n/2 . (c1 cos nθ + c2 sin nθ) + .2 − . 6n , where θ = tan–1 (2)
5 29
n2 n 17
7. y(n) = c1.3n + (c2 + c3 n) (– 2)n – + −
9 27 54
1 2 1 2
8. y(n) = c1 (– 1)n + c2(2)n – (n + n + 2) 9. y(n) = (c1 + c2 n)2n + 6 + 3n + n . 2n
2 8
n sin (n − 1) a 1
10. y(n) = c1 cos an + c2 sin an + 11. y(n) = [18 cos n – 7 sin n]
2 sin a 170
8 44 8 44
12. y(n) = c1.2n + c24n + n2 + n+ 13. yn = c1 2n + c2 4n + n2 + n + + 5.3n
3 9 3 9
n
14. yn = c1 + (c2 + c3n).2n + (n – 1) (n – 2) . 2n 15. y(n) = c1.2n + c2.3n + 4n (n2 – 13n + 61)/2
24
2n 4
16. y(n) = (c1 + c2n)2n + (n – 4n3 + 5n2 – 2)
48

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16.A.6 SIMULTANEOUS DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS WITH CONSTANT

COEFFICIENTS
Analogue to the method for solving simultaneous ordinary differential equations with constant coefficients
the simultaneous difference equations with constant coefficients are solved. The method is illustrated
with the following example :
Example. Solve y(n + 1) – y(n) + 2x(n + 1) = 0 and
x(n + 1) – x(n) – 2y(n) = 2n.
Given equations in symbolic form are
(E – 1) y(n) + 2E x(n) = 0 ...(i)
– 2y(n) + (E – 1) x(n) = 2 n ...(ii)
Multiply (i) by (E – 1), (ii) by 2E and subtracting we obtain
⇒ (E + 1)2 y(n) = 2E(2n) = – 2n+2 ...(iii)
2
Auxiliary equation is (E + 1) = 0. Its roots are – 1, – 1
∴ C.F. = (c1 + c2n) (– 1)n.
−1 − 1 n+2
P.I. = . 2 n+ 2 = .2
( E + 1) 2
9
1
Therefore y(n) = (c1 + c2n) (– 1)n – . 2 n+ 2 ...(iv)
9
2 n+3
From (ii), – 2(c1 + c2 n) (– 1)n + + (E – 1) x (n) = 2n
9
2 n+ 3
⇒ (E – 1) x(n) = 2n + 2(c1 + c2 n) (– 1)n – .
9
LM 1F I OP 2n
⇒ x(n) = c1 + c2 n −
N 2H KQ
( − 1) n +
q
...(v)

∴ Eqn. (iv) and (v) give the general solution.

PROBLEMS
Solve :
1. y(n + 1) + x(n) – 3y(n) = n,
3y(n) + x(n + 1) – 5x(n) = 4n. with y(1) = 2 and x(1) = 0.
2. y(n + 1) – 3y(n) – 2x(n) + n = 0
x(n + 1) – 2x(n) – y(n) – n = 0, with y(0) = 0, x(0) = 3.

ANSWERS
133 n 1 n 4 19
1. y(n) = .2 − . 6 + 4n −1 − n −
100 61 5 25
133 n 1 n 3 35
x(n) = .2 + . 6 − 4n−1 − n −
100 20 5 25

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1
2. y(n) = 2 . 4n – 2 – n(n – 1),
2
1
x(n) = 4n + 2 + n . (n + 1)
2

PART B : Z-TRANSFORMS

16.B.1 Introduction, 16.B.2 Some Standard z-Transforms, 16.B.3 Properties of z-Transforms, 16.B.4 Initial
Value and Final Value Theorems, 16.B.5 Inverse z-Transforms, 16.B.6 Inverse z-Transforms by Power
Series Method, 16.B.7 Inverse z-Transform by Partial Fractions Method, 16.B.8 Inverse z-Transform by
Integral Method, 16.B.9 Application to Difference Equations.

