Animal Science

Animal Science
Contributors:
Prof. Oliver D. Abanto
Dr. Elpidio M. Agbisit
Prof. Veneranda P. Anila
Dr. Cecilio R. Arboleda
Dr. Sonia P. Acda
Prof. Cristy M. Bueno
Dr. Severino S. Capitan
Prof. Jay Ronel Conejos
Dr. Clarita T. Dagaas
Dr. Arnel N. del Barrio
Dr. Angel L. Lambio
Dr. Carmencita D. Mateo
Dr. Cynthia Oliveros
Dr. Ninfa P. Roxas
Dr. Percival P. Sangel
Dr. Renato SA. Vega
ANIMAL SCIENCE page1
ANIMAL SCIENCE
I.Introduction
1. Animals in the ecological system
2. Animals and their economic utility
3. Animals agriculture and population problem
4. Animal industry
II.Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals

1. Introduction
2. External anatomy of farm animals
3. Internal anatomy of farm animals
3.1 The skeletal system
3.1.1 Classification
3.1.2 Functions of bones
3.2 The muscular system
3.2.1 Kinds of muscle tissues
3.2.2 Functions of muscles
3.3 The nervous system
3.3.1 Importance
3.3.2 Divisions of the nervous system
3.4 The endocrine system
3.4.1 The pituitary gland
3.4.2 The adrenals
3.4.3 The thyroid
3.4.4 The parathyroid
3.4.5 The pancreas
3.4.6 The gonads
3.5 The cardiovascular system
3.5.1 The organs comprising the system
3.5.2 The blood
3.5.3 The pulse
3.5.4 The lymphatic system
3.6 The respiratory system
3.6.1 Importance
3.6.2 The respiratory apparatus
3.6.3 Regulation of respiration
3.6.4 Forms of respiration
3.7 The urinary system
3.7.1 Importance
3.7.2 The organs of urination
3.7.3 Urine formation
3.8 The reproductive system
3.8.1 Importance
3.8.2 The female reproductive system
3.8.3 The male reproductive system
3.8.4 Puberty and estrous cycle
3.8.5 Pregnancy and parturition
3.8.6 Lactation
3.9 The digestive system
3.9.1 The digestive system of mono-gastric animals
3.9.2 The digestive system of ruminant animals
3.10 The integumentary system
3.10.1 The skin and its functions
3.11 The receptive system
3.11.1 The general senses
3.11.2 The special senses
3.12 Body temperature regulation
3.12.1 Homeotherms vs. poikilotherms
3.12.2 Process of heat dispersion
3.12.3 Physiological responses to heat and cold
III.Genetics and Animal Breeding
1. Genetics
1.1 Genes and their role in animal productivity
1.1.1 Genes and functions
1.1.2 The role of genotype and environment on the phenotypic expression
1.1.3 Gene action
1.2 The mechanics of inheritance
1.2.1 Gametogenesis and fertilization
1.2.2 The Mendelian inheritance
1.2.3 The non-Mendelian inheritance
1.3 Genes in population
1.3.1 Genetic compositions of animal population
1.3.2 Factors affecting change in the genetic composition of populations
2. Animal breeding
2.1 The objectives of animal breeding
2.2 Selection
2.2.1 Methods of selection
2.3 Systems of breeding
2.3.1 Inbreeding
2.3.1.1. Types of breeding
2.3.1.2. Effects of breeding
2.3.2 Outbreeding
2.3.2.1. Types of outbreeding
2.3.2.2. Advantages of outbreeding

3. Reproduction
3.1 Reproductive cycle and rate of genetic improvement
3.2 Artificial Insemination
3.2 Embryo transfer
3.3 Cloning
IV.Animal Nutrition
1. Definition of terms
1.1 Nutrition
1.2 Food
1.3 Nutrients
1.4 Digestion
1.5 Absorption
1.6 Metabolism
2. Gross chemical composition of plant and animal tissues
2.1 Elemental composition
2.2 Proximate composition
3. The Nutrients
3.1 Classes of Nutrients
3.1.1 Water
3.1.2 Carbohydrates
3.1.3 Fats
3.1.4 Proteins
3.1.5 Vitamins
3.1.6 Minerals
3.2 Utilization of Nutrients
4. Different classifications of feedstuffs
5. Ration formulation
5.1 Pointers in feed formulation
5.2 Methods of compounding ration
5.2.1 Pearson square method
5.2.2 Trial and error method
V.Slaughtering, Processing and Marketing of Farm Products

1. Slaughtering and Fabrication
1.1 Basic Principles of selecting animals for slaughter
1.2 Handling prior to slaughter
1.3 Basic requirements in slaughtering
1.4 Meat fabrication
2. Composition of Meat, Milk and Eggs
2.1 General Characteristics
2.2 Composition - Common test
2.3 Constituents - Separation of Constituents
2.4 Value of foods

3. Basic Principles of Proper Handling and Processing of Meat and Milk
3.1 Causes for deterioration
3.2 Processing of milk
3.3 Processing of meat
4. Marketing of Livestock and Livestock Products
4.1 Marketing live animals
4.2 Marketing livestock products
V. Animal Production and Management

1. Poultry Production (Chicken, Ducks, and other minor poultry specimens)
1.1 Breeds and breeding
1.2 Feeds and feeding
1.3 Health management
1.4 Housing
1.5 Broiler production
1.6 Layer production
2. Swine Production
2.4 Housing
3. Ruminant Production
3.4 Housing
3.5 Beef production
3.6 Dairy production

INTRODUCTION
ANIMAL SCIENCE AND THE ANIMAL INDUSTRY
 Like all other productive sectors of the economy, the continued viability and
progress of the animal industry depends on how it Is able to respond successfully
well to the changing conditions of the biological, physical and socio-economic and
political environments
 The development of:
o More efficient and productive breeds and varieties of animals through breeding
o Cheaper and more nutritious feed materials for animal feed
o New drugs and feed additives
o New systems of housing and management that more economically improve the
health and performance of animals, and
o Cheaper and more economical processing of animal products
enable the different segments of the industry to fully and economically utilize
whatever resources are available.
 Livestock industry at present principally produces carabao, cattle, hogs, and

chicken
 The other livestock species such as goats, and ducks are also raised in practically
all parts of the Philippines but do not contribute significantly to the protein supply
of the country.
 The country is relatively self-sufficient in chicken, eggs, and pork but imports beef
at an average of 4,500 tons annually
 Hog and chicken production systems which depend heavily on commercially-
mixed feeds are more intensive and commercially-oriented. They are mostly
located close to urban centers.
 Cattle, carabaos and goats subsist mainly on grasses and roughages and are raised
mainly by smallholder farmers in the rural areas.
 In animal science, the challenge to all of us is to be able to meet our need for food
and other essential products from animals in a most economical and efficient
system of production without endangering our environment.
UTILITY VALUE OF ANIMALS

Horse (Equus caballos)
o Traction, support and amusement
Ass (Equus asinus)
o Traction and transport
Mule (hybrid of male ass and mare)
o Transport and support
Camel (Camelus dromedarius)
o Transport
Cattle (Bos indicus)
o Meat, milk, hide, traction and transport

Carabao (Bubalus carabinensis)
o Meat, milk, traction and transport
Sheep (Ovis aries)
o Meat, milk, and hair (wool)
Goat (Capra hircus)
o Meat and milk
Pig (Sus scrofa)
o Meat
Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)
o Meat and skin
Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus)
o Meat and eggs
Quail (Coturnix coturnix)
o Eggs
Ostrich (Struthio camelus)
o Leather
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF FARM ANIMALS
ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY
 Study of function of the parts or organ systems of the body
 A study of function of living matter
 Explains the physical and chemical factors that are responsible for the origin,
development and progression of life
 It provides knowledge on the structure and function of the body and constantly, the
care of the body.
Homoestasis
 A key word in the study of modern physiology
 Maintenance of static or constant conditions in the environment.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
BONES
• A highly specialized supportive tissue which is characterized by its rigidity and
hardness
• Four main functions are to provide mechanical support (e.g. ribs) to permit
locomotion (e.g. long bones) to provide protection (e.g. skull) to act as metabolic
reservoir of minerals
Composition:
1. Cells: the bone is composed of four cell types
a. Osteogenic Cells
 Mesenchymal cells

 Located in the inner layer of the periosteum (fibrous membrane that covers
the surface of the bone) and by differentiation, they give rise to osteoblats.
b. Osteoblasts
 These are bone secreting cells
 During bone formation, they first secrete the amorphous and fibrous
(collagen) components of unmineralized bone, and later they deposit their
stored calcium to mineralize or harden the bone
 They line the trabecular (bone material) surfaces of the bone
c. Osteocytes
 Mature bone cells that stop secreting the bone substance
 They are actually osteoblasts which have been trapped in spaces called
lacunae in the bone substance during mineralization
 Their main function is to maintain the integrity of the bone by supplying
nutrient derived from the blood vessels in the canaliculi
d. Osteoclasts
 Believed to rise from the fusing of osteocytes
 Remodeling cells which are multinucleated in the structure and located in a
concavity called the Howship's lacuna at the bone surface
2. Osteoid: a non-mineral matrix of collagen and glycosaminoglycan

3. Inorganic mineral salts deposited within the matrix
Types of Bones
 Bone is classified into two types based on the frequency of appearance of
interosseous spaces
o Interosseous space - is the space between adjacent trabeculae
o Trabeculae - a portion of the bone substance which is also called the bone
spicule
1. Cancellous Bone (Spongy Bone) - consisting of few trabeculae and many of
the interosseous spaces
2. Compact Bone (Lamellar Bone) - consists of extensive lamellae and fewer
interosseous spaces. This bone develops into existing trabeculae to form
layers called lamellae
Osteon or Haversian System

• Basic unit structure of a compact bone
• Circular structure composed of a central canal called the Haversian canal
surrounded by concentric layers (lamellae) of bone substance
• Embedded in the lamellae are the bone caniculi containing the cytoplasmic process
of the osteocytes
• The Haversian canal connects a transversely positioned Volkmann's canal
Osteogenesis
• The process by which bone is formed through the secretory activity of the
osteoblasts

• In embryo, it occurs in two ways:
1. Intramembranous Ossification: bone develops in pre-existing mesenchymal
connective tissue (bones of this type are called membrane bones)
2. Endochondral Ossification: bones that developed from pre-existing cartilage (e.g.
long bones like femur and humerus). This type of bone growth is responsible for
the longitudinal growth of bones
Epiphyseal Plate (Epiphyseal Line)

• Site of bone growth as seen in long bones
• Composed of different zones
a. zone of growth
b. zone of cartilage transformation
c. zone of ossification
CLASSIFICATION OF BONE BASED ON GROSS APPEARANCE

1. Long bones - great dimension
- e.g., Forelimb=humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpals, phalanges
Hind limb=femur, tibia, fibula, metatarsals, phalanges
Functions: a. act as levers
b. for support, locomotion
2. Short Bones - cuboids or equal shape

- e.g. carpals, tarsals
Function: absorbs concussion
3. Flat bones - thin and expanded

- e.g. skull, ribs, scapula, pelvic bones
Functions: a. protect vital organs e.g. brain, lungs
b. provide areas for muscle attachment
4. Sesamoid Bones - sesame-seed shape develops along the course of tendons; e.g.
patella
Functions: a. reduce friction
b. change the course of tendons
5. Irregular Bones - unpaired bones in median plane; e.g. vertebral column, some
bones of the skull
Functions: a. for protection and support
b. for muscle attachment
6. Pneumatic Bones - presence of air spaces or sinuses that communicate with the
exterior
- e.g. flying birds, maxillary and frontal bones

Axial Skeleton - includes all bones except those of the limbs or appendages composed of
the skull, vertebrae and ribs
Appendicular Skeleton - made up of bones of the limbs bones of the front (pectoral)
limbs and bones of the hind (pelvic) limbs
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Network of specialized cell that communicate information about animals’
surroundings and itself
Composed of neurons and other specialized cells called glia, that aid in the function of t
the neurons.
Controls the rapid activities of the body such as muscular contraction, secretions of
some endocrine glands, heart rate, respiration rate, gastrointestinal motility and
rapid reflex actions.
o Composed of the: Brain, Spinal cord and Nerves
o Nerve Cells or Neurons- specialize in impulse conduction or the relay
messages from effector organs to the nervous system and vice versa.
o Neurons may be classified according to the direction of impulse conduction
as follows:
 Afferent (sensory) neuron- transmits nerve impulses from effector organs
to the spinal cord or brain.
 Efferent (motor) neuron- transmits nerve impulses from the spinal cord
or brain to the effector organs
 Interneuron- conducts impulses from an afferent neuron within the
Central Nervous System (CNS).
Nervous system id divided broadly into two categories:

I. Central Nervous System (CNS) - contains the majority of the nervous system and
consists of the brain and the spinal cord.
II. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – resides or extends outside the limbs and
organs. It is not protected by bone, leaving it exposed to toxins and mechanical
injuries. Divide into:
 Somatic nervous system- innervates striated or skeletal muscles, brings
about quick adjustments to changes in environment.
 Autonomic- innervates glands and visceral musculature.
Two major division of Autonomic

o Sympathetic nervous system- aids in the control of most of the body’s
internal organs, works to mobilize the body’s resources for action under
stress.
o Parasympathetic- works to promote maintenance of the body at rest.
Important Central Regulation (Brain)

 Feed Intake regulation

o Ventromedial = satiety center (voracious eating)
o Lateral = feeding center (loss of appetite)
o Preoptic Area = Thermoregulatory Center
o Suprachiasmic Nuclei = Center for sleep and wakefulness
Neuroendocrine – involvement of nerve cells that releases of chemical messenger,

especially neurohormone, directly into the bloodstream
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
 Group of specialized organs and body tissues that produce, store, and secrete
chemical substances known as hormone
o Functions:
 Regulating the body’s growth and development
 Controlling the function of various tissues
 Supporting pregnancy and other reproductive functions
 Metabolism (catabolism and anabolism)
 Endocrine glands are sometimes called ductless glands because they have no ducts
connecting them to specific body parts.
 Enable the animal to adjust to changes in its environment and endocrinology deals
largely with this phase of environmental adjustments.
o Endocrinology- branch of physiology which deals with the coordination of
various body tissues by chemical mediators (hormones) produced by restricted
area of the body (endocrine gland) and transported through circulatory system to
the target organ or tissue.
o Hormone- a substance or chemical mediator produced by the endocrine gland
and carried by the blood to some distant part of the body where it exerts its
effects. It does not initiate reaction in a cell but only excite or inhibit the ongoing
cell reaction.
Some hormones exert their effect by participating in, or affecting enzymatically

controlled reaction in the animal. Some facilitate the passage of important metabolites
across cell membranes. Hormones are not secreted in regular amounts; the amount of
secretion depends on the need of the animal.
Hormones may be classified as simple protein, glycoprotein and steroids but they
all have common characteristics and functions:
(1) Hormones appear to regulate rather than initiate reactions;

(2) Hormones are effective in biocatalytic amounts;
(3) Hormones are not secreted in uniform rates;
(4) Hormones are inactivated rapidly either at the site where it exerts its effect
or at some other glands or organs; and
(5) Hormones are transported through the circulatory system or blood stream.
Not all hormones have specific target organs, like growth hormone or
somatotropin (STH); but for those with specific target organs, the cells in the target

organ contain receptors that specifically recognize the hormone. Hormone receptors
bind specific hormone and directly or indirectly trigger a metabolic effect.
A. Pituitary gland or Hypophysis- located at the base of the brain in a concavity of the
sphenoid bone called Sellaturcica which protect it from outside pressure. It has
three lobes:
o Anterior Pituitary Lobe or Adenohypophysis;
o Intermediate Lobe or Pars Intermedia; and
o Posterior Pituitary Lobe or Neurohypophysis.
The Adenohypophysis secretes the following hormones:
(1) Growth hormone or Somatotropic hormone (STH) - promotes growth of the

long bones before the epiphyseal – diaphyseal plate is fused together in
adulthood. Over secretion of STH results in Gigantism when this happens
before adulthood and Acromegaly when this happens after adulthood in
human. Dwafism occurs when there is a deficiency of STH during growth
development.
(2) Adrenocorticotropic Hormone or ACTH – stimulates the adrenal cortex to
produce glucocorticoids such as cortisol, cortisone and corticosterone.
(3) Thyroid Stimulating Hormone or TSH – stimulates the thyroid gland to produce
thyroid hormones (T4 and T3).
(4) Prolactin or Luteotropic Hormone (LTH) – stimulates milk secretion in
lactating mammary gland.
(5) Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) – stimulates the ovary to produce grafian
follicle; in the male, it maintains the integrity of the seminiferous tubules of the
testis.
(6) Luteinizing Hormone (LH) – stimulates ovulation in maturing follicle and the
formation of corpus luteum in ovulated follicle as well as the production of
progesterone by the corpus luteum. Also called Interstitial Cell Stimulating
Hormone (ICSH) in males, it stimulates the cells of Leydig or insterstitial cells
to produce testosterone, a male sex hormone.
The neurohypophysis secretes two hormones:
(1) Oxytocin – stimulates milk-ejection in lactating females; and

(2) Vasopressin or Antidiuritic Hormone (ADH), which is important in conserving
body water by reducing urine formation. It promotes water reabsorption in the
kidney tubules.
B. Thyroid gland
a. It is not essential to life but in its absence, there is poor resistance to cold,
mental and physical slowing and in children, mental retardation and dwarfism.
b. Maintains the level of metabolism in the tissues that is optimal for their normal
function. It secretes the hormone:
 Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3) which increase the metabolic rate
of the cells of the body.
 Functions:
Stimulates O2 consumption of most of the cells
Helps regulate lipid and carbohydrate metabolism
Necessary for normal growth and maturation
Increase the basal metabolic rate of an individual
 Disorders:
Thyrotoxicosis – over activity of the gland (high T4 secretion)
Hypothyroidism – lack of the T4 Secretion, due to lack of iodine (TSH
is stimulated resulting to enlargement of the gland)
C. Pancreas
a. Both an exocrine and endocrine gland. Located at the duodenal loop. It functions
as exocrine gland when its acinar cells secrete pancreatic juice containing
digestive enzymes. The endocrine function is limited to the cells of the islets of
langerhans which are found throughout the pancreas. The alpha cells of the
islets of langerhans secrete glucagon which is responsible for increasing blood
sugar level; and the beta cells secrete insulin which is responsible for lowering
blood glucose level by facilitating entry into target cells, thereby increasing its
utilization and to the adipose cells (stored fats).
Types of diabetes
oType I – insufficient insulin secretion
oType II – tissues resistance to insulin action
D. Adrenal gland
a. Secretes steroid hormone such as:
i.Adrenal Cortex
 Aldosterone- reabsorbs sodium in the kidney tubules; secretion is
stimulated by extra cellular fluid volume (ECF)
 Glucocorticoids- important for carbohydrate metabolism, mobilizes
glucose (glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis).
ii.Adrenal Medulla
 Epinephrine = Adrenalin
 Norepinephrine = Noradrenalin
E.Parathyroid gland
a. Secretes hormone:
 Parathyroid hormone or PTH (chief cells)- increases blood calcium by
mobilizing it from the reserves.
 Oxyphil cells – less abundant cells with large amount of mitochondria
 Calcitonin or Thyrocalcitonin = the hormone that lowers calcium level in the
blood

Disorders:
oRickets (in adult)/Osteomalacia (in young) = characterized by a failure of
normal mineralization of bone in young or adults; under-mineralization
of cartilage and bone results in retardation of growth and development
of skeletal deformities.
oHyperparathyroidism = hypersecretion of PTH, resulting to hypercalcemia,
hypophosphatemia, hypercalciura, and hyperphosphaturia
F. Gonads
(Ovary)
a. Estrogen- the female sex hormone, responsible for manifestation of secondary sex
characters in females.
b. Progesterone- maintains pregnancy
c. Relaxin- relaxes the pubic ligaments, soften and enlarge the opening to the cervix
during parturition.
(Testis)
a. Testosterone or Androgen- the male sex hormone, responsible for manifestation
of secondary sex characters in males.
 Melanocyte-stimulating hormone or MSH- stimulates the dermal

chromatophores of poikilothermic vertebrates to aggregate or disperse their
pigments, in effect producing color change.
 Oxytocin- stimulates milk ejection, stimulates contraction of the uterine muscles
during parturition.
 Vasopressin or ADH- promotes reabsorption in the kidney tubules.
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
 Includes the heart, blood and blood vessels through which blood flows in circulation
 Vital functions:
o Increases the flow of blood to meet increased energy demands during exercise
and regulates body temperature
o Conveys disease-fighting elements of immune system, such as white blood cells
and antibodies
o Sends clotting cells and proteins to the affected site, which quickly stop
bleeding and promote healing
 Heart- located in the middle mediastinal space.
o A muscular organ located at the chest (thoracic) cavity and enclosed in a
fibrous sac, the pericardium. The walls of the heart are composed primarily of
cardiac muscle, the myocardium.
o Divided into four chambers: the right atrium, the right ventricle, the left atrium,
and the left ventricle.