16.B.1 INTRODUCTION
The z-transform is named as a letter of the alphabet rather than a famous mathematician. A method for
solving linear constant coefficient difference equations by Laplace transforms was introduced to graduate
engineering students by Gardner and Barnes in the early 1940s. They applied their procedure which was
based on jump functions to transmission lines, and applications involving Bessel functions. This approach
is quite complicated and in a separate attempt to simplify matters, a transform of a sampled signal or
sequence was defined in 1947 by W. Hurewicz as which was later denoted in 1952 as a ‘‘Z-transform’’
by a sampled-data control group at Colombia University.
In any case, it is presumably not an accident that the z-transform was invented at about the same
time as digital computers. However z-transform can be viewed as a mathematical operation that takes a
set of points (which represents time sequence in discrete-time systems) and transforms them into a set of
complex numbers.
Definitions : Given the sequence x(n), the z-transform is defined as
∞
Z{x(n)} = X(z) = ∑ x (n ) . z − n ...(i)
n =− ∞

where z is taken to be a complex variable.

This expression is sometimes referred to as the two-sided z-transform since the summation is over
all the integers.
If x(n) = 0 for n < 0, then the z-transform is
∞
Z{x(n)} = X(z) = ∑ x (n ) z − n ...(ii)
n=0

This expression is sometimes referred to as the one-sided z-transform. In this text the discussions
will be confined to one-sided z-transform, so we call it simply as z-transform.
Clearly z-transform exists only for the values of z for which the series of eqn. (i) or (ii) converges.
The series of Eqn. (ii) is said to converge absolutely when the series of real numbers
∞

∑ | x (n ) z −n
| ...(iii)
n=0

converges. It is also well known that a series converges absolutely also converges.

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Let us apply ratio test to Eqn. (ii)

x n+1 x ( n + 1) z − n −1 x( n + 1)
Lt = Lt −n
= Lt . | z| −1
n →∞ xn n →∞ x ( n) z n → ∞ x ( n )
The convergence criterion requires that
x ( n + 1)
| z |−1 Lt <1
n→ ∞ x ( n)
and so we obtain the region of convergence as
x (n + 1)
| z | > Lt = R.(say)
n→ ∞ x ( n)
Thus the series in Eqn. (ii) converges out side the circle with centre at origin and radius R.

16.B.2 SOME STANDARD Z-TRANSFORMS

(a) Discrete Unit impulse defined as
δ(n) = x(n) = 1 , n = 0
= 0 , otherwise
Here X(z) = 1 since only the first term exists in Eqn. (ii)
(b) Discrete Unit step defined as
u(n) = x(n) = 1 , n ≥ 0
=0 , otherwise
∞

∑ .z −n 1 z
Here X(z) = = =
n=0
1 − z −1 z − 1
(c) If x(n) = an then
∞ ∞

∑ ∑
1 z
X(z) = a n . z −n = (a / z )n = = , | a/z | < 1
n=0 n=0
1− a / z z − a
(d) If x(n) = np (n ≥ 0 and p > 0) then
∞ ∞
X(z) = ∑ n p . z −n = z ∑n p −1
(nz − n −1 )
n=0 n=0

F n
∞ I = – z . d {Z(n
=–z.
d
dz
GH ∑
n=0
p −1
z −n JK dz
p–1)}

z
If p = 1, then Z(n) = (x(n) = n is called discrete unit ramp)
( z − 1) 2
z2 + z
If p = 2, Z(n2) =
( z − 1) 3
z 3 + 4z 2 + z
If p = 3, Z(n3) =
( z − 1) 4

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 Difference Equation and z-Transforms 875

16.B.3 PROPERTIES OF Z-TRANSFORMS

(a) Linearity Property :
If x1(n) and x2(n) be two discrete functions then
Z{α x1(n) + β x2(n)} = α Z{x1(n)} + β Z{x2(n)}
where α and β are scalars.
(b) Shift Property :
1. If Z{x(n)} = X(z) and m is a positive integer then
Z{x(n – m)} = z–m . X(z)
Here the discrete function x(n) is shifted to the right. This property is useful to solve difference
equations.
Proof. By definition
∞
Z{x(n – m)} = ∑ x(n – m) . z–n
n=0

= x(0) z–m + x(1) z − ( m +1) + ...... ∞

(Since x(n – m) = 0 for n = 0, 1, ...... (m – 1)).
∞
= z–m ∑ x (n) z − n = z–m . X(z)
n=0

2. If Z{x(n)} = X(z) and m is a positive integer then

Z{x(n + m)} = zm[Z {x(n)} – x(0) – x(1) z–1 ...... – x(m – 1) z −( m –1) ]
Here the discrete function x(n) is shifted to the left.
Proof. By definition
∞ ∞
z{x(n + m)} = ∑ x(n + m) z–n = zm . ∑ x(n + m) z − ( n + m )
n=0 n=0

LM ( ) .
∞ m −1 OP
MN∑ x n z ∑
−m
− x (n ) . z − n
= zm .
n=0 n=0 PQ
= zm [Z {x(n)} – x(0) – x(1) z–1 ...... – x(m – 1) z–(m–1)]
(c) Damping Rule :
If Z {x(n)} = X(z) then Z{a–n . x(n)} = X(az)
Proof. By definition
∞ ∞
Z {a–n x(n)} = ∑a −n
x ( n) . z − n = ∑ x ( n) . ( az ) − n
n=0 n =0
= X(az)
Similarly, Z{an x(n)} = X(z/a)
(d) Convolution :
If Z{x(n)} = X(z) and Z{y(n)} = Y(z) then
Z{x(n) ∗ y(n)} = X(z) . Y(z)

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Proof. By definition
LM ( − ) ( )OP
∞ n
Z{x(n) ∗ y(n)} = ∑ M∑ x n m y m P z –n

n=0N m=0 Q
L OL OP
= M∑ x (n ) z P . M∑ y( n ) z
∞ ∞
−n −n

MN n=0 PQ MN n=0 PQ = X(z) . Y(z)

(Using Cauchy product from Calculus)
We see that the z-transform of the convolution of two discrete functions is the product of the z-
transforms of the discrete functions.
(e) Differentiation
It is known that a convergent power series can be differentiated termwise within its region of
convergence. Since X(z) is a function of z–1, it is generally easier to differentiate with respect to z–1.
∞
Since X(z) = ∑ x ( n) . z − n
n=0
∞

∑
dX( z )
∴ = x ( n ) . n . ( z −1 ) n −1
dz −1 n = 0
∞

∑
dX ( z ) dX ( z)
⇒ z–1 . = nx( n) . z − n ⇒ Z {n x(n)} = z–1 .
dz −1 n = 0 dz −1

d 2 X(z)
Similarly, Z{n(n – 1)x (n)} = z2 .
d ( z −1 ) 2

16.B.4 INITIAL VALUE AND FINAL VALUE THEOREMS

1. Initial Value Theorem :
If Z{x(n)} = X(z), then x(0) = Lt X ( z ) ,
z→∞

x(1) = Lt {z [X(z) – x(0)]},

z→∞

x(2) = Lt [z2 [X(z) – x(0) – x(1) z–1]}

z→∞

and so on.
Proof is obvious.
2. Final Value Theorem :
If Z{x(n)} = X(z), then
Lt x (n ) = Lt ( z − 1) . X ( z )
n→ ∞ z →1
∞
Proof. Here Z{x(n + 1) – x(n)} = ∑ {x(n + 1) – x(n)} z–n
n=0
∞
⇒ Z{x(n + 1)} – Z{x(n)} = ∑ {x(n + 1) – x(n)} z–n
n=0

VED
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