 Blood
oPlasma- the fluid portion of the blood containing a number of ions, inorganic
molecules and organic molecules which are in transit to various parts of the
body or which aid in the transport of other substances.
White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)-act to defend body against infection;
phagocytic, produce antibodies and counteract toxins.
Red Blood Cell (Erythrocytes)- are biconcave disks manufactured in the bone
marrow; these non-nucleated cells are soft and contain hemoglobin.
Platelets (Thrombocytes)- when blood vessels walls are injured, platelets
collect at the site, sticking to the vessel wall and liberating serotonin, which
leads to local vasoconstriction. They also liberate thromboplastin which aids
in blood clotting.
oBlood coagulation – conversion of soluble plasma protein fibrinogen to insoluble
protein fibrin, a reaction catalyzed by enzyme thrombin.
 Blood Vessel
oArtery- blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart
oVein- blood vessel that carries blood back to the heart
oArtery- blood vessel that carries oxygenated blood (exception: pulmonary artery)
oVein- blood vessel that carries unoxgenated blood (exception: pulmonary vein)
 Systemic Circulation – carries oxygenated blood from the heart to all the
tissues in the body except the lungs and returns deoxygenated blood carrying
waste products, such as carbon dioxide, back to the heart
 Pulmonary circulation – carries this spent blood from the heart to the lungs. In
the lung, the blood releases its carbon dioxide and absorbs oxygen. The
oxygenated blood then returns to the heart before transferring to the systemic
circulation.
 Coronary circulation – heart
 Hepatic circulation – liver
 Cerebral circulation – brain
 Renal circulation – kidney
 Splanchnic Circulation – digestive tract
 Lymphatic System- is composed of lymph node, lymph vessel and the lymph.
oLymph nodes- function for the production of lymphocytes. Another function is to
stop foreign materials that come to them in the lymph. They become swollen or
inflamed during severe bacterial infections.
oLymph capillaries-more permeable walls than the blood capillaries, all metabolites
of big molecular size which cannot be absorbed by the lymph capillaries.
Eventually, the lymph fluid will enter the circulatory system through the right
lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct.
oLymph vessels- contain thin-walled valves which prevent the back flow of its
content

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 Provide oxygen to the cells of the body and to remove excess carbon dioxide;
preventing the lethal buildup of this waste product in body tissues.
 Interruption for more than a few minutes, serious, irreversible damage to tissues
occurs, followed by the failure of all body systems, and ultimately death.
 Important functions:
o Intake of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide
o Helps regulate the balance of acid and base in tissues, a process crucial for the
normal functioning of cells.
o Protects the body against disease-causing organisms and toxic substances
inhaled with air
o Houses the cells that detect smell
 Air passages leading to the lungs
oNasal Cavity – passage of air; line with epithelial cells with microscopic cilia;
between epithelial cells are goblets that produce mucus; the role is to filter the
air to remove potentially disease causing organism
oPharynx – a short, funnel-shaped tube about 13cm (5 in) long that transports air to
the larynx; lined with a protective mucous membrane and ciliated cells that
remove impurities from the air.
oLarynx – a structure about 5cm (2in) long located approximately in the middle of
the neck; transport air to the trachea; its mucous membrane and cilia-bearing
cells help filter air
oTrachea, Bronchi, and bronchioles
 A tube about 12 to 15cm (about 5 to 6in) long located just below the
larynx
 Formed of 15 to 20 C-shaped rings of cartilage that keeps it open
 Trachea branches into two tubes, the left and right bronchi, which
deliver air to the left and right lungs, respectively
 Within the lungs, the bronchi branch into smaller tubes called
bronchioles.
oAlveoli – Each bronchioles branches into several subdivision producing about
million terminal tubes, at the end are the alveoli or alveolar sacs; gas exchange
occurs at the alveoli
 Lungs
oTidal Volume- the amount of air that moves into the lungs with each inspiration or
that moves out with each expiration.
 Thorax
 Pleura
 Respiratory Muscles
oInspiratory muscles
Diaphragm
External intercostal muscles
oExpiratory muscles
 Internal Intercostal muscles
 Muscles of the anterior abdominal wall

 Respiratory Centers
o The flow of air in and out of the lungs is controlled by the nervous systems
o The brain respiratory centers include:
 Medullary center
 Pneumotaxic center
 Apnesutic center
 Regulation of respiration – controlled by respiratory center particularly the Medulla
oblongate
 Diseases of the lungs
o Asthma is a very common chronic disease involving the respiratory system in
which the airways occasionally constrict, become inflamed, and are lined with
excessive amounts of mucus, often in response to one or more triggers
o Emphysema is another disease of the lungs, whereby the elastin in the walls of
the alveoli is broken down by an imbalance between the production of
neutrophil elastase (elevated by cigarette smoke) and alpha-1-antitrypsin
(the activity varies due to genetics or reaction of a critical methionine residue
with toxins including cigarette smoke). The resulting loss of elasticity in the
lungs leads to prolonged times for exhalation, which occurs through passive
recoil of the expanded lung. This leads to a smaller volume of gas exchanged
per breath.
o Porcine Reproductive Respiratory Syndrome (PRRS) Virus- also known as Blue-
ear pig disease, is a virus that cause a disease of pigs, called PRRS.
Clinical signs:
o Reproductive – fever, anorexia, reduced conception and
farrowing rates, agalactia, abortion (50%) high MF and SB and
or weak piglets
o Respiratory (Young) – sneezing, incomplete respiratory rate,
dyspnea, anorexia, starvation, watery diarrhea.
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
 Kidney- the main organ of excretion; the kidneys are commonly described as
excretory organs, but actually, they are organs which primarily regulate volume and
composition of the internal fluid environment. Their excretory function is incidental
to their regulatory function. each kidney is composed of over a million units of
nephrons
 The structure of the kidney:
o Paired bean-shaped organ against the rear wall of the abdomen, on other side
of the spine
o Supplied with blood by renal artery, branches on the pelvis, pass between
calyxes and penetrate parenchyma
o Outermost layer of the kidney is the cortex
o Beneath the cortex lies the medulla, an area that contains between 8 and 18
cone-shaped sections known as pyramids, which are formed almost entirely
of bundles of microscopic tubules.

o The center of the kidney is a cavity called the renal pelvis
o Approximately one million nephrons compose each bean-shaped kidney
 A nephron consists of several parts:
oGlomerulus – the filtration unit of the nephron that regulates the concentration
within the body of important substances, and removes substances not needed by
the body such as drugs and food additives.
oBowman’s capsule and glomerulus are collectively called as renal corpuscle or
malphigian
oProximal tubule – is joined to Bowman’s capsule by a short connecting segment.
oLoop of Henle (descending limb and ascending limb) – becomes extremely narrow,
extending down away from Bowman’s capsule and then back up again in a U
shape
oDistal convoluted tubule
oCollecting ducts
 The renal pelvis drains into the ureter and the latter enters the urinary bladder.
 Urine Production
o Begins with the process of filtration that goes on at renal corpuscles or
nephron
o Glomerular filtration = as blood courses through the glomeruli, much of its
fluid, containing both useful chemicals and dissolved waste materials, soaks
out of the blood through the membranes (by osmosis and diffusion) where it
is filtered and then flows into the Bowman’s capsule
o Urea is formed in the body to eliminate the very toxic ammonia formed in the
liver
o The total glomerular filtration rate of both kidney is 125ml/min
 125 ml/min x 60 min/hr = 7.5L
 7.5L/hr x 24/hrs/day = 180L.day
 Reabsoprtion – the movement out of the renal tubules back into the blood
capillaries (peritubular capillaries)
o Reabsorption starts at the proximal convoluted tubules and continues in the
loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubules, and collecting tubules
o Descending loop of Henle = permeable to water
o Ascending loop of Henle = salts are extruded
o In water diuresis, blood ADH is low, the epithelium of the distal tubules and
collecting ducts are impermeable to water
 Secretion – is the process by which substances move into the distal and collecting
tubules from blood in the capillaries around these tubules. In short, secretion is the
reverse of absorption
o Reabsorption moves substances out of the tubules and into the blood
o Secretion moves substances out of the blood and into the tubules where they
mix with the water and other wastes and are converted into urine

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Modified Stomach (Monogastric animal)
Beak
Esophagus
Crop
Proventriculus
Gizzard
Duodenum
Pancreas
Spleen
Liver
Gall bladder
Small intestine
Ceca
Large intestine
Vent
Modified simple stomach (Horse)
Stomach
Small intestine
Cecum
Large colon
Small colon
Rectum
Digestion in Monogastric Animals
Ingestion of food comes salivation
Chewing reduces the particle size and greater surface action for enzymes (Lipase
acts on lipids, maltase on maltose, phytase on phytic acid, lactase on lactose,
sucrose on sucrose)
Swallowing
Stomach secretes HCl, mucus, digestive enzyme, pepsin and gastrin (pepsin=
protein to polypeptide)
Chyme passes through the duodenum (pancreas secretes, lipases, trypsin and
chymotrypsin; duodenal cells secrete secretin, pancreozymin, CCK)
Fibrous materials pass and fermented at cecum
Digestive Tract of Ruminant animals
Esophagus
Rumen
Reticulum
Omasum
Abomasum
Small intestine
Digestion of Ruminant Animals
Predigestive fermentation occurs in the rumen and reticulum

Bacteria and protozoa uses the roughages consumed by animals feed for their
growth and multiplication
The rumen environment is ideal for microorganism growth because it is moist,
warm and constantly supply nutrients
Excess microbes are continuously removed from rumen and reticulum along with
the small feed particles through the omasum and abomasum
Abomasum is acidic, the small intestines digest the microbe as source of protein
The rumen fermentation process produces VFA (acetic, propionic and butyric
acids). The ruminants use this as the source of energy.
In the process of fermentation, the animal releases methane gas, ruminants release
this gas by belching. When the gas releasing mechanism fails, the gas accumulates
in the rumen and causes bloat.
A young, suckling calf consumes little or no roughages
Milk is directed immediately into the abomasum in the young ruminants by
esophageal groove, allowing milk to bypass fermentation in the rumen.
Complete development of the rumen, reticulum and abomasum requires about 2
months in sheep and goat and 3 to 4 months in cattle. The development is
influenced by the type of feed the animal consumes.
REPPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Forms of Reproduction
Sexual
Asexual (cloning)
oDolly from mammary cells (Roslin Institute, Edinburg)
oMouse from a mouse tail (University of Hawaii)
oCow from reproductive tract (cumulus cells) (Kinki University, Nara, Japan)
The Female reproductive system

 Ovaries-primary sex organs
oFunction: the production of sex cell or ovum and estrogen.
 Oviduct- serves as the passage way of the egg on its way to the uterus
 Uterus- site of fertilization
 Horn of Uterus- site of implantation
 Cervix- serves as the sperm receptacle in certain animals
 Vagina- primary organ for copulation; serves as sperm receptacle in animals
 Vulva/Labia Majora- common passage way for the products of reproduction and for
urine
The Male reproductive system
 Testis- main sex organ
 Scrotum- serves as the external covering of the testes.
 Testes- have 2 main function: the production of sperm cells and testosterone

Puberty and Estrous cycle
Puberty indicates that the female has reached maturity-capable of producing
offspring. The age of puberty varies between breeds of animal and among female animal
with same breed.
Estrous Cycle
 the period from estrus to the next estrus
 In many farm animals like carabao, cattle, pigs, and horses estrus comes every
21 days if the female animal is cycling regularly, although it could vary from 12
to 30 days.
Animals may be classified based on the occurrence of their estrus cycle as:
(1) Monoestrus- the animal comes in heat only once a year, such as dogs/bitch;
(2) Seasonally polyestrus- if it comes in heat at certain seasons only, such as sheep; and
(3) Polyestrus -if it comes in heat all throughout the year, like cattle, swine and carabao.
An estrous cycle may be divided into four portions:
(1) Proestrus- which is characterized by follicular growth;
(2) Estrus- which is under the influence of estrogen;
(3) Metestrus- characterized by the formation of CL; and
(4) Diestrus- which is under the influence of progesterone secreted by the CL.
Estrogen
 Circulates throughout the body
 Production is greatest when follicle reaches largest size
 Causes behavioral changes
Signs of Heat
 Stands for mounting other animals
 The female stand still when mounted by the male
 Reddening and swelling of the vulva
 Mucus discharged from vagina
 Nervousness and restlessness
 Frequent urination
 Increase in body temperature
 Loss of appetite
 Bellowing
Parturation and Lactation

 Parturation is defined as the physiological process by which the pregnant uterus
delivers the fetus and placenta from the maternal organism.

GENETICS AND ANIMAL BREEDING
DEFINITION/IDENTIFICATION OF TERMS/PERSONS
Additive effect - The effect of each allele in the locus where no interaction exists
Allelic genes - Genes that occupy the same locus in the chromosome
Animal Biotechnology – any biology-based technology for the manipulation of animals,

its parts or products to provide knowledge, goods and services.
-Animal reproductive biotechniques include the following: Artificial insemination,
cryopreservation of semen, estrus synchronization, superovulation and embryo
transfer, cryopreservation of embryos, in vitro fertilization, intracytoplasmic sperm
injection, cloning, and genetic engineering
Animal Breeding- The art and science of genetic improvement of farm animals. Its
object is on the accumulation of and proper combination among the genes that are
favorable to the expression of superior performance
Artificial Insemination- Technique of introducing semen (spermatozoa) into the oviduct

without the benefit of the male effective if the superior animal is the male
Assortive mating – individuals that are more phenotypically similar tend to mate more
often that would be expected by chance.
Autosomal Linkage - State when the genes are located in the same autosome; during the
prophase stage of meiosis, when the chromosomes double, segments of the homologous
chromosomes usually cross-over and exchange segments.
Autosome - The type of chromosome other than the sex chromosome
Bateson, William- English biologist who found out in 1906 that Mendelian inheritance
applies to animals. Utilized chickens to observe inheritance of traits.
Bases - The chemical component of the gene consisting of adenine, guanine, thymine
and cytosine
Carnivores - Species of animals that live on meat of other animals
Chromosomes - The colored bodies in the nucleus that contain the DNA
Chromosome number - diploid (2n) complement; haploid (n) complement; composed of

autosomes and sex chromosomes -
Cloning - Process of replicating an individual out of its own body

Crick, Francis – Cambridge University Scholar, proposed the biochemical nature of the
gene together with James Watson in 1956
Crossbreeding - The breeding of individuals from one population to individuals from

another distinctly different population; increases the frequency of heterozygotes at the
expense of the homozygotes.
Darwin, Charles -Proposed the theory of evolution in his book "The Origin of Species" in
1859
Disassortive mating - individuals which are less phenotypically similar tend to mate
more often that would be expected by chance.
DNA - Abbreviation of deoxyribonucleic acid, a biochemical substance that bear the

chain of nucleotides called polynucleotide. Each nucleotide consists of Phosphate (P), a
sugar (S), and a base (B).
Dominance - The condition where the expression of the gene suppresses that of its
alternative allele
Domestication - Process of enabling animals to survive and reproduce normally under

man's care
Environment - The, external factor, other than the gene that affects the character of an
individual; non-genetic; modifies phenotypic expression; nutrition, climate,
management, season, housing, etc.
Epistasis - A type of genetic interaction where a gene in one locus suppresses the action
of a gene in another locus; inter-allelic interaction
Equilibrium Population - A population in which the gene and genotypic frequencies do

not change generation after generation
Estrus synchronization – a management technique that makes use of hormones to bring

animals into estrus at the same time
Evolution - The long process of change in the characteristics of organisms that result
into new species; change in frequency of alleles in the gene pool of a population.
Fertilization - The process of introduction of the sperm cell into the egg to form a zygote
which develops as a new individual
Fisher, Ronald - British scientist responsible for the integration of the concept of
Darwinian evolution and Mendelian inheritance into the discipline of population
genetics

Fitness – is the capability of a phenotype and a corresponding genotype to survive and
reproduce in a given environment
Gamete - The collective term for the reproductive cells from either the male or female
Gametogenesis - The process of production of gametes
Gene - The carrier of hereditary characteristics:

 segment of the DNA that determines the base sequence of the nucleotide in the
messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) that makes up the code for a certain
biological function
 occurs in pairs
 coined by Johannsen
 helical structure by Crick and Watson
 located in the chromosomes
 located in the sex chromosomes
 Functions:
o Store and transmit genetic information from cell to cell and from parent to
offspring
o Copy or replicate itself with great consistency and precision
o Undergo mutation or error in copying which would subsequently copied
and replicated.
Gene action – the action of genes as they influence genotypic values; may be any or a
combination of the following types: Additive, Dominance, and Epistasis.
Gene frequency - the proportion of a particular gene at a given locus
Gene function - copy and replicate itself store, transmit genetic information and
undergo mutation
Generation interval- average age of parents when offspring are born
Genetics - the study of the nature and function of genes
Genetic engineering – also called genetic modification, is the direct manipulation of an

organism’s genome using biotechnology; manipulation of DNA to produce new types of
organisms, usually by inserting or deleting genes.
Genetic improvement – is effected by the purposeful manipulation of the genetic

constitution of animals which determines the expression of their inherent
characteristics.
Genetic parameters - heritability (narrow sense; broad sense), repeatability, covariance,

correlation

Gene pool – the totality of the genes that could potentially be transmitted by individuals
in a population to the next generation.
Genotype - The specific combination of genes in the diploid phase representing a

phenotype
- assembling of gene in an individual; determined at the time of fertilization;
genetic make-up; genetic constitution
Genotypic frequency -The proportion of a particular phenotype present in the

population or a breeding
Genotype x environment interaction - when certain genotypes perform well under

certain environments than other genotype.
Hardy-Weinberg Law
 Gene and genotypic frequency remain constant from generation to generation if
population is large, there is random mating and there is absence or if there is
balance of selection, migration and mutation.
 Violations of HWE: small population leads to genetic drift; assortative or
disassortative mating; natural or artificial selection; movement of animals
through importation of live animals, semen or embryo: change in the
biochemical structure of gene
Herbivores- Species of animals that live mainly on plants
Heritability- The degree by which a character is genetically transmitted from a parent

to offspring
Heterogametic sex - The sex that carries the different sex chromosomes; e.g. X and Y in
mammals
Homogametic sex - The sex that carries identical sex chromosomes; e.g. X and X in
mammals
Hybrid vigor or heterosis

 a condition where the heterozygote is better than the average of the
homozygote
 F1 progeny is better than the average of the parents; better than the average of
the better parent; occurring on lowly heritable traits; caused by non-additive
gene action (dominance, epistasis) higher in the F1, than in the F2,
Inbreeding
 The process of mating animals that are closely related by descent; non-random
mating or special case of assortive mating

 increases genetic homozygosity; inbreeding depression; lowly heritable traits;
closest possible inbreeding in animals is full-sib mating and parent-offspring
mating
Law of Independence - In Mendelian inheritance, members of one pair of genes

segregate independently with other pairs of genes
Johannsen. William Ludvig - Danish geneticist who coined the term gene in 1909
Locus - The specific location of a pair of genes in the chromosome (pl., loci)
Lush, Jay - American scientist who introduced the application of the various theories of
the Genetics of populations to the practice of animal breeding
Maternal inheritance - Inheritance of maternal characteristics through the distinctive

maternal phenotype; e.g., lack of teats in the udder of the sow could retard the growth
of some piglets
Meiosis - The process of cell multiplication in which the number of chromosomes in the
reproductive cells are reduced from diploid to haploid as in gametogenesis
Mendel, Gregor - An Austrian monk who founded genetics through his studies on
crossbreeding of garden peas in 1865. He formulated and published his hypothesis on
the mechanics of inheritance of characters.
Mendelian traits -governed by few pairs of genes; qualitative; discreet classes;

independent segregation; independent assortment; coat/plumage color;
present/absence of horns
Migration - Process of movement of individuals from one population to another

population
Mitosis -Process of multiplication of identical cells
MOET
 Acronym for multiple ovulation and embryo transfer - a process of hastening the
reproductive rate of female animals
 effective if the superior animal is the female
mRNA -Acronym for messenger-RNA - the biochemical substance that transcribes the
genetic code in the process of protein synthesis
Mutation - Spontaneous change in the biochemical or structural characteristic in the

genetic material that results in a different biological action

Non-Mendelian traits - governed by many pairs of genes interacting with one another;
quantitative traits; continuous distribution; sex-limited; sex-influenced; sex-linked;
cytoplasmic inheritance
Non-nuclear inheritance – In plants, the chlorophyll-bearing plastids are carried in the

cytoplasm. Since pollens carry very little, if any cytoplasm with it; the plastids are
transmitted from generation to generation through the ova.
-In animals, non-nuclear or more specifically, cytoplasmic inheritance, is quite
rare.
-If, there are cytoplasmic genetic materials affecting economically important
traits in animals, females would play a larger role than the males in influencing the
characteristics of the progeny.
Non-random mating – occurs when some individuals do not have the same chances of
mating with individuals of the opposite sex; because of certain physical, physiological,
or psychological factors, some individuals tend to mate more often together than with
some other individuals; important forms of non-random mating are assortive mating,
disassortive mating and inbreeding.
Objective of animal breeding -increase/improve production, efficiency, product quality

and aesthetic value
Omnivore - Species of animals that live on plants, meat of animals and other food
materials
Oogenesis - Process of production of female gamete
Outbreeding
 Mating of individuals closely related than the average of the population;
crossbreeding is an example of crossbreeding; crossbreeding is mating of different
breed group; breed-group can be breed variety, strain, line or genetic group. Other
form of out breeding includes upgrading, top crossing, inter specific (between
species) and intra-specific (within. species).
Phenotype
 The observable effect of a gene action
 May be expressed mathematically as P=G+E + (G x E) where G x E may be defined
as the interaction between the genotype of the individual and the environment
under which it is raised.
 a function of gene and environment; outward manifestation of a genotype; traits;
characteristics; measurable; expressed at different stages in life; same as genotype
if effect of environment is zero; qualitative or quantitative; production,
reproduction and adaptation; economically important or not.
Pleiotrophy – process whereby one gene may affect two or more traits

Population - a group if individual sharing a common gene pool
Random mating - Process where individual of one sex has an equal chance of mating
with any other individual in the opposite sex
Recessive - The state where the expression of a gene is suppressed by it alternative

allelic gene
Recombinant type gamete - A gamete that carries two or more genes resulting from the
crossover of segment of the homologous chromosomes during meiosis
Regulator genes – serve to control or regulate the function of the other genes; may
function in terms of quality, quantity, or timing of the activity of certain structural
genes.
Reproductive techniques - artificial insemination; multiple ovulation and embryo

transfer; super ovulation; in-vitro fertilization; in-vitro maturation
Response to selection - function of heritability and selection differential; selection

differential is difference between the mean of the selected parents and the mean of the
base population
Segregation - The separation of the pair of genes -in the process of gametogenesis
Selection - Process where certain individuals are able to contribute more progeny in the
next generation than other individuals
Selection methods - based on records of individuals and/or relatives
Selection procedures for simultaneous trait improvement -tandem, independent culling

level and index selection
Sex chromosome
 the chromosome that determines the sex of the individual
 male is heterogametic (XY) in mammals; male is homogametic (ZZ) in poultry
Sex-linkage - The state where a gene is located in the sex chromosome
Spermatogenesis - Process of producing sperm cells
Structural genes – directly responsible for the synthesis of certain biochemical products
during cell metabolism
Test-crossing - Crossing of an individual of unknown genotype

Transcription - The process whereby the sequence of the bases in the DNA is
transcribed by the mRNA in the nucleus for subsequent translation into the
corresponding protein material
Translation - The process of synthesis of the polypeptide chain based on the base
sequence in the mRNA
Watson, James - Proposed the biochemical nature of the gene together with Francis
Crick in 1956
Wright, Sewall- American biologist who contributed significantly to the integration of

evolutionary and genetic theories into the study of population genetics
ANIMAL NUTRITION
1. Definition of Terms
Nutrition- the series of processes by which an organism takes in and assimilates food
for promoting growth and replacing damaged or injured tissues; it encompasses several
fields of discipline.
Nutrients- any feed constituent or a group of feed constituents that aids in the support
of life
Digestion- process of breaking down of feed particles into suitable products for
absorption
Absorption- transfer of substance from gastro-intestinal tract (GIT) to the circulatory

system
Metabolism- combination of anabolic and catabolic reactions occurring in the body with
the liberation of energy
 Catabolism- also known as destructive metabolism; and is the process that produces
the energy required for all activity in the cells; cells break down large molecules
(mostly carbohydrates and fats) to release energy.
 Anabolism- also called constructive metabolism; is all about building and storing;
small molecules are change into larger, more complex molecules of carbohydrate,
protein and fats
Enzymes- a complex protein produced in living cells that causes changes in other
substances within the body without being changed itself (organic catalyst).

2.Gross chemical composition of plant and animal tissues
 Proximate composition
Nutrients Animal Composition Plant Composition
Water 60% Almost the same
Proteins 16% Almost the same
Minerals 4% Almost the same
Carbohydrates <1% >20%
Fats <20% <1%
3.The Nutrients
Classes of Nutrients
 Water
o Main functions: transport of nutrients and excretion; chemical reactions and
solvent properties; body temperature regulation
o Cheapest and most abundant nutrient
o Makes up to 65-85% of animal body weight at birth and 45-60% of the body
weight at maturity
o Accounts for 90-95% of blood and many tissues contain 70-90% water
o Found in the animal body as:
- Intracellular water- mainly muscles and skins
- Extracellular water- mainly interstitial fluids, blood plasma, lymph, synovial
fluid and cerebrospinal fluid
- Water present in urinary and gastrointestinal tract.
 Carbohydrates
o Made up of C, H, O
o Include sugar, starch, cellulose and gums
o Produced during photosynthesis
o Limited storage in animal’s body
o Make-up approximately ¾ of plant dry weight
 Fats
o Act as stored energy; source of heat, insulation and protection of animal body;
serve as a carrier for absorption of fat-soluble vitamins
o Insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvent
o Yield 2.25 times more energy than carbohydrates or proteins
 Proteins
o Nutrients which contains nitrogen (N)
o Some proteins also have sulfur and phosphorus
o Act as enzymes, hormones and structural components

o Principal constituents of the organ and soft structure of the animal body;
basically large molecules
 Vitamins
o Organic components of natural food but distinct from carbohydrates, fats,
protein and water
o Present in foods in minute amount and effective in the animal body in small
amounts
o Essential for the development of normal tissue necessary for metabolic activity
but do not enter into structural portion of the body
o When absent from the diet or do not properly absorbed or utilized, results in a
specific deficiency disease or syndrome
o Fat soluble vitamins: A (Retinol, D (Calciferol), E (Tocopherol), K (Menadione)
o Water soluble vitamins: Vit. B1(Thiamin), Vit. B2(Riboflavin), Vit.B6
(Pyridoxine), B12(Cyanocobalamin), Nicotinic Acid (Niacin or B3),
Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, Choline, Folate, Vit. C (Ascorbic Acid)
o Cannot be synthesized by the animal
Minerals
o Inorganic crystalline solid
o Also called ash
o 5% of animal body weight on dry matter basis
Utilization of Nutrients
 Digestion- involves the processes used to prepare food for absorption
 Absorption- includes the processes that move small molecules through membranes
of the gastro-intestinal tract (GI tract) into blood so the molecules may be used for
their specific function.
 Types of Digestion
o Mechanical Digestion- includes chewing (mastication) and muscular
contractions of the GI tract
o Chemical Digestion- includes action of acids produced in the GI tract
o Activity from enzymes produced in the GI tract
o Enzymes produced by microorganisms located in various parts of the GI tract
Types of animals according to structure of their stomach

 Monogastric
o Also called “simple-stomach” animals
o Animals with one-compartment stomach, e.g. pigs and horses
 Modified Simple-stomach
o Has crop (for storage of feed), proventiculus (secretion of gastric enzymes for
digestion) and gizzard (for mixing and grinding feed)
 Ruminants

o Also called “compound stomach animals”
o Have a four-compartment stomach- rumen, reticulum, omasum, abomasum
4.Different Classification of Feedstuff
 Roughages- feed materials containing more than 18% crude fiber and are generally
low in energy, e.g. grasses and legumes
Concentrates- feeds that are high in energy and low in crude fiber
Two types of concentration

1.Basal or Energy Feeds
2.Protein Feeds
Supplements- feedstuff that is mixed with a primary grain and/or roughage to provide
all the nutrients required to support the form of the production for which it is
intended
5.Ration Formulation
Important consideration in feed formulation
o Acceptability
o Digestibility
o Cost
o presence of anti-nutritional factors and toxins
Methods of Ration Formulation

o Pearson square Method
o Simultaneous Equation Method
o Two-by-two matrix method
o Trial-and-Run method
o Linear Programming
Ration Formulation for Ruminants

o Nutrients: dry matter basis
 Total digestible nutrients (TDN, kg/day)
 Crude protein (CP g/day)
 Calcium (Ca g/day)
 Phosphorus (P g/day)
o Pointers
 Listing of nutrients requirements of animals
 Nutrient analyses of feed ingredients and cost to be used
 Usage and limitation of feed ingredients
 Check ration for each nutrient content cost/kg of mixed feed

SLAUGHTER, PROCESSING AND MARKETING OF FARM ANIMALS
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Meat - the carcass or carcass parts coming from animals sufficiently mature and
healthy
 Beef - meat from cattle more than one year old.
 Veal- meat from cattle less than one year old.
 Carabeef - meat from carabaos more than one year old.
 Chevon - meat from goats
 Pork - meat from swine
 Mutton - meat from sheep
 Lamb - meat form lambs
 Venison - meat from deer
 Hot meat - meat coming from an illegal source
 Fresh meat - meat that has not undergone any substantial physical, chemical and
microbiological changes from the time of slaughter
 Meat by-products - the edible by-products from the slaughterhouse
 Abattoir - the premises approved and registered as premises for slaughtering animals
for human food
 Cold slaughter - slaughtering an animal dead of some causes prior to slaughter
 Fabrication - process of cutting carcasses into standard wholesale and retail cuts
 Flaying - act of removing hide from animals
 Corned meat- prepared meat cured by soaking with or without injecting into it a
solution of common salt with or without one or more of nitrate, nitrite, sugar,
dextrose, syrup, honey and with or without the use of spices
 Curing- the addition of salt with or without nitrate, nitrite and sugar for the purpose
of lengthening shelf life and/or enhancing the development of odor, color and flavor
 Quick freezing- freezing products such that the deepest portion hardens in 30minutes
 Deep freezing- freezing products at a temperature of -20C or lower
 Green hams- unsmoked cured hams
 Hot boned meat- meat deboned before the development of rigor mortis
Milk terms
 Pasteurization - it is a process of heating a foodstuff, usually a liquid, for a definite
time at a definite temperature and thereafter cooling it immediately. US Public
Health Service recommends heating milk to at least 145°F for 30 minutes or 161°F
for at least 15 seconds
 Homogenization - fat globules are subjected to mechanical treatment, which breaks
them down into smaller globules, uniformly dispersed in the milk.
 Certified milk - fresh milk of higher purity to be delivered to the customer within 36
hours.
 Pasteurized milk –milk that has been subjected to pasteurization.
 Homogenized milk –milk that has been subjected to homogenization.
 Evaporated milk or unsweetened condensed milk- fresh milk that has been
concentrated to 74% water and 26% total solids.
 Sweetened condensed milk- concentrated milk to which sugar has been added
 Dried or powdered milk- milk obtained by evaporating the moisture from fresh milk
from 87% to around 1.5 to 5%
 Filled milk- milk wherein the butterfat is substituted with vegetable oil such as
coconut, corn and other plant oils
 Recombined milk- milk prepared by mixing together skimmilk powder/ buttermilk
powder, butter oil and water
 Reconstituted milk- liquid milk prepared by mixing together milk powder and water
to approximate the original composition of fresh milk.
Basic Principles of Selecting Animals for Slaughter
Selecting animals for slaughter depends mainly on the purpose for slaughtering and
the use and cost of meat produced. The basic considerations are:
 Sex
o No distinct differences in meat quality between barrows and gilts
o Boar taint becomes apparent only at 7 months of age
o Castrated males tend to deposit more fat than uncastrated counterparts and
females of same age
o Meat from entire male is generally less tender, darker, coarser and lower in
overall acceptability than that of castrated males
o Steers and heifers have similar meat characteristics. Steers tend to have more
marbling, more subcutaneous fat and less longissimus dorsi area than heifers
and bulls
o Bull carcasses contain 8% more muscle and 38% less fat than steer carcasses.
Boneless bull carcasses contain 58% less crude fat and 23% more crude
protein than steer carcasses
 Age
o The recommended ages for meat processing and fresh meat retailing are 4-8
months for swine, 3 years or younger for cattle and carabaos and about a
year old for goats
o Meat from older animals has the tendency to be darker, tougher, fatter and
usually poorer in quality than meat from younger animals. Meat from old
animals is also flavorful and has high water binding and emulsion capacity
and is associated with high degree of marbling
 Size
o 80-100 kg for hogs
o 300-450 kg for cattle and carabaos
o No standard size recommended for goats

 Class
o For swine, the following may be ranked from most desired to least desired:
barrows and gilts, shotes, sows and boars. Meat from sows and stags have
higher water binding capacity, therefore are more suitable for the production
of comminuted products
o Classes of beef and carabeef include steers, heifers, cows, bulls, stags and
bullocks
 Health
o Only healthy animals must be slaughtered
 Fat in lean
o Lean meat with 8 to 12% fat appears to be the most wanted for intact meat
preparations and about 30-40% fat for comminuted products. A well finished
animal should have a carcass with about 20-30% total fat, which is firm and
evenly distributed
Handling/Management of animals prior to slaughter
1.Fasting- feed is not given but water is provided

a. 12 to 24 hours for simple stomach
b. 24 to 48 hours for ruminants
Advantages: savings of feeds, ease of cleaning the entrails and eviscerating the
carcass, thoroughly bled and brightly colored carcass, long shelf-life and low
shrinkage of resulting meat.
2.Rest and relax the animal- no form of stress should be given

Disadvantages of stress: loss of muscle glycogen, high temperature of carcass, low
water holding capacity of resulting meat, low aroma, flavor, texture and juiciness
scores. With less severe stress, pork tends to be pale, soft and exudative (PSE),
however, if stress is very severe, meat tends to be dry, firm and dark (DFD).
3.Handle animals gently- blood clots and red spots results when animal is whipped,
kicked or boxed. Blood clots are due to breakage of blood vessels and are not
desirable because they support microbial growth and cause meat spoilage.
4.Clean/ bathe the animal- good sanitation practice is best started by keeping the
animal clean, one of the worst contaminants of meat is the microflora abundant in
feces.
Basic requirement in slaughtering:

oCleanliness of meat produced
oHygiene of production
o Efficiency of meat inspection

o Adequacy of meat preservation
The Slaughterhouse
Must meet the standards set by the National Meat Inspection Services.
The following are the requirements for the accreditation of slaughterhouses:

1.Must have facilities for the proper care of animals prior to slaughter. Lairage areas
must e wide enough to allow for relaxation of animals to be slaughtered. Adequate
ventilation and water must be provided at all times.
2.Must have separate section for slaughter of swine and ruminants
3.Must have separate area for handling meat and offal to avoid contaminating the meat
4.Must have separate equipment and tools for handling meat and by-products
5.Facilities for hanging carcasses, refrigeration units and adequate water supply must
be provided. Water requirement is at least:
o60 gals per head of cattle and carabao
o30gals per hog
o15gals per goat
o7 gals per head poultry
6.Must have good drainage and ventilation, at least 100 meters away from residential
areas and must have adequate waste treatment facility.
Classification of Slaughterhouses in the Philippines
The slaughterhouses in the Philippines are presently classified by the National Meat
Inspection Commission into four categories, namely:
• AAA - Those with facilities and operational procedures so adequate that the meat
processed herein is eligible for sale in any market in and out of the country
• AA - Those with facilities and operational procedures sufficiently adequate that the
meat processed herein is eligible for sale in any market in the Philippines
• A - Those with facilities and operational procedures of minimum adequacy as defined
by the National Meat Inspection Commission, the meat processes herein is eligible
for sale only in the city or municipality in which the plant is located.
• Non-accredited - Those with facilities and operational procedures of less than
minimum standards that must be closed until minimum standards are provided or
achieved. This also includes slaughter houses which do not get accreditation even if
they are qualified for it.
The step by step slaughtering animals

1.Ante mortem inspection- to determine whether the animal is fit for slaughter. Sick,
newly parturated, vaccinated, administered with antibiotics and other similar
treatment are rejected for slaughter
2.Stunning- rendering the animals unconscious without killing them. This is done to
make restraining easy and slaughtering humane. May be done using stunning gun or

cartridge pistol, electric stunner, sledgehammer, CO2 chamber, or the matador
technique which is commonly used for stunning cattle and carabaos
3.Sticking- must be done within 3minutes after stunning. If done later, the animal may
regain consciousness or die. The animal is bled by cutting the jugular vein or caroid
artery. Thorough bleeding is accomplished in 3 to 5 minutes in properly stuck
animals.
4.Cleaning the carcass- there are 3 methods:

a. Flaying- synonymous to skinning and involves removal of the hide. Commonly
done in carabaos, cattle, horses and goats
b. Scalding- submerging the carcass in hot water to loosen the hairs and scurf. The
temperature of scalding water must be 54.4 to 82.2C. Applied only to hogs and
poultry.
c. Singeing- involves burning the hairs and scraping the hairs as soon as there are
burned. Accomplished using a blowtorch or by burning wood or even old
newspaper and/or rice straw. Usually done in goats.
5.Evisceration- involves cutting the carcass open and removing the visceral organs from
the body cavity. Care must be exercised not to cut the internal organs. Spillage of
contents of internal organs contaminates the carcass.
6.Splitting/washing- cutting the carcass at the backbone, with the tail going with the left
side if not removed before splitting. Right after splitting, carcass is washed to
remove remaining blood.
7.Post mortem inspection- to determine whether the carcass is fit for consumption or
not. Judgment given as: condemned, passed, passed for refrigeration, passed for
rendering, passed for sterilization and retained.
8.Shrouding- is wrapping the carcass with cheesecloth. This is commonly done in

carcasses in which the skin is removed. Cloth is first soaked in lukewarm water and
wrapped around the carcass, smoothens the external fat covering, causes fat to
appear white and dense, and prevents excessive shrinkage and oxidation.
9.Chilling- at 0-4⁰C. Beef, carabeef and horse carcasses should be chilled for 48 hours
while goat, mutton and other small carcasses should be chilled for 24 hours. Chilling
is done to firm up the carcass allow rigor mortis to pass and inhibit growth of
microorganisms.
10. Aging- is holding the meat for 7 to 14 days 2.2⁰C to improve tenderness and flavor.
Pork not commonly aged because it gets rancid fast and variation in tenderness of
the different parts is not substantial.

Fabrication of Carcasses
Fabrication is cutting carcasses into standard wholesale and retail cuts. Proper
fabrication leads to the lowering of cutting losses, makes buyers conscious of what they are
buying and giving confidence to both producers and consumers.
There are four basic principles to follow in cutting carcasses:

Thick portions must be separated from thin ones
The tender parts must be separated from the less tender portions
The high-priced cuts are separated from less expensive parts, and
Cuts must be made across the muscle fibers.
COMPOSITION OF MEAT, MILK AND EGGS

General Characteristics of meat
High quality, concentrated and easily digested source of nutrients and is well balanced
with regard to the relative amounts of specific nutrients which it contains.
It is an excellent source of high quality protein, B-complex vitamins and of certain
minerals.
provides satiety unequaled by other food items,
It can be prepared in several ways and it provides nutrients almost in the proportion
and amount needed by the human body.
Physical components of meat
The basic structures that can be seen in meat are lean, far, bone, skin, connective
tissues, and blood vessels. Some meat cuts have also noticeable bone marrow inside the
bones.
Lean or muscle is considered the most important among the components because of
its palatability and nutritive value. Muscle also comprises the bulk of the carcass
(about 50-65%).
Fat tissues are the most variable constituents of meat. The amount of fat in the body is
markedly influenced by the diet, age, exercise and other physiological factors.
Connective tissues- are also important in meat because it determines the tenderness
or toughness of the meat. The higher the amount of connective tissues, the tougher
the meat is.

Meat Crude Ether Moisture Ash (%)
Protein (%) Extract (%) (%)
Pork 18.5 4.7 73.8 1.0
Beef 19.2 1.1 76.3 1.1
Carabeef 20.2 1.0 74.4 1.1
Chevon 18.6 2.7 75.5 1.0
Mutton 20.2 4.7 74.1 1.0
Rabbit 19.8 2.8 76.8 1.2
Venison 21.9 0.2 76.7 1.2
Chicken 22.6 0.1 76.3 1.0
Turkey 20.3 2.1 76.6 1.0
Duck 19.8 6.0 73.1 1.1
Geese 23.0 3.9 72.1 1.0
Frog 20.9 0.6 77.5 1.0
Dog meat 19.8 2.4 76.1 1.0
Chemical composition of meat from different animal species
Amino acid composition of fresh beef, pork, lamb, cured and processed meats and meat
products.
Of the essential amino acids, leucine and lysine are the most abundant; ranging from
7.4-8.4% and the least is tryptophan, 1-1.4%
Of the non-essential amino acid, the most abundant is glutamic acid, ranging from
12.9-14.5%
Nutritional Value of Meat

Meat protein has high biological value
Two (2) servings of meat daily provide the recommended intake of essential amino
acids
The essential and non-essential amino acids in meat is quite constant regardless of
species or cut
Connective tissue proteins have high amount of proline, hydroxyproline and glycine
and low in tryptophan and tyrosine
Meat is an excellent source of B vitamins, P and Fe but relatively low in Ca.
General characteristics of Milk

Bluish white to almost golden yellow color
Opaque due to suspended fat, protein, lactose and minerals
Pleasantly sweet and salty
Rich, creamy flavor
pH between 6.5 to 6.7
normal freezing point ranges from -0.512 to -0.550⁰C
specify gravity between 1.030 to 1.035

Gross composition of milk of various species
Species Water Fat (%) Protein Lactose Ash (%) Energy
(%) (%) (%) (Kcal/100g)
Human 87.1 4.5 0.9 7.1 0.2 72
Cow 87.3 3.9 3.2 4.6 0.7 66
Water buffalo 82.8 7.4 3.8 4.8 0.8 101
Goat 86.7 4.5 3.2 4.3 0.8 70
Sheep 82.0 7.2 4.6 4.8 0.9 102
Constituents of Milk
Water- principal constituents, 87%

Fat
oPresent as fat globules
oVery good absorber of flavor and odor
oComes in two forms:
True fat- glycerides
Associated substances- lecithin, cholesterol, Vit. A, D, E
Non-fatty substances
oLactose- milk sugar, about 4.9%
Complex disaccharide made up of glucose and galactose
Easily fermented by microorganisms to lactic acid
oNitrogenous substances
Protein- casein, milk serum proteins
Non-protein nitrogen
Minerals- Ca, Mg, Phosphate and Citrate
Other constituents
oEnzymes-peroxidase, catalase, lipase, phosphatase
Nutritional Value of Milk

Rich in high quality protein, calcium, phosphorus, riboflavin and other B vitamins
Poor source of Vitamins C and D, and Fe
Milk protein is one of the highest quality protein, low in sulfur containing amino acids,
methionine and cysteine but rich in lysine
Milk lipids contain high saturated fatty acids and low in linolenic and linoleic acids
The fat-soluble vitamins in milk are heat stable
EGG
General characteristics of egg
Egg is a compact package of well-balanced food nutrients
Eggs have high protein content, low in carbohydrate, high in Viamins A&D, riboflavin
Egg is the richest source of iron among animal foods
One chicken egg weighs on the average 50-60g
The calcium in egg is in the form of CaCO3

Chemical composition of various parts/components of an egg
Egg components % of part % of Egg
Yolk 31
Moisture 47-48
Dry Matter 52-53
Protein 16
Ether extract 32-36
Phospholipid 9.5
Triglycerides 22.4
Cholesterol 1.7
NFE 1.0
Albumen or White 59
Moisture 87-89
Dry Matter 11-13
Protein 9.7-10.6
ash 0.5-0.6
Ether Extract 0.03
NFE 0.5-0.9
Shell 10
Calcium 98.2
Magnesium 0.9
Phosphorus 0.9
Proximate composition of Eggs

Moisture Protein EE Ash
Lizard 68.3 16.2 13.8 1.7
Ants 31.0 17.4 3.8 2.8
Chicken 72.8 12.14 11.0 1.0
Duck 70.6 11.7 12.6 1.0
Tortoise 78.6 12.0 10.2 1.2
Quail 73.9 11.8 10.6 1.0
Laboratory methods for chemical evaluation of Meat, Milk and Egg

Laboratory Analysis
Composition Meat Milk Egg
Moisture Oven drying Oven drying/lactometer Oven drying
Total Solids Oven drying Oven drying/lactometer Oven drying
Ash Ignition Ignition Ignition
Crude Fat Ether Extraction Gerber/Babcock Ether Extraction
/Babcock test
Crude Protein Kjeldahl Kjeldahl Kjeldahl
Casein N/A Walker Method N/A

Principles of Handling and Processing of Meat, Milk and Egg
Meat, milk and eggs are very nutritious and therefore favorable for the growth of spoilage
microorganisms. Eggs have their own natural protection (shell) and thus can keep longer at
room temperature than milk and meat.
Basic principles of handling meat, milk and eggs:

Causes of deterioration must not be allowed to enter or to proceed
Forces of deterioration that were able to enter must not be allowed to grow and/or
prosper
Causes of deterioration
Biological- due to microorganisms, insects, enzymes
Chemical- oxidation of fats causing rancidity, darkening of meat
Physical- dehydration
Processing of Meat:
Cold Storage- chilling (0-4⁰C); freezing (-18⁰C)
Drying- lowering the available water in meat
Salting- is accomplished by addition of salt, hydrochlorites of calcium and/or other
salts
Canning- hermetic sealing in cans then subjecting to thermal process
Curing- use of salt, sugar, nitrate and nitrite
Milk Processing
The following are the common dairy processes right after milk collection:
1.Straining- right after milking, the milk is strained using sterilized cheesecloth
2.Cooling milk- the milk should be cooled to 50⁰F of lower as soon as it is milked out to
minimized microbial growth
3.Clarification and filtration- this process is done to further remove dirts, which were
not removed during straining. Clarification is by the use of the principle of
centrifugation while filtration is using the principle of filter paper
4.Separation- this is separating the cream and the skim milk through gravity method or
using a mechanical cream separator
5.Pasteurization- treating milk with heat thereafter followed by rapid cooling to destroy
bacteria. About 98.99% of bacterial cells die. Pasteurization can be done by either:
a. Holding process- milk is heated to 145⁰F for 30minutes then cooled rapidly
b. Flash Process
i. High Temp. Short Time (HTST)- milk is heated at 165 to 185⁰F for 15min.
ii. Ultra High Temp. (UHT)- milk is heated at 192-194⁰F for 1to 4seconds
6.Homogenization- forcing milk through small opening under high pressure. Normal
pressure is from 2,500 to 5,000 psi. fat particles are reduced to less than 2 microns
in diameter.

Forms of milk in the market
The following are forms of milk available in the market:
• Fresh Whole milk
• Whole milk Powder - water is removed
• Skim milk - fat or cream is removed
• Skim milk Powder (SKMP) - water is removed from the skim milk, also known as
non-fat dry milk
• Evaporated milk - some water removed
• Condensed milk - more water removed + sugar
• Filled milk - SKMP = vegetable oil + vitamin A & D
• Homogenized - small fat globules (25000-5000 psi)
• Flavored milk - SKMP + water + flavor
• Whey powder
MARKETING OF LIVESTOCK AND LIVESTOCK PRODUCTS
Methods of Marketing livestock in the Philippines

1.Livestock market/concentration yards- farmers or traders bring their animals to the
concentration yards for sale. Markets usually have facilities for the care of animals.
a. The transactions could be:
1) trader to trader:
2) farmer to trader; and
3) trader to farmer.
2. Barrio agents - buy livestock from scattered backyard farms and sell these to
viajeros, and act as a viajero or wholesaler and sell livestock directly to retailers.
These agents are highly skilled especially in live weight estimation.
3. Wholesalers or viajeros- buys livestock in wholesale quantity, transport the

livestock and resell them to wholesalers, retailers and/or processors.
5.City dealers - are the intermediaries between the provincial viajeros and the
wholesalers in the cities.
6.Retailers -are those who buy animals and sell them to consumers. These are very
common in goat marketing.
6. Contract growing schemes - there are several approaches used in contract scheme.
In all of the schemes, a mother company takes the animals produced and takes care
of the processing before final sale to consumers.
Problems commonly encountered in the marketing of livestock:

1. no grade standards
2. lack of integrated information
3. difficulty of transporting animals
4. cost of transportation is very high
5. lack of suitable public transport system
Meat and Meat Products Marketing
Traditionally, the meat distribution system is multi-layered with many middlemen

involved in the whole process.
The most common is the five (5) level distribution system.

Producer ---> Barrio agent ---> Wholesaler ---> Retailer ---> End consumer
However, recent trends indicate that more producers have resorted to direct marketing
system in an effort to reduce or totally eliminate the middlemen involved and maximize
profits.
Producers --retailers
 wet market
 institutional markets
o supermarkets
o groceries
o hotels
o restaurants
Types of meat markets

1.Retailers
a. Wet markets - are those meat stalls in public markets where meat are usually hung
in bulk and sliced only when a customer comes. Wholesalers usually supply
meats for these markets
b. Supermarket style/meat shops - are components or grocery stores, supermarket
or individual meat shops. Meats are properly fabricated and handled.
2.Wholesalers
a. pack trading
b. packers to retailers
c. retail outlets
d. institutional outlets

POULTRY PRODUCTION
Common Name Scientific Name Egg Weight Incubation

(g) Period (days)
1.Chicken Gallus gallus Linn 58 21
2.Ducks
Mallard Anas platyrhynchos 80-83 28
Muscovy Cairina moschata 70 35-37
3.Turkey Meleagris gallopavo 85 28
4.Quail Coturnix coturnix 12 16-18
japonica
5.Pigeon Columba livia 17 18
6.Geese Cygnopsis sygnoides 200 30-31
7.Swan Olor columbianus 285 35
8.Ostrich Struthio australis 1400 42
9.Peafowl Pavo cristiatus 95 28
10. Pheasant Phasianuis colchicus 32 23-24
11. Guinea Numida meleagis 40 28
fowl
DEFINITION OF TERMS
 Poultry -a collective term for all domestic birds rendering economic service to man.
Domesticated animals are those that can live and multiply freely under the care of
man.
 Fowl - generally is a term applied to all poultry species specifically, applied to
designate mature domestic cocks and hens, poultry can refer also to the dressed
carcass of fowls.
 Poultry species - kinds of birds that are included in the term poultry (chicken, ducks,
quail, turkeys, pigeons, geese, etc.).
 Average live weight - average weight (in live form) of chicken during harvest/market
age.
 Beak - the projecting mouthpart of the chicken and turkey, consisting of upper and
lower mandibles; organs of prehension.
 Bill - the projecting mouthpart of waterfowls, consisting of upper and lower
mandibles.
 Breeder - general term that designate the poultry raiser who produces fowls for any
special purpose with the object of improving their value or in conformity with an
agreed standard of excellence. The same term can be used to mean the animals used
for breeding.
 Breed - a race of domestic fowls which maintains distinctive characteristic shape,
growth, temperament and shell colors of eggs produced. Breed is a broader term
than variety. Breed includes varieties, examples: Barred, White and buff varieties of
Plymouth Rock breed.

 Broiler - meat type chicken commonly grown up to 35-42 days and weighing 1.5-2.0
kg live weight.
 Brooder - a place where young chicks/ducklings are cared for after hatching until
they have grown to a point where they no longer need additional heat.
 Capon - caponized cockerels; usually grown up to 4 months and weigh up to 3 kg with
more improved quality of meat.
 Chicken - the most popular poultry species; different from turkeys, ducks, quails,
geese, etc.
 Chick - young domestic chicken while in the downy stage.
 Clutches - group of eggs laid for successive days.
 Cock/Rooster - a male fowl one year old or over.
 Cockerel - a male fowl less than one year old.
 Comb - made of vascularized tissue growing on top of fowl's head. this serves as an
ornamental function, signs of status and condition of the male and for heat
dissipation. The standard varieties of comb are single, rose, pea, V-shaped,
strawberry, cushion and the buttercup: all other being modifications of these.
 Crop - the receptacle in which the fowl's food is accumulated before it passes through
the gizzard.
 Culls - old hens that had passed their usefulness for commercial egg production.
 Debeaking - cutting part of the upper and lower mandibles with the use of electrically
controlled cauterizing blade having a temperature of 815°C to destroy the tissue
responsible to generate beak growth. This is done to prevent cannibalism.
 Down - the first covering of the chick whose major function is for insulation.
 Drake - a male of the duck family.
 Dubbing - cutting of the comb, wattles or earlobes so as to leave the head smooth.
 Duckling - the young of the duck family in the downy stage of plumage.
 Feed Conversion Ratio - volume of feed necessary to produce a kilogram gain in
weight.
 Hatching - the process where the fully developed embryo (chick) breaks out of the
eggs.
 Hatchery - a place where the facilities and process of incubation and hatching is done.
 Harvest Recovery -the number or volume of chicken sold/marked based on the
number of day old chicks raised.
 Incubation - period (in days) where embryonic development is takes place out of the
body of the hen.
 Layer - egg-type or dual-type 6 months old female that lays eggs.
 Morbidity weight - number of chicken afflicted by disease.
 Mortality Rate - number of chicken that died based on the total number of chickens
raised.
 Oviposition - act of laying eggs.
 Ovulation - mature ova released from the ovary which is affected by hormonal
secretion (LH).
 Plumage - the feathers of a fowl.
 Poult - the young of a domestic turkey; the term IS properly applied until sex can be
distinguished and when they are called cockerels and pullets.
 Pullet - female fowl 5-6 months of age intended foe egg production.
 Pullet duck - a female duck less than 6 months old.
 Primaries - the longest feather of a wing, growing between the pinions and
secondaries, hidden when wing is folded, otherwise known as flight feathers.
 Quill - the hollow, horny, basal part of stem of a feather.
 Secondaries - long, large quill feathers that grow between the first and second joints
of the wing, nearest to the body, these are visible when the wing is folded.
 Shank - the portion of a fowl's leg below the hock, exclusive of the foot and toes.
 Single comb - a comb consisting of a single, fleshy, serrated formation extending from
the beak backward over the crown of the head.
 Strain - a family of any variety of poultry that possesses and reproduces with mark
regularity, common individual characters which distinguish it from the families of
the same variety.
 Variety -a subdivision of a breed, a term used to distinguish fowls having the standard
shape and other characteristics of the breed to which they belong, but differing in
colors of plumage, shape of combs, etc. from other groups of the same breed.
 Wattle - the pendant growth at the sides and base of the beak.
 Web of feet- the flat skin beside the toes.
 Web- (web of feather) the flat portion of a feather, made up of a series of barbs on
either side of the shaft.
 Web of wings - the triangular skin attaching the three joints of the wings, visible when
the wing is extended.
SWINE PRODUCTION
 Swine (Sus scrofa)- is a wild hog of continental Europe from which most domestic
swine have been derived.
 Swine (Sus vittatus)-was the chief, if not the only species of the East Indian pig that
contributed to domestic swine.
Breeds of Swine:
 Philippine Native Swine
o They have the following general characteristics:
 Small and late maturing
 Mostly solid black or black and white in color
 Have small ears
 Sway back
 With weak pasterns
 Very strong motherly instinct
 Most native pigs are named after the region and/or province where they
are found
 Pure bred- Landrace, Yorkshire, Large White, Duroc, Tamworth, Pietrain,
Limousine, spotted, Hampshire, Anglian Saddleback, Berkshire, Poland China
and Meishan

 Landrace- originally developed in Denmark for bacon production
 General characteristics:
 White (black freckles are common)
 Drooping ears
 Longest breed of swine
 Backless arched
 Prolific and good mothering abilities
 Weakness: legs and pasterns
 Large White/Yorkshire
 Name interchangeable
 Originated in Yorkshire for bacon production
 General Characteristics
 White
 Erect ears
 Farrow large litter
 Great milkers
 Weakness: some are short and with big belly; tends to develop
carcasses with excess back fat
 Duroc
 Originally called Duroc-Jersey/Red Power
 General Characteristics:
 Light golden to dark red
 Drooping ears
 Good growth rate and FE
 Good muscle quality and resistant to stress
 Weakness: well arched back and unsound legs
 Pietrain
 Muscle Pig
 Peitrain, Belgium
 General characteristics:
 Spotted black and white
 Ears pointed, some drooping
 Extremely muscular
 Thin backfat
 Weakness: hind legs: highly susceptible to stress
 Hampshire
 The Belt
 Hampshire, England
 General Characteristics
 Black with white belt around the shoulder and body including the
foreleg

 Feed efficiency excellent
 Weakness: small litter size at birth and weaning; poor mothering
ability; black color being associated to being fat
 Meishan
 Purebred from China, considered Taihu pigs, deriving their name
from the Taihu lake
 Slow growing and fat, but have a very good taste, resistant to some
diseases
 Also known as the wrinkled face and skin
 One of the most prolific breeds of pig in the world
 Poland China
 Black with 6 white points
 Berkshire- long bodied

 Hybrids-
o Upgrades- native pigs bred with foreign breeds
 Diani- upgrade of native pigs w/ Berkshire,
 Berkjala- 5/8 Berkshire and 3/8 Jalajala pig,
 Kaman- upgrade of native pig,
 Miracle Pig- ½ Large White ¼ Landrace ¼ Native
o Crossbred- Landrace x Yorkshire; Duroc x Pietrain; Triple Cross
o Hybrids/Synthetic Breeds- Seghers, Hypor, Nieuw Dalland,
Babcock; Camborough; PIC; Tyson; JSR; Minnesota #1, Cotswold
 Other purebreds:
o Spotted
oChester White
oLarge Black
oChinese Taihu
Funjung
Meishen
JIanxiang Black
Erbulian
Production Systems
 Growing-Finishing- weanling pigs 80kg-95kg slaughter pigs
oMost small swine farmers in the Asian region are in this enterprise due
to limited financial resource and technical know-how for the care and
management of sows and piglets.
 Sow Herd
o Farrow to feeder- pregnant sow  weanlings
o Farrow to finish- pregnant sowweanlingsgrowersfinisher sold
for slaughter

o Farrow to breeder- starts with a pregnant sow/silt to produce breeder
stocks, specifically junior boars, and replacement gilts.
 Boar for Hire (Boar Stud) - boar is used to breed the gilts/sows in the
community for a fee.
Management of Gilts/Sows
Prior to Pregnancy - Breeding female in a pig enterprise is intended to be pregnant,
nursing a litter or getting bred.
- Under good management, a sow has a tremendous capability to
produce 2.3 litters per year or over 20 pigs annually.
Selecting and raising gilts

 A steady supply of replacement gilts is required to replace sows, which die or
are culled because of poor performance.
 Plan to replace 40-55% of the herd annually, if the herd age is 5 litters or less
 Commercial female is preferred for commercial production. It has added
advantage of hybrid vigor.
 Raise them in all-female groups in dry, well-ventilated pens that provide 0.56
and 0.74 sq.m. of floor space per animal.
 Base final selection on individual performance and their physical and
structural soundness
 Gilts should be bred at 8 months old to farrow the first litter at about a year
old; should be bred on the 2nd or 3rd heat cycle when the animal is in standing
heat
 Flushing- the daily feed intake of gilts is increased by 0.5 to 1.0 kg for 10-14
days before expected date of breeding.
Signs of heat- indicate that the gilt or sow is receptive to the boar
 Reddening and swelling of the external genitalia
 Mounting other animals or willingness to be mounted by others regardless of
sex
 Restlessness, continuous moving around and grunting as if calling for its kind
 Frequent attempts to urinate with very little or no discharge at all
 Capricious appetite
 Assumes a characteristic mating position when touched on back either by a
boar or caretaker
 Difficult to move or be herded in the presence of a boar
Estrous Cycle- 21days

Gestation period- 114 days
Techniques which are generally used in verifying sexual receptivity:

 Haunch pressure test – the operator should approach the sow from behind
and rub her side and thighs

 Riding the back test – applied by riding or merely pressing the back of the
animal
 Semen on snout test – semen sample is squeezed on the snout of the female
using a squirt bottle or atomizer. Synthetic boar odor preparation may be
used.
 Teaser boar method – allowing a vasectomized boar, to mount the sow.
 Sound test – use of chomping sounds of the boar.
Housing
 The edges of the slats should be rounded to avoid damage to feet or teats
 In a penning situation, allow about 1.85 sq. m. per bred sow or gilt. Stall
measurements of about 0.5 x 2.13 m is recommended.
Feeding
 Normally, 1.8 to 2.3 kg of balanced 14% CP ration will meet the requirements
of a gestating sow. Avoid underfeeding or over feeding a pregnant sow
Signs of farrowing
 She is restless, nervous and often bites the walls or stall partition.
 She starts building a nest
 There is distinct swelling of the mammary glands
 There is slackening of the abdominal wall
 The presence of milk when the teats are stripped indicates the sow will
farrow within 24 hours
Supervised farrowing
 The need for an attendant
oAn attendant should be present to assist the newly born pigs and the
sow if necessary. No equipment can substitute human hands for the
safety and welfare of the newly born pigs.
Management after farrowing

 Healthcare
oObserve the sows regularly during the first few days after farrowing for
signs of illness such as fever, loss of appetite, etc.
oInspect the mammary gland for congestion, inflammation, laceration,
and other forms of injuries. If these are present, watch for MMA
syndrome.
Metritis – inflammation or infection of the uterus
Mastitis – inflammation of the udder
Agalactia – inadequate supply of milk
oMMA can be avoided by injecting the sow (im) after farrowing as
indicated by complete evacuation of the placenta.

oA small fraction of the placenta is usually expelled before the second half
of the birth process, generally after passing a jet of urine
oAll of the placenta should have been evacuated 1-4 hours after the birth
of the last piglet.
oImmediately after weaning, multiparous sows should be vaccinated
against Hog Cholera at least twice a year.
 Feeding during lactation
oDo not feed the sow 12 hours from farrowing to prevent the production
of too much milk in excess of the actual needs of the baby pigs.
oIf the sow appears hungry, feed her lightly with a thin slop of the usual
lactation diet.
oOn the second day, start building up her daily feed allowance
This is done by gradually increasing the level of feeding by 0.5 kg
to 1.0 kg daily until full feeding is attained on the 7th to the 10th
day after farrowing.
Management of the Boar

Assessing the boar’s breeding potential
1. Semen evaluation. This is the easiest and the fastest way of estimating the
fertility of the boar
a. collect semen samples
b. Examine for volume, motility, concentration, and morphology
Volume, ml (GEL FREE) 150-200

Sperm concentration, M/ml 200-300
Total Sperm per Ejaculate, B 30-60
Motile Sperm, % 70
Morphologically Normal Sperm, % 70
Color Creamy White
2. Test mating. This provides an opportunity to observe the new boar’s

sexual behavior and his ability to serve the gilt normally.
 A training phase consists of teaching the young boar proper
procedure for mounting a female and successfully breeding her
Feeding Boars
1. Feed boars with 2.3-3.0 kg ration with 13-14% CP. The exact level will
depend on breeding load, conditions of the boar and climatic condition.
2. Provide fresh water at all times. In the tropics, voluntary water
consumption is 4-5 liters per kg of air-dried feed
Housing and environment

1. Keep boar in comfortable and individual pen or stall (0.6 x 2.1 x 1.1 m.)
that is draft-free and dry. If the boar pen doubles as the service area, allow
between 5-7 m2 of floor area.
2. Use individual pens or stalls to eliminate fighting, riding and competition.

Reproductive Phenomena
 A boar should start serving at 8 months of age.
 Sexual maturity is a gradual process in which the sperm production and
sexual desire begins concurrently in increasing intensity.
Definition of Terms
 Farrowing- refers to the act of giving birth in swine.

 Litter size- refers to the number of pigs born in one farrowing.
 Weanling- an animal that has just been weaned.
 Weaning- refers to the process of separating the young from their mother
o Traditional weaning- pigs are weaned at 8 to 10 weeks of age
o Conventional weaning- pigs are weaned at 5 to 7 weeks of age
o Early weaning- pigs are weaned at 3 to 4 weeks age
o Very early weaning- pigs are weaned from a few days from birth to 2
weeks
 Barrow- castrated male swine
 Sow- refers to an adult female swine
 Boar- male swine
 Shote- refers to a young pig of either sex, approximately weighing 60kg
 Primiparous sow- a female which has farrowed only once. It is sometimes
referred to a young sow
 Open sow- a sow whose litter has been weaned nut which has not yet been
bred or is not pregnant
 Monotocous- an animal which gives birth to only one individual at a time.
 Polytocous- a litter bearing animal which gives birth to more than one
individual at a time
Feeding System
 Ad libitum feeding- giving feeds without restriction and always available at
any time
 Restricted feeding- controlled amount of feed given to the animals
 Combination of Ad libitum and restricted feeding- fed ad lib until they reach
the weight of 50kg and fed restricted until they are marketed.
Care and management of the baby pig from birth to weaning

Temperature requirements
 The capacity of the pig to regulate body temperature starts to improve
gradually only on the 7th day onwards up to the 20th day when full
development of the system should have been attained.
 Ambient temperature preference of swine ranges from:
o30-32 °C – birth to 1st week
o29-30°C – 2nd to 6th week
o26-30°C - >6th week (for 50kg pig)

o17-22°C - >6th week (for 100kg pig)
Cutting the Umbilical cord

 Tie the umbilical cord about 1-2 inches from the base with a sterile
thread
 Cut the umbilical cord with a blade below the knot
 Dip the stump of the cord in a strong solution of iodine or merthiolate to
prevent infection.
 Failure to disinfect may lead to “navel ill” which can cause lameness or
death.
Cutting the needle teeth

 Pigs are born with 4 pairs of sharp teeth (2 in each jaw) called black,
needle or wolf teeth.
Tail docking
 The best way of eliminating tail biting is cutting the tail (tail docking) to a
short stump at birth or at a later age.
 This is now a common routine management practice in commercial swine
farms
Colostrum feeding
 Colostrum is rich in resistance-conferring immunoglobulins
 Newborn piglet should consume colostrum within hours after birth to
receive adequate immunity against infective microorganisms.
Identification
 Earnotching
 Ear tattooing
 Ear tagging
Creep feeding – the term “creep feed” here means the pre-starter diet offered to
piglets before and just after weaning until they can be changed to a cheaper starter
diet.
Castration
The removal of the testes; done at 2 weeks old or earlier
Male pigs are raised for pork production are castrated to prevent the
formation of boar taint in the meat at market time.
Weaning the piglets

 Early weaning (EW) – weaning at 3-4 weeks of age
o During this period, the process of sexual recovery of the sow must
have been completed and the reproductive tract is ready for a
new pregnancy.

 Very Early Weaning (VEW) – included under this is artificial rearing (1-2
days weaning) and weaning from a few days (3-7) from birth to 2 weeks.
Growing-Finishing Pigs
The period from weaning to a slaughter weight of about 80-100 kg is referred
to as the growing- finishing stage in the life of a pig.
 The care and management requirements of the pig during this period are not
as demanding as in the earlier stage of growth.
However, the pig should be provided with ample protection and must be fed
properly.
Scour Control
o Scour or diarrhea is the most common cause of mortality and weight
setbacks in weanling pigs.
o The occurrence of the disease especially in large holdings cannot be
avoided completely, but can be minimized through proper feeding
and management procedures.
o Some scour problems are difficult to control particularly those arising
from transmissible gastroenteritis (TGE), colibacillosis and other
similar diseases.
GIT parasite control
o Deworming of growing-finishing pigs 1 or 2 weeks after weaning is
recommended as part of a sound health program.
o A second treatment 1-1/2 to 2 months after the first treatment is
necessary because it takes approximately about a month for the large
roundworms to complete its entire life cycle so that the larvae not
killed by the first treatment are killed as adults.
External parasite control
o The major parasites are the mange mites such as the Sarcoptes scabiei
and the Demodex phylloides.
 S. scabiei are the most common mite and burrow into the upper
2/3 of the dermis. The life cycle is about 15-25 days.
Vacination
o Growing-finishing pigs are best vaccinated against Hog Cholera 2 weeks
after weaning or 1 week after deworming, if deworming precedes
vaccination.
o If pasturing is practiced, keep the pigs indoors until about 2 weeks
when full immunity must have been attained.
Feeding
o The growing-finishing pigs may be limit-fed, full-fed, or ad libitum fed.
Most economical gains are obtained when the animals are full-fed.
o However, they may me limit-fed from about 75-85% their full-fed
capacity if sufficiently large premium is paid for leaner carcass

RUMINANT PRODUCTION
LARGE RUMINANTS
CATTLE
 The goal in the controlled propagation of breeding cattle is to produce the type
of animal that will:
oMeet market demand
oBe productive under adverse climatic condition
oConvert feeds efficiently
 Number of cattle breeds worldwide: 277 identifiable breeds (OSU, 1995)
oBeef breeds – 33
oDairy breeds – 51
oDraft breeds – 18
oMeat-dairy breeds – 54
oMeat-draft breeds – 39
oDairy-draft breeds – 21
oMeat-dairy-draft breeds – 61
- The beef breeds are quite limited in terms of distribution and importance.
Beef Production Systems

 Ranching or Extensive System
o Cow-calf operation - involves production of calves and raising them to
weaning age; found in cheap, low carrying-capacity grazing lands in hilly
areas (Nueva Ecija, Nueva Vizcaya, Masbate, Mindoro, and Bukidnon);
uses grades or Phil cows and pure bred or high-grade bulls. May be
integrated with orchard or coconut plantation.
o Purebred program or breeder farm operation – involves breeding of
purebred or registered cattle, needs big capital, skills, and sound
judgement; suited for those with experience, not for beginners; aim is to
produce breeder stocks to be sold to other ranchers; popular in Batangas,
Tarlac, and Pangasinan. Few operations are also found in Masbate,
Bukidnon, Cotabato and Iloilo; uses high energy feeds to give a better
finish (more fat covering the carcass) and appearance.
 Feedlot fattening operation – it provides the farmer with extra income; gives
him year-round work and allows the use of cheap and plentiful farm by-
products; helps meet the urgent demand for high quality protein food in the
diet
o Objective: Add weight to the animal and increase its value.
o Other features:
 Returns from the difference between buying and selling prices, and
the gain in weight
 Turnover of investment is faster than in ranching. Feeder stocks
require only 120-180 days fattening period from the date of purchase.
 Needs very small land area: a sheltered feeding area (1 ½ - 2 sq.
m/head, and a loafting area (5 sq. m/ head)

 Located in areas where large amounts of feeds are produced.
 May be integrated with pineapple and sugarcane enterprises.
 Backyard operation – Backyard sector constitutes 92% of total cattle
population. The aggregate share of top 5 regions (Ilocos, Southern Tagalog,
Central Visayas, Northern Mindanao, and Davao) accounts for 56.9%; aims to
produce animals that can be sold to augment farm income.
o 1 or 2 heads of either fattening or breeding cattle is raised at farmer’s
spare time.
o Farmer tethers animals to graze and supplements with farm wastes like
rice straw or corn stover when back in pen.
o Others give Ipil-ipil and 1-2 kg/ animal of rice bran, corn bran and/or
copra meal.
o Batangas farmers do force feeding (supak) of feed mixture.
TOTAL, BACKYARD, AND COMMERCIAL BEEF CATTLE PRODUCERS
Total
 Top 5 producing regions (as of Jan 1, 2014)
o Ilocos (Region I) – 11.63%
o Central Visayas (Region VII) – 10.88%
o Northern Mindanao (Region X) – 10.77%
o CALABARZON (Region IV A) – 10.35%
o Western Visayas (Region VI) – 10.15%
o Others – 46.22%
Backyard
o Ilocos (Region I) – 12.33%
o Central Visayas (Region VII) – 11.54%
o CALABARZON (Region IV A) – 10.76%
o Western Visayas (Region VI) – 10.71%
o Others: 44.04%
Commercial
o Bicol Region (Region V) – 19.56%
o Cagayan Valley (Region II) – 14.72%
o SOCCSKSARGEN (Region XII) – 12.77%
o Central Luzon (Region III) – 11.81%
Breed Classifications:
 Based on place of origin or adaptation
1. Bos indicus (Zebu breeds)

a. adapted to tropical conditions- has survived through centuries
exposure to inadequate conditions such as food supplies, insect pests,
parasites/diseases and weather extreme of tropical India
2. Bos taurus (European breeds)- adapted to temperate conditions
Characteristics of Zebu breeds as compared to temperate breeds

o large hump over top of shoulder and neck
o large pendulous ears
o dewlap having large amounts of excess skin
o highly developed sweat glands (perspire more freely)
o oily secretion from the sebaceous gland (believed to repel insect
 Based on the type of products- basically, cattle are kept to provide meat, milk
and labor (draft animal power); best of burden
o Beef Cattle- for meat
o Dairy Cattle- for milk
Breed - is a group of animals having common origin and possessing certain

distinguishing characteristics which set them apart from other groups
Zebu breeds Country Products

Brahman U.S Meat, hardiness
Indu-Brazil Brazil Meat
Kankref India Draft, meat, milk
Krishna India Draft, resistant to tick fever
Nellore Brazil Meat
Red sindhi Pakistan Milk
Sahiwal India Milk
Sta. Gertudis U.S. Beef quality
Tharparkar India Milk, draft
Temperate Breeds
Angus Scotland Meat
Chianina Italy Draft (initially), meat
Simmental Switzerland Milk, butter, cheese, draft
Aryshire Scotland Milk, butter, cheese
Brown Swiss Switzerland Milk cheese
Guernesey France Milk high butterfat
Holstein-Freisian Netherlands High-producing dairy cow
Jersey France Milk, butterfat
SOME BEEF CATTLE BREEDS
Angus
 From Scotland
 Resistant to harsh weather, undemanding, adaptable, good natured, mature
extremely early

 Black or red in color
 Have high carcass yield with nicely marbled meat
Brahman
 From India
 Strains used for breed development: Guzerat, Nelore, Gir and to a lesser extent,
the Krishna Valley
 Color varieties: from very light grey to red to almost black
 Intermediate in size
 Usually thrifty, hardy, and adaptable to a wide range of feed and climate.
Charolais
 From France
 White in color with a pink muzzle and pale hooves
 Medium to large-framed
 Have demonstrated growth ability and efficient feedlot gains
Chianina
 From Italy
 Largest breed of cattle
 Color varies from white to steel grey
 Unsurpassed capacity for lean meat production
Hereford
 From England
 Dark red to red-yellow with a white face, crest, dewlap and underline
 Known for vigor and foraging ability and for their longevity
Limousin
 From France
 Color is golden-red and a lighter color under the stomach, inside the thighs,
around the eyes and muzzle and around the anus and the end of the tail
 Excellent carcass
Wagyu
 Refers to all Japanese beef cattle
 “Wa” – Japanese or Hapanese-style
 “Gyu” – cattle
 Coat color of black and red
 Where Kobe beef comes from
Braford
 Created in US and Australia (5/8 Hereford, 3/8 Brahman)
 Red like Hereford with white underbelly, head and feet

 Stockier than a Hereford
 Primarily used for beef
 Heat and insect resistant
Brangus
 3/8 Brahman, 5/8 Angus
 Black or red
 Have a good temperament
 Very versatile being high performers on pasture and in the feed yard
 Resistant to heat and high humidity
Beefmaster
 ½ Brahman, ¼ Hereford, ¼ Milking Shorthorn
 Dual-purpose breed
 Heat, drought and insect resistant
 Moderate in size
 Light red to dark red and some will have white mottle in faces
Santa Gertrudis
 5/8 Shorthorn, 3/8 Brahman
 Red in color
 Broad, strong, and well-muscled
 Have outstanding foraging ability and can thrive under the harshest conditions
 Very disease resistant
Simbrah
 Combination of Simmental and Brahman
 Medium-sized
 Usually red with a bit of white on the face or black with a bit of white on the
face.
BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE

 The conventional dairy breeds of cattle were developed mainly from the Taurine
species. Among the Bos indicus breeds, Sahiwal and Red Sindhi are considered as
milk cattle.
 In choosing cattle for milk production, some factors used are the breed popular
in the community and high salvage value of the animal. Holstein Friesian is
preferred.
 The crossbreed of Holstein and the Bos indicus breed Sahiwal, known as
Australian Friesian Fahiwal (AFS) is being promoted in the Philippines
 In the selection of the dairy cows, dairy operators look for properly attached
udder and strong feet. These are the best indicators that the cow will remain a
high producer for a long time.

Holstein Friesian
 Originated from Holland
 weighs 1000kg for male and 681kg for female
 Normally black and white-colored
 Yields an average of 6850kg or milk annually
 Very low % fat: 3.70
 Very large udder
 Bos primigenius as ancestor
Ayshire
-The cattle from Holland (Holstein) and the Channel Islands (Guernsey and
Jersey) were used to produce Ayshire.
- With red varying from light to brownish shade to very dark mahogany
 Originated from Scotland
 Weighs 839kg for male and 545 kg for female
 Red and white-colored
 Intermediate milk yield/year: 5400kg
 4.2% fat (intermediate)
 Large, strong udder
 B. pimigenius and B. longifrons as ancestors
Brown Swiss
 Originated from Switzerland
 Weighs 908kg for male and 636kg for female
 Brown in color
 Yields 5650kg milk/year (intermediate)
 4.2% body fat
 Large, strong udder
 B. longifrons as ancestor
Guernsey
 Originated from Guernsey Island
 weighs 773 kg. for males, and 500kg for females
 fawn-colored; with few white hairs
 low milk yield with only 4950 kg per year
 4.2% fat
 Medium size, strong udder
 B. longifrons is their ancestor
 Dary cattle breed known to produce milk high in beta-carotene.
Jersey
 From Jersey Island
 Weighs 682kg for males and 500kg for females
 Gray, fawn, black hair color

o The blackish hairs have white tips to give grey color, or red tips to
give a fawn color; can also be solid black or white spotted.
 Yields only 4650kg annually
 Small, strong udder
 Smallest dairy cattle breed
Milking Shorthorn
 From England
 Weighs 908kg for males and 636kg for females
 Red, roan or white, and/or combination of hair colors
 Yields 4750kg of milk/year
 Low to intermediate fat percentage: 3.90%
 With large, strong udder
Tharparkar
 Originated from West Pakistan
 White hair color
 Milk production: 2,500 kg/lactation
Sahiwal
 Originated from Pakistan
 Reddish with light brownish red hair color
 Produces 2,100kg milk/lactation
Red Sindhi
 Originated from West Pakistan
 Red with occasional white hair color
 Produces 1,700 kg milk/lactation
Breeding - art and science of genetic improvement

- attained through proper mating of selected animals
Breeding Management
 manipulative skills involved in producing the desired type of animals
o The cow comes into estrus the whole year but chiefly in summer.
o These frequent periods of heat make it possible to arrange that every cow in
the herd does not calve at the same time, and that the supply of milk is more
or less distributed throughout the year.
o To achieve this, the cows should be about 45% of the dairy herd.

o An ideal dairy herd should have the following animal composition
Optimum (%)
Cows-in-milk 45.0
Dry Cows 9.5
Bulls 0.5
Total Mature Stock 55.0
Heifers (>10 mos.) 24.0
Young Stock (1 ½-10 mos.) 13.0
Calves (<1 ½ mos.) 8.0
Total Growing Stock 45.0
Total Livestock Inventory 100.0
Selection - process in which some individuals are chosen over others as parents of the next
generation
 Basis of selection: individuals possessing desired traits and characteristics
o Beef Cattle: calf crop, rate of gain (ADG), carcass quality grade, FCE, etc.
o Dairy Cattle: milk yield, milk fat yield, FCE, etc.
Systems of Breeding
1. Inbreeding- is the mating of relatives (with common ancestor within the first 4
generations results in increased homozygosity (the state in which an animal has
more uniform offsprings because their chromosomes tend to be more alike)
a. Linebreeding- is an inbreeding practice whereby several lines of pedigree
are bred back to certain individuals; retains the favorable genetic traits of an
ancestor to its offspring
2. Outbreeding- is the breeding/mating of unrelated individuals (heterozygosity or
less uniform offsprings); offers opportunity to combine better genes through
selection
a. Crossbreeding- mating of individuals from two distinct breeds
b. Upgrading- mating of an animal from an unrecognized breed with a distinct
breed; grade or upgrade is the resulting offspring
Breeding Methods
1.Natural method- conventional use of bull to impregnate a heifer or cow
a. Handmating- a bull in good condition can serve 3-4 times/week or one service
every other day:
i. 18 months old- 1:12-15
ii.2 years old - 1:20-25
iii.3 years old - 1:40-50
b. Pasture mating (2-3months old)
i. 2-3 year old bull- 10-15 cows
ii. 9 years old bull – 20-25 cows
2.Artificial insemination

Process of inducing fertilization in female without the benefit of sexual contact
between male and female animals
Involves collection of semen from bulls and artificially introducing it into the
cows or heifers to achieve pregnancy
Requires detection of heat or estrus to determine when to inseminate
Requires detection of pregnancy to determine whether further insemination is
needed.
Outward physiological manifestation of in-heat animals (signs of estrus)

 Reddening/swelling of vulva
 Mucus discharge from vagina
 Frequent urination
 Restlessness and lack of appetite
 Mounting other animals
 Female stands still when mounted
Some basic parameters related to breeding management

Parameters Goat Sheep Cattle
Weaning age (months) 3 3 6-8
Age at 1 estrus(months)
st 7-9 7-8 8-10
Estrous Cycle (days) 18-24 15-19 18-24
Estrus(heat) Period (hrs) 24-72 18-24 8-30
Occurrence of estrus after 2months 17days 3-8weeks
parturition (postpartum)
Ave. length of gestation 150 150 150
Suitable age for breeding
(months)M 8 12
F 10 15
Male: Female dd(pasture 1:20-25 1:20-25
mating)
Measures of good breeding or reproductive management

 Calving interval = the average length of time (in days) between successive calving
 Calving period = time/period of giving birth to calf
 Conception rate (Pregnancy) = percent of breeding females that conceived versus
the total number of females exposed to the bull or inseminated
 % non-returns = percent of breeding females confirmed pregnant at 90 or 120 days,
by pregnancy diagnosis, versus the total number of females exposed to the bull or
inseminated
= similar to conception rate
 Calving rate = percent of breeding females that give birth versus the total number of
females exposed to the bull or inseminated
 First heat after parturition = the occurrence of estrus after giving birth to a young
 Calf crop = (number of calves weaned/number of cows exposed to the bull) x 100
 Kg calf weaned per cow = average weaning weight of calves time percent calf crop.

 Proven sire = bull which has sufficient data to show its good genetic potential and
excellent breeding performance.
HERD MANAGEMENT
A. Herd division-ensures the appropriate nutrition of various age groups of the herd,
prevents premature breeding which seriously affect the growth of young bulls and
heifers, and prevents high rate of abortion resulting from butting and fighting.
Animals may be divided into the following herds:

1. Pregnant herd – composed of pregnant females. Cows are grouped with the
breeding herd during the breeding season.
2. Breeding herd – consists of dry cows and heifer ready for breeding. After
breeding season, pregnant animals are transferred to the pregnant herd.
3. Heifer herd – composed of heifers not yet ready for breeding. Heifer calves
are included in this herd after weaning.
4. Steers, feeders, or fattening herd – consists of growing cattle and those
fattened for the market.
5. Bull herd – consists of mature males kept mainly for servicing the breeder
cows.
B. Management of Breeding Females
1. Lactating and pregnant cows – once the cows are determined pregnant, the
should be separated from the herd to prevent injury and possible abortion
due to riding, butting, and fighting with other animals. The signs are
cessation of heat and enlargement of abdomen and udder. A more reliable
pregnancy test is through rectal palpitation (manual examination of the
reproductive tract by way of the rectum and colon to verify pregnancy in
cattle) 60-90 days after breeding.
2. Open cows and replacement heifers – open or non-pregnant cows and
replacement heifers should be given the right amount of feed daily to ensure
that they are in the right physiological status.
 Animals with reproductive problems and those which fail to settle after
the clean-up breeding period should be culled.
C. Management of Calves, Growers, and Fatteners

1. Calves – calves should suckle colostrum from their mother 3 hours after
calving.
2. Grower – Usually maintained in the pasture with very little attention. They
are given salt and other mineral supplements.
3. Fatteners – needs a shorter period to each slaughter weight, generally bigger,
mature or nearing maturity. However, 1 ½ - 2 year-old animals weighing
200-300 kg are preferred.
 They may be fattened either in feedlot, on pasture, or in both areas.

D. Management of breeding bulls
 Purebred breeding bull – should be selected because it contributes 50% of
the genetic make-up of the offspring.
 Bulls should be in good condition at the start of the breeding season.
 Selected bull should be allowed to breed when they are at least 2 years old.
 They should be given supplemental feeding of grains or concentrates 60-90
days before and after breeding period depending on their condition.
 A breeding bull should be kept in the herd as long as he is aggressive enough
to mate.
 However, to avoid interbreeding, a bull should be kept out of the herd 2 ½ - 3
years when the offspring reaches the breeding age.
Care of Calves
Many dairy operators often castrate bull calves and grow them out for beef.
Heifer calves are grown to maturity and kept for one lactation to determine how much
milk they can produce.
Dairy calves are allowed to nurse from their dams from 1-3 days old, or in some cases
weaned from their mother’s milk right at birth, and reared on the pail.
It is important to train or teach the calf to drink on the pail.
HERD HEALTH MANAGEMENT

Hygiene and Sanitation Program- aimed at maintaining the contact of the animals with
agents of infectious diseases or carriers/sources of these agents
Hygienic measures:
o confine animals in suitable housing, whenever possible
 ample spaces for feeding, drinking, resting, clean house/disinfect; well-
drained holding area
o regular removal/proper disposal of manure
o proper disposal of dead animals
o check the drinking water supply (portable not contaminated with pathogenic
microorganism)
o quarantine of premises during outbreaks of diseases
o regular grooming of animals
 to remove dirt
 stimulate the skin's oil gland
Regular Vaccination Program

Vaccination - involves exposing an animal to an antigen derived from an infectious
agent so that immune response is stimulated and the animal acquire resistance to
that infectious agent before natural infection occurs
Groups of classic vaccines according to the status of organism or bioactive agent included
1. live antigen
2.killed (inactivated) antigen

a. killed - is for bacterial vaccines
b. inactivated - is for vaccines used against viruses or
toxins
Rendering immunity to animals against infectious disease
1.passive immunization- provides temporary resistance by transferring antibodies
e.g. colostral immunoglobulins
2.active immunization- is the result of natural infection or vaccination which involves

the administration of an antigen
Some Important Diseases in Cattle

1. Foot and Mouth (FMD) - Apthovirus types A, 0, C Phil
2. Hemorrhagic septicemia – Pasteurella multocida
3. Anthrax - Bacillus anthracis
4.Blackleg/malignant - Clostridium chauveilsepticum
5. Tetanus - Clostridium tetani
Bloat
- Rapid fermentation of carbohydrates (build up of CO2, CH4 in the rumen)
- Failure to eructate and/or belch out
Making the animal belch, by:

Massage the distended rumen through the abdominal wall
Tickling the throat
Make the animal walk around for about half an hour
Give a drench (drink) to the animal using the following:
o Solution of sodium bicarbonate (cooking or baking soda) and water.
o Small amount of kerosene (paraffin) in warm milk
o Small bottle of peanut, soya, or linseed oil.
o Very small amount of turpentine in either soya oil or peanut oil.
o Use a commercially available machine
Insert trocar through the hunger’s hollow (left paralumbar fossa)
Regular Parasitic Control Program

Parasitism - most commonly encountered disease in the rural areas; most important
health problem considered by small farmers
Type of parasites:
1. Ectoparasites - found in the external surfaces of the animal's body
2. Endoparasites - inhabit the internal body organ (lungworms, liverflukes, kidney worms,
intestinal worms)
Disease prevention procedures (biosecurity measures)

1. Quarantine measures- isolation of animals upon arrival; strict selection of animals
free from diseases

Usually symptoms of diseases:
Fever, inappetence, coughing, sneezing, diarrhea, constipation, rapid breathing
or thumping, recumbency, poor condition, rough hair coat, runting, abortion,
etc.
2.Isolation of diseased animals
FEEDING MANAGEMENT:
Ruminants (like cattle, carabao, goat and sheep) can subsist on grasses and other
fibrous feed materials. The compound stomach of ruminants enables it to utilize low
quality feeds.
 Rumen - fermentation vat; microbial degradation of ingesta
 Reticulum - microbial degradation; aids in regurgitation
 Abomasum - further digestion
 Omasum - glandular (true) stomach
 Esophageal groove - serve as passageway of milk in young ruminants to flow directly
to the omasum by-passing the other compartments thus preventing microbial action
 Microbial action includes secretion of enzymes that converts carbohydrates and fiber
in feeds to volatile fatty acids (VFAs like acetic acid, propionic acid and butyric acid)
 VFA - primary source of energy in ruminants
Grazing systems
Continuous grazing – animals are free to roam all over the entire pasture and
selectively graze
Leader-follower – the high milk producing cows graze 1st before the low producing
cows
Strip grazing – dividing pastures into smaller strips; smaller number of animals are
allowed to graze a big paddock
Rotational grazing – pastures are divided into paddocks; paddocks are rotated
according to recommended grazing interval
Groups of feeds for ruminant feeding

1. Roughages - contain> 18% crude fiber (CF) e.g. grasses, leaves of fodder trees like
kakawate and ipil-ipil, rice straw, corn, stover, etc.
o Brachiaria mutica (Para grass) – ability to grow well under water—logged
conditions
o Panicum maximum (Guinea grass) – erect bunch grass which is good for
grazing
o Brachiaria decumbens (Signal grass)
o Cynodon plectostachyus (Star grass) – resistant to trampling and grazing
o Pennisetum purpureum (Napier grass) – most extensively used for cut-and-
carry
o Dicanthum aristatum (Alabang X)
o Leucaena leucocephala (Ipil-ipil)
o Imperata cylindrica (Cogon)

o Pueraria phaseoloides (Puero or kudzu)
o Saccharium spontaneum (Talahib)
2. Concentrates - contain < 18% CF, high amount of digestible nutrients e.g. rice bran,
copra meal, etc.
3.Feed additives and mineral supplements - added to improve feed utilization and
balance the nutrients "shotgun treatment" - giving of mineral mixtures to prevent
deficiency
Ration - is the amount of feed provided to the animal in one day

Nutrient requirements - is the amount of nutrients required by the animal to meet the
targeted production performance or output
Feeding strategy
o Confinement feeding (zero grazing) - cut and carry feeding system
 lower energy expenditure for foraging
 prevents trampling on high yielding pasture
 lesser exposure to stresses imposed by weather changes, parasite
infection
o Tethering – restraining an animal with a rope or chain so as to allow limited
movement.
 practiced by small hold farmers
 amount of feed intake is affected by the length of rope and frequency of
tethering which is being dictated by the amount of available forage in
the area
o Extensive grazing- animal freely forage feeds by itself in an area that may be
enclosed by fences
Feed Consumption Capacity

Daily dry matter (DM) consumption ranges from 2.5% of the body weight in mature
animals to3.0% in younger or growing animals.
In practical feeding, additional 10-15% of the daily amount DM should be given to cover for
animals feed preferences as not all the feeds will be consumed.
Feed wastage in the bran results trampling of the animal and contamination with animal's
excreta. Animals will not consume such conditions of feeds.
Additional feed resource:

Leaves of leguminous fodder trees like ipil-ipil can supply up to 30% of the total
feed requirement. Legume leaves are good protein source which can replace the use of
expensive protein feeds.
RECOMMENDED FEEDING PROGRAM (Amount per day)

 Calves/Yearling
o Birth to 5 days – Colostrum: 10-12% of BW
o 6 days to 3 months – Cow’s milk: 10-12% of BW

- Creep feed (NLT 20% CP): 1.0-1.3% BW
- Soilage/Roughage: Ad libitum
o 3 months to 7 months – Soilage/Roughage: Ad libitum
- Creep feed (NLT 20% CP): 1-2% of BW
 Growers/Stockers
o Grower/stocker (0-0.25 kg ADG) – Soilage/Roughage: Ad libitum (approx. 2-
3% of BW, DM basis)
- Mineral-salt lick: free choice
o Fattener/Feeder (200-300kg BW; 0.5-1.0 ADG) – Soilage/Roughage (60%-70%
Ration): 2.5-3% of BW, DM basis
- Concentrate mix, NLT 18% CP, (30-40% of ration): 0.75-
1.5% of BW
 Breeder Animals
o Pregnant cow – Soilage/Roughage: Ad libitum
- Concentrate mix, NLT 16% CP: 0.75-1.0% of BW
- Mineral-salt lick: Free choice
o Lactating cow – Soilage/Roughage: Ad libitum
- Concentrate mix, NLT 16% CP: 1-2kg.
o Dry cow and heifer – Soilage/Roughage: Ad libitum (2-3% of BW, DM basis)
- Concentrate mix, NLT 18% CP (for flushing): 3 weeks
before breeding
- Mineral-salt lick: Free choice
o Bull – Soilage/Roughage: Ad libitum (2-3% of BW, DM basis)
- Concentrate mix, NLT 18% CP: 1-2kg: add 2kg after each
service
MILK PRODUCTION
After parturition, the level of milk production rises rapidly, until peak lactation is
reached in 2-6 weeks, then declines slowly until drying off or towards the end of
lactation.
Milk secretion declines more rapidly after the 5th month of pregnancy than in non-
pregnant cows.
Types of Milking parlor

Herringbone parlor –cows stand in an elevated platform in an angled or herringbone
fashion facing away from the operator area.
Tandem parlor –cows are arranged head to tail in a row
Parallel (side-by-side/ abreast) parlor – cows stand on an elevated parlor at 90° angle
facing away from the operator area.
Rotary parlor

HOUSING
The functions of animal shelter are as follows:
Protection against climatic elements (rain, wind and temperature)
Protection against losses due to theft, predators, infectious diseases and traumatic
injuries
Housing provision is necessary to protect the animals from the extremes of climatic
elements, as follows:
Rain – heavy rain may penetrate the body covering of an animal and decrease its
insulation value
Wind-general min. requirement of 0. m/s velocity; up to 1.0 m/s when the
temperature is nearing the upper critical
Temperature-10 to 20 °C mean daily T° range “comfort zone” maintenance of
homeothermy
Radiation-heat load considerably increased by direct radiation from sun and those
reflected from clouds or ground
Humidity-varying abilities to sweat and in descending order as follows: horse,
donkey, cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep and pig
-poultry do not have sweat glands
Housing design must suit the desired performance and control of husbandry and breeding
measures such as feeding, breeding and selection, reproductive events, rearing of the
young and sanitation and hygiene.
In feedlot cattle production

Structure should be built with ample space for efficient health maintenance and
manure management.
Items to be included:
1. Roofed, concrete floor squeeze for animal restraint
2. Flow-through configuration to minimize distance to be traveled by the animal
3. Durability of materials
Other farm structures

1. Loading ramp
2. Processing (routine operations: marketing, treatment deworming, spraying, etc.)
3. Feeding pens
floor space per animal 3-5 m2
1 side lined with feeding trough
o0.45 m (18 in) elevated from the floor to trough bottom
oshallow trough floor (prevent feed decomposition)
o0.45-0.6 m width

Types of housing facility
Conventional stall barn – type of housing facility wherein each cow is confined in
stanchion or tie stalls
Free-stall barn – type of housing facility wherein the cows are free to move among
resting, feeding and watering areas.
o In tropical countries, orientation of housing facility should be east-west
Working Facilities
Curved Working Chutes
-takes advantage of an animal’s natural behavior to turn away from potential danger
or unpleasant sites or sounds.
-prevent the animal from seeing the squeeze chute or truck until they are almost
upon it. A facility with solid sides likely to require a catwalk.
Minimum floor space requirement

Enterprise Floor space, m2/hd
Feedlot Shed area 4
Loafing area 5
Holding pen Up to 270 kg 1.3
270-540kg 1.6
Dairy cattle Calves (up to 3 mos.) 1
Calves 3-6 mos. 2
Calves 7-12 mos. 3
Yearlings 4
Heifer/Steer 5
Milking and Dry cows 6
Cows in maternity stalls 10
Minimum feeding space requirement

Enterprise Feeding space linear,
mm/hd
Feedlot 750
Ranch
Dairy cattle Calves 3-6 mos. 450
Calves 7-12 mos. 500
Yearlings, Heifer, Milking and Dry 750
cows; Cows in maternity stalls
Manure Management:
Fresh manure
oabout 5% of a feedlot animal's liveweight
owhich is 2x its 2.5% DM daily ration
ocontains 20-25% DM, 75-80% H20

Government efforts to develop the Philippine Dairy Industry:
The most recent is the enactment of R.A. 7884 (Dairy Development Act of 1995)
oThis act integrates all government dairy development programs under the
National Dairy Administration (NDA)
The Dairy Training and Research Institute (DTRI) under the Institute of Animal
Science, CAFS, UPLB is tasked to conduct research and training in dairy production
and technology.
Ideal parameters in dairy production

Parameter Ideal Value
Lactation period 305 days
Milking cows in entire herd 40 to 80%
Milking cows in adult herd 60 to 74%
Dry period 50 to 60 days
Age at 1st breeding 14 to 15 months
Age at 1st calving 24 months
Calving interval 12 to 13 months
Average days open 85 to 110 days
Average days open to 1st breeding 45 to 60 days
Cows open more than 120 days <10%
Culling rate due to reproductive problems <10%
Services per conception <1.7
Conception rate >50%
Abortion rate <5%
Calf mortality <5%
Cow mortality <2%
Incidence of clinical mastitis <5%
Definition of terms in Dairy cattle production:

Artificial Vagina – used to collect semen
Alveoli (S. Alveolus) – sac-like structure where milk is synthesized and secreted
Chin-ball mating device – used in detecting animals in heat wherein a halter device is
worn under the chin of a vasectomized bull or androgenized cow
Cotyledon – placental side of the attachment point to the uterus
Crop residues – parts of plants that remain in the field after harvesting the primary
crop and is used as feeds for ruminants
Dairy grade – offspring resulting from mating of purebred sire with a grade/native or
between dairy animals not purebred.
Freemartin – female of a male-female twin calf
Intensive/Indoor system – Production system wherein the animals are completely
confined
Longevity – Referred to as the length of productive life of a dairy cow and is usually
measured in years of age or number of completed lactations.

Mammary gland involution – enables the body of the dam to replenish fat and protein
that previous lactations may have depleted
Mastitis – Inflammation of the udder
Milk Ejection Reflex/Milk let-down – movement of milk from lumen of the alveoli into
the major ducts and to the bottom part of the udder.
Progesterone – Hormone that is detected when using a bovine pregnancy test kit.
Scorecard - a list containing a systematic, logical, brief and ideal description of the
different parts of the animal with their numerical value.
Silage – Fermented roughage conserving its nutrient content and preserving the forage
for a longer period of time especially during the dry season
Superovulation – Treatment of a female with gonadotropins (typically FSH) to increase
the number of oocytes that are selected to become dominant follicles and to ovulate.
CARABAO
 Scientific Name of carabao: Bubalus bubalis/ Bubalus bubalis carabanensis

 Scientific Name of Buffalo: Bubalus mindorensis
The water buffalo or carabao remains important in the Philippine agriculture because:
 It is an integral part of crop production system
 It provides major source of draft power in almost all farming operations
 It also provides additional income from the sale of milk and live animals either
for slaughter or breeding purposes.
Terminologies
 Carabao- Philippine water buffalo or swamp carabao
 Cara- prefix connected to the sex, class and meat of carabao as introduced by Dr.
Valente Villegas
 Carabeef- meat of carabao
 Carabull- breeding bull at any age
 Caracow- mature female that already given birth
 Caraheifer- female carabao below 2 years of age and has not yet given birth
 Chevron- two diagonal stripes on the ventral side of the neck, one near the brisket
and the other near the jaw.
 Draft animal- carabao used for work
 Silent heat- estrous behavior of carabao wherein the animal is physiologically “in
heat” but does not show any visible signs
 Wallow- to roll in mud or water
 Yoke- a piece of arched or curved timber or wood fitted on the neck of draft carabao.
Types of Water Buffalo/Carabao

 Swamp type- 2n=48
o Breeds available are the Philippine carabao (kalabaw), Cambodian and
Chinese buffaloes
o Light gray to gray, white bands below the jaw and across the chest and legs

o Sickle-shaped horns
o 1.5-2kg of milk/day
 River type or Riverine- 2n=50
o Breeds available are Bulgarian Murrah, Anatolian Buffalo (Turkey), Azeri or
Caucasian (India), Bhadawari (India), Egyptian Bufaloes (Egypt), Jafarabadi
(India), Mediterranean Italian Buffalo, and Murrah Buffalo (Most famous)
o Black or dark gray in color
o White tightly curled or drooping straight horn
o Dairy type buffalo can produce 8-10 liters of milk
Breed Distribution (BAI, 2010)

Philippine Carabao – 81.6%
PhilMurrah Crossbreed – 16.7%
Murrah – 1.7%
Trends in carabao population

 Total population is 3.11M head of carabao in 2002
 About 99.8% belongs to small hold farmers
 The decline (1980-1994) in population can be attributed to:
o Low productivity
o High extraction rate
o High mortality rate
 The increase in inventory from 1995 onwards can be attributed to:
o Carabeef importation
o Increased government support
Buffalo Production Systems

 Based on the number of animals raised in the farm, the carabao production system
can be classified as:
o Small holder or Backyard system99.8%=backyard
o Commercial system 0.2% commercial
Estimated Value of Domestic Carabao Production

 The estimated value of production in 2001 was PhP 13.7 Billion
o 8.16 B in the form of draft
o 5.19 B in the form of meat
o 300 M in the form of milk
o 95M in the form of hide
Changing role of the carabao

 In some areas of the country buffaloes are being displaced with small tractors;
especially in:
o Irrigation farms =15-35%
o Rainfed areas=3-5%
o Hilly land = 0%

 However, in small farms, because of the economy of scale, the use of buffalo as draft
animal remains sustainable.
Laws concerning the carabao

 RA 7307, otherwise known as the Philippine Carabao Act of 1992 by Pres. Cory
Aquino
o Philippine Carabao Center (PCC) was created as an attached agency of the
Department of Agriculture; became operational in 1993.
o Conserve, promote and propagate the Philippine carabao as source of draft,
meat, milk and hide, through Artificial Insemination and natural mating.
o Avail of quality stocks
o Benefit from technology transfer activities on the care and management of
carabao and the processing of meat and milk
o Encourage backyard dairy development in rural areas
o Increase carabao population growth to keep pace with the growing population
 RA 8435 or Animal Welfare Act was signed into law in 1997 by Pres. Ramos
o To protect and promote the welfare of all animals by supervising and
regulating the establishment and operations of all facilities utilized for
breeding, maintaining, treating or training all animals
o This law superseded the EO 626 or the carabao slaughter ban
o Allows the slaughter of carabaos/ buffalos at any age provided that the
animal is not pregnant
 EO 626 Carabao Slaughter Ban

o EO No. 8 of 1954 prohibiting the slaughter of carabao regardless of age, sex
and physical condition purposely to conserve work animals
o Superseded by other EO’s identifying a specific term period for slaughter and
age limit.
o EO 626 of 1980 locally known as 7-11, allows the slaughter of male buffalo 7
years old and above and female carabaos 11 yrs. old and above
Breeding
 The carabao can be bred throughout the year. Mating season usually takes place
during the wet season
 High incidence of silent heat
 Estrous cycle usually occurs every 21 days (range from18-25days)
 Weight at breeding is about 250-300 kg
 Age at breeding is about 2.5 to 3 yrs
 Estrus period (sexual receptivity) is 18hrs (range from 5-36hrs)
 Ovulation takes place on the average of 15hrs after estrus
Signs of Heat
 The female stands still when mounted by a bull or another female (standing heat).
This is the best sign of estrus

 Mounting other animals in the herd
 Swelling of the vulva and reddening of the vaginal epithelium
 Mucus discharge of varying viscosity from the vagina, it is clear and watery at first
and becomes turbid and sticky towards the end of estrus
 Mounting other animals in the herd
 Animal becomes restless and lacks appetite
Note: Not all these signs may be manifested by a carabao in estrus
When to breed or inseminate:

 Breeding can be done by natural mating or artificial insemination
 Best time to inseminate is towards the end of estrus, in the latter 2/3 of standing
estrus or within few hours after estrus
 As a rule of thumb, apply a.m.-p.m. rule which is inseminate in the morning and
repeat in the morning and repeat in the afternoon or inseminate in the afternoon
and repeat in the morning.
Breeding Management
 Heat is checked every 18-24days, then 39-45days
 Conduct pregnancy diagnosis (PD) at 50-60 days
 Confirmatory PD at 80-90days
 Cows bred at least 30-60 days after calving, induced estrus if possible
Some Significant breeding observations:

 All first generation offsprings have chromosome number of 2n=49
 Inter se mating of F1s resulted to offsprings (F2) with 48, 49, and 50 chromosome
numbers having 1:2:1 ratio.
 The unbalanced chromosome is due to the fusion of chromosome 4 and 9.
Gestation period and others

 Average gestation period is 320 day (range 295 to 339 days)
 Age at first calving is about 3 to 4 yrs. old
 Calving interval may range from 18-24 months
Benefits from crossbreeding

 Increase in milk production- from 1-1.5 to 4-6 liters per day
 Increase in growth rate – from 250-500g to 800-1200 g per day; meat quality is as
good as beef
 Maintain draftability of crossbred
o Due to heavier bodyweight, it can carry or pull heavier loads
o It can plow as efficient as the PC
New developments in buffalo reproduction

 In vitro maturation oocyte

 In vitro fertilization
 Embryo transfer
 Cloning
Act of giving birth (Caracalving)

 Normal duration
o Labor stage- 2-6hrs
o Expulsion of fetus- 0.5-3hrs
o Expulsion of placenta- 0.5-8hrs
 If the placenta will not be expelled after 8-12 hours, then it called retained placenta
and time to call the veterinarian
 Dystocia- means difficult birth
Signs of parturition
 Presence of milk in the mammary gland
 Swollen teats
 Presence of thick mucus
 Water bag appears first
 For normal delivery, the forelegs appear first, followed by head resting on the
forefeet
 Expulsion of the fetus
o Animal in standing position
o Indication of normal delivery
o Calf is fully covered with fetal membrane
 The cow will normally remove the membrane by eating it
 If the cow is weak, it needs our assistance
Post parturition
 Calf is fully groomed and need to suckle the colostrums immediately (within 1 hour
of birth)
 Cut the navel cord about 2-3 inches from the base and dip in iodine solution
Calf Management immediately after calving:

 Clean the mucus that clogged the nostril;
 Remove any placental membrane and wipe to dry;
 Tie and cut navel cord and apply iodine solution
 Transfer the calf to dry-bedded pen.
 Provide clean water
Pointers in calf feeding

 Protect the calf against infectious diseases thru passive immunity from colostrums
o Right amount- 1.5-2L/feeding
o Right frequency of feeding- 2 to 3 times/day
o Right temperature- 38⁰C

 Promote early rumen development
o Milk is expensive
o Mix feed (concentrate) and hay are cheaper and can hasten rumen
development
Management of post-weaned calves: 3-6months

 Transfer to a new pen
 Feed with ration that can support 500g ADG
 Monitor health condition
 Deworm if needed
 Provide mineral lick
Management of heifer
 Buffalo heifers should be fed properly to reach a mature weight of 300-350kg
 Allows to interact with animals when it nears its pubertal age (16moths)
 Deworm if needed
 Provide mineral lick
Management of Pregnant Heifer and Cow: 1st and 2nd trimester

 Provide feed for body maintenance and for developing fetus
 Monitor the body condition score (BCS)
Feeding Practices
 Carabaos are raised very extensively
 The animals are allowed to graze by tethering in any available areas with native
grasses or allowed to graze in rice paddies after rice harvest
 It is common scenario to see a young boy riding a carabao to graze it along roads
and waterways
 Feeding system:
o All-roughages system
 Forage in the form of pasture grasses soilage, silage, hay, etc.
 Crop residues such as rice straw, corn stover, sugarcane tops, etc.
 Rice straw feeding is common in rice producing areas,
sugarcane tops is usually used in the Visayas.
 Supplementation of rice bran, molasses, and salt is being
practiced especially when the animal is being milked or during
heavy work periods.
 Cut and carry system or grazing/tethering.
o Roughage-Concentrate system
 Ratio 70:30
 Addition of concentrate feeds in the ration e.g. grains (corn), oil meals
(copra meal), root crops (cassava), milling and factory by-products
(rice bran)
 Use of backyard and feedlot fattening operations
o Salt is sometimes added to drinking water.

Feeding Management
 Chopped napier grass (45days)- ad libitum, year-round
 Flushing – feeding livestock with plenty of feeds to make them gian weight just
before or during breeding season; can be done by giving up to 5kg per day per
animal during the first 3 months post-calving depending on daily milk production
(300g to 500g/L milk produced)
 Concentrate feed is given during milking
 Use brewer’s spent grain- occasionally
 Water provided at all times- using drip system
House for feedlot fattening

 In an open confinement
o Mature feeders = 4 to 4.7 sq. m.
o Yearling = 2.8 to 3.7 sq. m.
 Pen for calves
o Measures 1mx1.5m
o Elevated, about 1 foot high
o Provided with hay bedding
o Provided with waterer and pail for the concentrate
 Housing for mature carabaos
o Each animal is allocated 6 to 8 sq. m of floor space
o With feeding trough, waterer and shower
Animal Health Management

 Deworming program
o Calves
 At 1 week of age
 At 1 month of age
 At 3moths of age
 Then, every 4-6 months
o Mature animals
 Every 4-6moths
o Dewormers
 Albendazole, 1ml/10kg BW
 Triclabendazole, 1ml/10kg BW
o Vaccination program (FMD &Hemosep)
 At 3 months of age (initial shot)
 At 4 months of age (booster shot)
 Then, every 6 months
o Tuberculosis test
 Once a year
o California mastitis test (CMT) for milking animals
 Once a year

Bloat or Tympany- is a distention of the abdomen due to gas trapped in the rumen
 Frothy bloat- caused by over eating legumes
 Remedy: to puncture on left paralumbar fossa or hunger hollow using a
trocar to release the gas
Nutrients for Carabaos
Comparative composition of milk

Composition Cattle Carabao
Water 87.28 80.16
Fat 3.80 8.60
Protein 3.30 5.20
Sugar 4.90 5.10
Mineral 0.72 0.94
Sugar 4.90 5.10
1.Water- Buffaloes are observed to take in more water than cattle per day, especially
when fed relatively dry materials.
a. 300kg average weight will need about 20-25L/day up to 35L at the height of
summer (6-12% of BW)
b. Lactating animals need up to 45 L/day
c. Evaporation losses could amount to 20 L in summer
2.Energy
a. The main sources of energy in the diets are carbohydrates, fats and protein.
b. Fibers form a big component of carabao diet and their digestibility ranges from
high in succulent and young plant parts to very low in residues and by-
products
c. Concentrates feed as grains, CHO are readily available, more expensive not
affordable by small farmers
3.Proteins
a. Are broke down into nitrogen and alpha keto acids
b. N is incorporated by bacteria to form microbial protein which in turn passes
through the rest of the digestive tract; broken down into amino acids and
subsequently absorbed in the small intestines. Some by-pass proteins are
similarly digested in the small intestine.
4.Vitamins and Minerals

a. Microbial activity in the rumen makes it possible for the carabao to dispense
with some vitamins such as B-vitamins, C and K on the diet, since these are
normally synthesized by the microorganism.
b. Vitamins A, D and E should be provided in the diet or if the feed does not
supply enough, supplemental vitamins are needed.
c. Mineral elements must be consistently included in the diet as they are
constantly excreted from the animal’s body

d. Calcium and Phosphorus are constituents of skeletal parts and needed in
bigger amounts
e. Other minerals required include sodium, sulfur, chlorine, potassium,
magnesium, iodine, iron, manganese, zinc, copper, cobalt and selenium.
Weaning
 Under smallholder operation, weaning is 8 to 12 months
 Early weaning can also be done 4-5 months
 In commercial operation, weaning (from the dam) is done as early as 3-5days after
calving and allow the calf to drink milk from the pail
Other management practices

 Branding and castration can be done at the age of 6months or after weaning
 Castration can be done by:
o Slit method- this is done by making incision on the scrotal sac (more reliable
and recommended)
o Burdizzo pincher or the bloodless method- this is done by crushing the
spermatic cord and blood vessels and that supply blood to the testicles
 Animal ID- Uses eartags, tattoo or notch; Horn branding is also practiced
SMALL RUMINANTS
 In sheep and goats, the breeds are classified according to:
o Primary purpose (meat, milk, or hair/wool)
o Type of fibers it grows (fine, medium, long, or carpet, wool; or hair)
o In sheep, color of their fleece (black, white, red, or mottled); and
o Specific physical or production characteristics eg. Fat-tailed sheep; angora goat
for mohair
Differences between sheep and goats

Parameters Sheep Goat
Body covering (generally) Wool (fleece) Hair (hair coat)
Tail posture Hangs down Stands up
Horn Spiral growth (naturally Narrower, more upright, less
polled) curved (naturally horned)
Long hair growth Mane Beard
Social behavior Flocking instinct Curious/independent
Tolerance to pain Amazingly high (don’t show) Low
Habitat Entirely domesticated Abundant in the wild
Dietary differences
Feeding habit Grazer (biological Browser (biological
lawnmower) herbicide) bi-pedal stance
Pen feeding Eat more low quality feed Eat more high quality feed

GOAT
Scientific name: Capra hircus
Some attributes:
“biological herbicide"
browsing ability (browser)
diet: 40% grasses and 60% forbs (shrubs, herds)
bipedal stance
ability to nibble barks of trees
mobile lips (prehensile organ)
walk long distances in search for food
very selective in terms of feed preference (young shoot first is eaten)
Some breeds of goat in the country

Breeds Origin Characteristics
1.Anglo Nubian England Long wide pendulous ears
Convex roman nose
Anglo Nubian USA All purpose(meat, milk, hide)
-proved better suited in the tropics
-Low mortality and higher fertility than that
of a local goat
2.Saanen Switzerland Cream to White
Known to have the longest milking period
“queeny of dairy goat”
Alert breed, upright ears
-although able to produce very high milk
yields under stall feeding husbandry, were
not able to reach genetic potential otherwise
3.Alpine France/Switzerland Straight face; with clear pure white markings
at each side of the belly; dairy type
-shows erratic breeding and lactation
performance when situated in humid tropics
4.Toggenburg Switzerland Erect ears carried forward; white ears with
dark spot in the middle; two strips down the
muzzle white from hock (hind legs) and knee
(for legs) downward; oldest known dairy
goat
5.La Mancha Oregon/Spain Straight face; very distinctive ears types
(rudimentary); “gopher ear” (like squirrel or
tortoise) and “elf ear”; dairy
6. Boar South Africa The name means farmer in Dutch to
distinguish it from the Angora goats; meat
goats; the first goat breed involved in meat
production performance testing; horned with
lop ears

7.Native goat Small, stocky and lowest; believed to have
originated from Katjang breed.
Production Systems
Tethering – goats are tied each to a rope about 6-10 meters long; to provide
enough nutrients, the animal is transferred once or twice to areas where it will
have access to fresh browsing.
Extensive production – goats are usually kept in small herds of about 5 to 10
animals and let loose to browse on waste vegetation and hedges.
Intensive production – either on cultivated fodder or pastures.
Integration to plantation agriculture – this system can be either extensive,
intensive or semi-extensive; it involves the integration of goat raising into
established plantations of rubber, oil palm or coconut.
Sheep and goat production

Goats tend to be prevalent on small scale farms and among the landless.
This is because of the economics of the goat; goats require little initial capital
to purchase and require little in the way of input cost
As a small animal that has “a higher reproductive rate and higher digestive
efficiency for cellulose than sheep” the goat is well suited to areas where the
vegetation is coarse, such as may semi-arid and arid regions.
Goats are inquisitive feeders, with a feed range from herbage and tree bark to
skins and cloth
In the Philippines, an estimated 99% of the goat population is in the hands of
smallholders, with flock size of about 3 to 5.
Goat Breeds and Breeding

 Highly developed European breeds for production of milk and/or meat are in great
demand in many tropical countries and have already been introduced in many
places, including Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines.
 However, as purebreds, these goats either have difficulty adjusting to tropical
climates or only excel in intensive systems similar to those found in Europe.
 Introduction of European breeds can improve productivity; however, within
current systems, attention to the specific breed and careful study of cross-breeds
is necessary.
 In many cases, the productive potential of local breeds has not yet been reached
 Introduction of new breeds may not be necessary and require changes in goat
herding and management systems that are too extreme.
 There are approximately 300 breeds and types of goat, the majority of which live in
tropics and sub-tropics
o Little or not attention is paid to control of breeding or selection for
performance.
 Smaller native breeds, such as the indigenous Kacang goat in Indonesia, can
produce more meat than larger, faster growing foreign breeds.

Housing
Housing provision is necessary to protect the animals from the extremes of climatic
elements, as follows:
o Rain – heavy rain may penetrate the body covering of an animal and decrease
its insulation value
o Wind-general min. requirement of 0. m/s velocity; up to 1.0 m/s when the
temperature is nearing the upper critical
o Temperature-10 to 20 °C mean daily T° range “comfort zone” maintenance of
homeothermy
o Radiation-heat load considerably increased by direct radiation from sun and
those reflected from clouds or ground
o Humidity-varying abilities to sweat and in descending order as follows: horse,
donkey, cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep and pig
-poultry do not have sweat glands
The location of the goat/sheep house inside the farm should be:
o Accessible
o Protected by natural windbreaks; and
o Easily supplied with potable water
Minimum space requirement for goats
Category Zero Grazing Daytime Grazing
Breeding females 1.5 0.8
Breeding Bucks 2.0 1.5
Young stock 0.8 0.5
Loafing area – an area with ample space allocated for goats to exercise outside its
confinement and can also serves as gathering area before the goats are driven back
to respective pens; a fenced lot adjacent to the goat shed that must be provided at
about 2-3 sqm per head of goat complete with feeding rack and watering through
Quarantine area – an area used to separate and restrict the movement of well animals
who may have been exposed to a communicable disease to see if they become ill.
Practices necessary for a healthy goat herd:

1.Start with a healthy breeder stocks (animal selection)
2.Good housing provision
3.Deworm newly arrived stocks effectively
4.Practice animal segregation
5.Practice vaccination
6.Check for presence of parasites and treat effectively
7.Provide salt lick and adequate amount of water
8.Confine animals during rainy days; graze when dews on the grasses already
subsided
9.Check buck/ram (for infectious disease) prior to joining the breeding herd

SHEEP
Scientific Name: Ovies aries
Some attributes:
Biological lawnmower
o Essentially grazers
o Flocking instinct- pecking order, a social behavior related to hierarchy of
dominance.
o Less selective of feed offered than goats- can utilize rice straw
o Feed preference and digestive efficiency
Comparable to cattle
Less efficient than goats and water buffaloes in utilizing highly
fibrous roughages
Some breeds of sheep

Breeds Origin Characteristics
1. Barbados Barbados Island Adapted to wide range of environment; high
Blackbelly with African reproductive efficiency; hair type: sweet
Ancestry mutton; black colors covers under parts
completely extending up the neck and down
the insides of the legs
2. Priangan Indonesia Primary for ram fighting and meat; Thin-
tailed; often lacks external ears
3. Shropshire England Wool-type; believed to be as one of the
ancestors of the Philippine sheep
4. Suffolk England Wool-type; meat, dark colored feces and legs
5. Merino Spain Finest wool producer; the other ancestor of
Philippine sheep
6. Dorset England Reproductively very prolific; breeds year
round; widely used to produce hothouse
lambs; Mature ewe weighs 150 to 200 lbs;
Rams weigh 225 to 275 lbs.
7. Katahin Sheep Developed in USA Mix of hardy, prolific breeds, including native
hair sheep from the Virgin Islands; developed
to be hardy in hot or cold climates, non-
seasonal breeders, with multiple lambs.
Sheep Production in the Philippines

Philippine Sheep (PS) introduction
o By early Spanish explorers
o Brought from Asiatic mainland
Early importation (BAI Recorder Vol. 17, 1955. p.15)
o 1908 – 10 Shropshire from USA
o 1912 – 7 Merino, 9 Lincoln from Australia
o 1918 – few Indian sheep from Bombay;
o 1925, 1928, 1929 – Shropshire from USA;

o 1938 – 20 Indian sheep from o. Africa;
o 1947 – 9 Dumba sheep; 1 pair Blackhead Persian sheep from Pakistan; 35
Shropshire and 30 Southdown from USA
Housing: floor space requirement for sheep (m2)

Category Zero Grazing Daytime Grazing
Breeding females 1.5 0.8
Breeding Bucks 2.0 1.5
Young stock 0.8 0.5
The estimation of the floor area of the goat house should be based on the number of
breeding females with consideration of some of its parameters. This includes:
conception rate at 80%
kidding interval of 8 months;
an average kidding size of 1.5 kids per kidding;
a disposal age of one year for growing animals
an annual replacement rate of 20% for female breeders
 80% livability rate up to 1yr of age
However, the idea for possible expansion should be considered in the lay-out of the
goat house.
For Example: 25-doe level
1. Breeder females (doe) 25 does x 1.5 m2 per doe = 37.5 m2
2. Breeder male (buck)  1buck x 2.0 m2 per buck = 2m2
3. Young stock
a.25 does x 80% conception rate x 1.5 kids/kidding x 1.5 kidding/yr x 80%
livability rate = 36 offspring/yr x 0.8 m2 per animal = 28.8 m2
Total floor area = 68.3m2

Total number of goats = 62 head
Feeding space – 0.4m per animal

Fool elevation – 1.0-1.5m above ground (for ease of manure collection disposal)
Fencing is needed to effectively control the animals in the pasture

 Goat- 1.5m high (made of hog wire)
 Sheep- 1.0 high (made of hog wire)
 Cattle – 1.0 high (made of 3 strands of barbed wire)

Some infectious diseases of goats and sheep
Disease Cause Symptoms
Bacterial scours in Multiple bacterial agents Occurs as early as 24 hrs after birth;
kids (enteropathogens) pasty yellowish white feces later
becoming more liquid with fermented
or pungent odor; kid weak with sunken
eyeball unsteady gait and rough coat,
mortality due to dehydration
Bacterial pneumonia Multiple bacterial agents Fever, inability to suckle, nasal
(pneumopathogens) discharge, coughing and respiratory
distress. Gradual emancipation may
terminate as pneumonia-enteritis
combination.
Death common.
Infectious arthritis Multiple bacterial agents Swollen knee, lameless, pain if pressure
(big knee) acting singly or together applied of affected joint. Fever may be
(Erysipelorthrix, present. Joints involved are hock,
Corynebacterium, carpus, elbow and stifle. Animal prefers
Chlammydia recumbency, appetite affected with
Streptococcus, gradual physical deterioration.
Straphylococcus, etc.)
Predisposing:
Dirty or unsanitary pens
and areas of confinement

Mastitis Multiple bacterial causes Hot painful and swollen udder, may
with Streptococcus, became red due to inflammation later
Pasturella, Corybacteria changing to dark-reddish blue indicating
and Eschericha mostly necrosis of udder tissues. Milk maybe
commonly noted. Also bloodstained, may contain flakes or
caused by Mycoplasma, clots. Fever, loss of appetite, depression
Norchardia and Candida and dehydration. Gait or movement of
spp. doe is affected
Contagious Chlamaldia and Sore eyes, congestion, lachrimation,
ophthalmia or Mycoplasma spp. photophobia, gluing of the eyelids.
infectious Corneal opacity, ulceration and pus
keratoconjunctivitis formation. Blindness.
Contagious ecthyma Virus Scabby, lesions in the lips, muzzle,
or sore mouth eyelids, udder, teats and feet. Warty
growth develops in some areas which
are deep. May become necrotic or
ulcerous.
Foot and Mouth Virus. Types identified in Fever. Vesicles and erosion and between
Disease (FMD) the Philippines: A, O, C. hooves, coronary band (junction
between skin and hoof), teats and udder,
oral mucosa and tongue. Raw
ulcerations follow rupture of vesicles;
stringly or foamy salivation, smacking of
the lips, difficulty in feed ingestion;
staggering gait and lameness.
Abortion in pregnant animals.
Foot rot Bacteria Spherophorus Sudden lameness when acute. Typical to

necrophorus see foul smelling ulcers, interdigital cleft
swollen and painful and may worsen to
Predisposing: wounds in cause fever and other systemic signs
the feet, wet and muddy
ground
Hemorrhagic Bacteria (Pasteurella High fever, loss of appetite. Respiratory
septicemia multocida) distress, salivation, nasal discharge,
Predisposing: climatic swelling of throat and brisket congestion
stress, fatigue, transport, of mucus membrane, diarrhea becoming
nutritional and parasitic bloody later.
stresses, etc.
Anthrax Bacteria (Bacillus Sudden onset of fever, depression and
anthracis) loss of appetite
Blackleg Bacteria (Clostridium Sudden death in acute cases. Less acute;
chauvoei) depression, fever, rapid respiration and
suspended rumination. Typically, hot
painful swelling in thigh and leg
muscles. Cracking sensation on
palpation and swelling due to gas in
tissues.
Tetanus Bacteria (Clostridium Early stages characterized by rigidity
tetani) and stiffness of muscles; slightly gait.
Late stages with titanic convulsions,
prolapsed of 3rd eyelid, stiff tail, head
and neck thrown back; hyperexcitability
Common Parasitic Disease of Goats and Sheep

Parasitic Various species of Poor body condition, anemia, diarrhea,
gastroenteritis parasitic nematodes in potbelly and weakness
the digestive tract.
Young animals most
susceptible.
Parasitic pneumonia Dictyocaulus spp. (adult As in parasitic gastroenteritis for general
stages in the bronchioles signs.
of lungs) Specific symptoms include persistent
husky coughing, respiratory distress
Tapeworm infection Monies spp. Same as other internal parasitism;
passage of tapeworm segment in the
feces.
Liver fluke infection
Fasciola gigantic and F. Symptoms similar to parasitic
hepatica. Requires gastroenteritis
intermediate hosts
Coccidiosis Protozoa are generally Common only I kids and yearlings.
not a primary condition Diarrhea later becoming bloody and
but exist with other profuse dehydration and anemia
enteric diseases.
Cutaneous myasis or Maggots of calliphorine Open wounds or sores with squirming
bowfly infestation flies maggots. May terminate toxemia
gangrene or septic absorption.

Metabolic diseases of goats and sheep
Bloat Occurs only under Swollen left flank, which is resonant
condition of management when tapped. Signs of colic such as
specially when feed lash uneasiness, difficult respiration,
herbage bloating and absence of rumen
movements.
Milk fever Actual: deficiency of Initially, does show uncoordinated gait.
calcium in the There are fine tremors seen in the
bloodstream muscles. Weakness, staggering and
finally recumbency. Doe becomes
Predisposing: grazing on comatose and may lie in starched
young and rapidly position with head twisted in the flank.
growing forage, fasting or Rapid breathing and frothing from nose
starvation in the last and mouth. Death occurs within a few
stages of pregnancy or hours to a few days.
during lactation, all
forms of climatic and
environmental stresses;
heavy concentrate
feeding without calcium
Grass tetany Actual deficiency of Initially, uneasiness, extreme sensitivity
(hypomagnesia) magnesium in the and muscular twisting. Sterna
bloodstream together recumbency with rapid respiration,
with physiologic falling on side with paddling movements
disturbance mostly of the legs and stretching of the head.
neuromuscular arising Animal is extremely alert or hyper
from combined excitable. Death may occur due to
deficiency and steroid exhaustion form repeated attacks of
action. convulsion.
Predisposing: lush
pasture, overfertilization
of pasture with K an N or
confinement and
overfeeding with
concentrate deficient in
Mg or low in energy;
pregnancy and lactation;
sudden management or
environmental stresses
Pregnancy toxemia Actual acute glucose Sudden onset of depression or dullness;
(ketosis or deficiency in the last may appear uncoordinated.
acetonemia) stage of pregnancy due to Neuromuscular disorders such as
twinning, large and rapid twitching and spasms especially of head
growing kid and sudden muscles; hind limbs are spatic later

deficiency of feed. becoming paralyzed. All are associated
with concurrent pregnancy.
Predisposing: any
sudden drop of intake
attended (starvation due
to feed
withdrawal/isolation
without feed, transport
climatic changes) also
poor health, parasitism
and other concomitant
diseases.
Urinary calculi Mostly associated with Commonly observed in adult male goats.
faulty mineral nutrition, Animal is uneasy or restless and shows
confinement or stiff gait when moving or with hind legs
concentrate feeding, under the body making frequent but
inadequate water intake, unsuccessful urination.
Vit. A deficiency and
infections of the urinary May show complete stoppage or
tract with Mycoplasma dribbling of the urine due to obstruction
and Ureaplasma in the urethra.
Systemic signs may develop like fever,
loss of appetite and increase respiration.
Complete obstruction may cause uremia
or death due to ruptured urinary
bladder
Neonatal Direct or actual: low Common in newly bon and young kids
hypoglycemia glucose level in the blood especially when unable to suck for
approximately 36 hours. Lethargy,
general weakness, recumbency, chilling,.
Low temp, coma and death.
Nervous signs such as shivering,
spasms or convulsions, champing of the
jaw with frothy mouth, general in
coordination. Older animals will show
general wasting and weakness.
Acute indigestion Sudden dietary changes Signs appear from 10-36 hrs after
(lactic acidosis or such as exposure and dietary changes. Depression, loss of
gain overload) feeding of concentrates appetite, abdominal distention causing
after prolonged high pain and discomfort. Diarrhea develops.
roughage diet. Rapid respiration and pulse,
incoordination, weakness, coma and
death.

Some terms related to ruminant production
Aftermath - forage grown following a harvest
Alternate stocking- the repeated grazing and resting of forage using two
paddocks in succession
Animal unit - one mature non-lactating bovine weighing 454 kg or 1000 kg and
fed at a maintenance level, or the equivalent based on the average forage
consumption of 12 kg DM/day.
Animal Unit-day (AUD) – amount of forage required by an “animal unit” grazing
for one day
Animal Unit-week (AUW) – AUD x 7 days
Animal Unit-month (AUM) – AUD x 30 days
Browse - leaf and twig growth of shrubs, woody vines, trees, cacti and other non-
herbaceous vegetation available for animal consumption
Carrying capacity - the maximum stocking rate that will achieve a target level of
animal performance, in a specified grazing method, that can be applied in over
a defined time period without deterioration of the ecosystem
Castration-done for purposes of preventing reproduction involving inferior
bulls, improving carcass quality and for better temperament.
Continuous stocking - a method of grazing livestock on a specific unit of land
where animals have unrestricted and uninterrupted access throughout the
time period when grazing is allowed
Cutting interval – time elapsed between 2 successive cutting of forages.
Daily dry matter intake or consumption - equal to 2.5-3.0% of body weight.
Deferred grazing - the deferred grazing in a non-systematic rotation with other
and units
Disbudding – the process of stopping the growth of horns for economic and
safety reasons.
Forage - edible parts of plants, other than separated grain, that can provide feed
for grazing animals, or that can be harvested for feeding
Forbs - any herbaceous broad leaf plant that is not a grass and is not grass-like
(sedges)
Grazing pressure - the relationship between the number of animal units or
forage intake units and the weight of forage dry matter per unit area at anyone
point in time; an animal to forage relationship
Grazing cycle - the time elapsed between the beginning of one grazing period
and the beginning of the next grazing period in the same paddock where the
forage is regularly grazed and rested.
Grazing period - the length of times that grazing livestock or wildlife occupy a
specific land area
Rotational stocking - a grazing method that utilizes recurring periods of grazing
and rest among to or more paddocks in a grazing management unit throughout
the period when grazing is allowed.
Sward - a population of herbaceous plants, characterized by a relatively short
habit of growth and relatively continuous ground cover, including above and
below-ground parts

Stocking density - the relationship between the number of animals and the
specific unit of land being grazed at anyone point
Stocking rate - the relationship between the number of animals and the grazing
management unit utilized over a specified time period

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Animal Science

II.Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals

III.Genetics and Animal Breeding

ANIMAL SCIENCE page3

V.Slaughtering, Processing and Marketing of Farm Products

ANIMAL SCIENCE page4

V. Animal Production and Management

ANIMAL SCIENCE page5

ANIMAL SCIENCE AND THE ANIMAL INDUSTRY

 Livestock industry at present principally produces carabao, cattle, hogs, and

UTILITY VALUE OF ANIMALS

ANIMAL SCIENCE page6

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF FARM ANIMALS

ANIMAL SCIENCE page7

2. Osteoid: a non-mineral matrix of collagen and glycosaminoglycan

Osteon or Haversian System

ANIMAL SCIENCE page8

Epiphyseal Plate (Epiphyseal Line)

CLASSIFICATION OF BONE BASED ON GROSS APPEARANCE

2. Short Bones - cuboids or equal shape

3. Flat bones - thin and expanded

ANIMAL SCIENCE page9

Nervous system id divided broadly into two categories:

Two major division of Autonomic

Important Central Regulation (Brain)

ANIMAL SCIENCE page10

Neuroendocrine – involvement of nerve cells that releases of chemical messenger,

Some hormones exert their effect by participating in, or affecting enzymatically

(1) Hormones appear to regulate rather than initiate reactions;

ANIMAL SCIENCE page11

The Adenohypophysis secretes the following hormones:

(1) Growth hormone or Somatotropic hormone (STH) - promotes growth of the

The neurohypophysis secretes two hormones:

(1) Oxytocin – stimulates milk-ejection in lactating females; and

ANIMAL SCIENCE page13

 Melanocyte-stimulating hormone or MSH- stimulates the dermal

ANIMAL SCIENCE page14

ANIMAL SCIENCE page15

ANIMAL SCIENCE page16

ANIMAL SCIENCE page17

ANIMAL SCIENCE page18

ANIMAL SCIENCE page19

The Female reproductive system

ANIMAL SCIENCE page20

Parturation and Lactation

ANIMAL SCIENCE page21

Animal Biotechnology – any biology-based technology for the manipulation of animals,

Artificial Insemination- Technique of introducing semen (spermatozoa) into the oviduct

Autosome - The type of chromosome other than the sex chromosome

Carnivores - Species of animals that live on meat of other animals

Chromosome number - diploid (2n) complement; haploid (n) complement; composed of

Cloning - Process of replicating an individual out of its own body

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Crossbreeding - The breeding of individuals from one population to individuals from

DNA - Abbreviation of deoxyribonucleic acid, a biochemical substance that bear the

Domestication - Process of enabling animals to survive and reproduce normally under

Equilibrium Population - A population in which the gene and genotypic frequencies do

Estrus synchronization – a management technique that makes use of hormones to bring

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