Computer Communication and Telecom Networks (Chapter 1)

Contents

1 Introduction
1.1 Data Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Components of Data Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 Message/ Data Representation: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3 Modes of Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 Network Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Network Topologies (? ? ??) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1 Mesh Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2 Star Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.3 Bus Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.4 Ring Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.5 Hybrid Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Categories of Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1 LAN (Local Area Network) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2 WAN (Wide Area Network) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.3 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.4 Other Area Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 Protocols & Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.1 Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.2 Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 Network Models
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 Layered Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2 Design issues for layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3 Connection Oriented & Connection Less Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 OSI Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Physical Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Data Link Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Network Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4 Transport Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.5 Session Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.6 Presentation Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.7 Application Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 TCP/IP Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 Network Access Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 Internet Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.3 Transport Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.4 Application Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Types of Addresss in Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1 Physical / MAC / Hardware Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2 IP / Logical / Networking Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.3 Port / Service Point Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.4 Specific Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Introduction
1
1.1 Data Communication
Data communication means exchange of data between two devices with the help of some form of transmission medium such as a wire
cable.The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics:

1. Delivery : The system must deliver data to the correct destination.

2. Accuracy : The system must deliver the data accurately.
3. Timeliness : The system must deliver data in a timely manner.
4. Jitter : Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.

Story : Once upon a time there was a gentlemen named “Santa”. He was very intelligent (Not Joking) and used to work in
Infosys. He thought of switching to Satyam so he wrote an application to the H.R. of Satyam with his resume. But
unfortunately it was delivered to H.R. of Infosys (–Delivery–). He lost his job at Infosys. He reposted the letter to H.R. of
Satyam expecting it to deliver to the right person. This time it was delivered correctly but instead of the resume he
attached his wedding letter (–Accuracy–). He was blacklisted in Satyam. Then he tried to send his resume to Microsoft,
this time the destination was correct and the attachment was also correct but the letter reached Microsoft after a month(–
Timeliness–). Finally he sent his resume to Google, and luckily everything went well and he got the job. But as much as he
was intelligent he was lazy too. He used to come late for work, he also took a lot of half days and leaves which resulted in
termination from his job(–Jitter–). So don’t be Santa and stick to one good job and follow all the four rules of
1
communication. :

1.1.1 Components of Data Communication

Figure 1.1: Components of Data Communication

1. Message : The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information include
text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender : The sender is the device that sends the data message.

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3. Receiver : The receiver is the device that receives the message.

4. Transmission medium : The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver.
5. Protocol : A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.

1.1.2 Message/ Data Representation:

Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and video.

Text:
Text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (Os or Is). Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent
text symbols.( viz: Unicode, which uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or character used in any language in the world. or The
American Standard Code for Infor- mation Interchange (ASCII) has 128 characters.)

Numbers:
Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as ASCII is not used to represent numbers; the
number is directly converted to a binary number to simplify mathematical operations.

Images:
Images are also represented by bit patterns. An image is composed of a matrix of pixels (picture elements), after an
image is divided into pixels, each pixel is assigned a bit pattern. The size and the value of the pattern depends on the
depth and resolution of the image.

Audio & Video:

Audio is digitized and then converted into a continuous stream of bits. Here timing is important while transmitting.
Video is considered as continuous stream of images along with audio. so here the timing is very critical while
transmitting video data.

1.1.3 Modes of Transmission

Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.

Figure 1.2: Components of Data Communication

Simplex:
Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive. e.g: T.V., Radio.

Half-Duplex:
Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only
receive, and vice versa. e.g: Walkie Talkie.

Full-Duplex:

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Both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously as shown in Fig. 1.2. e.g: Telephone

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1.2 Networks
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.
A network should satisfy following three criteria :-
1. Performance : is measured with the help of throughput and delay. Ideally throughput should be high and delay
should be less. But both these parameters are contradictory.
2. Reliability : is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the
network’s robustness in a worst operating conditions.
3. Security : Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and
development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.

1.2.1 Network Connection

A network is two or more devices connected through links.There are two possible types of connections: point-to-
point and multipoint.
1. Point-to-Point : A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire
capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
2. Multipoint : A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two specific devices
share a single link.

1.3 Network Topologies (? ? ??)

The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually
called nodes) to one another. There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring.

Figure 1.3: Different Topologies in Node and Link Form

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1.3.1 Mesh Topology

In this topology every device is connected to every other device with the help of dedicated links. If there are n
nodes in the network then the number of full duplex links/ wires / cable required 2 to form the toplogy is given by eq
1.1. Since there are n 1 duplex lines connected to every computer you need n 1 IO Ports / NIC’s on every computer.

Figure 1.4: Mesh Topology

Advantages
1. No Traffic : Since all the computer are connected with eachother with the help of dedicated links there is no
waiting and hence very less traffic.
2. No Central Point of Failure : If a link breaks or is unstable does not lead to breakdown of the network.

3. Good Privacy & Security : Because of the dedicated links there is no intermediate node involved in the
communication.
4. Easy Fault Finding : Because of the dedicated links fault location can be easily identified.
5. Rerouting Possible : If any link is down the data can be sent through other paths with the help of other nodes
connected to the affected node.

Disadvantages
1. Difficult Installation & Reconnection : For every new computer added, n 1 cables and I/O Ports are required.

2. Large Space Required for Installation: Since the number of cables and the I/O ports are very high it requires a
lot of space for installation.
3. High Hardware Cost: In a typical case of a LAN with 40 computers, 780 cables should be running to and fro
connecting every node and every node must have 39 NIC’s on each computer. This results in a high hardware
cost.

Applications
1. Backbone of Telephone Network.

2. Inter Server Communications on a Cloud.

1.3.2 Star Topology

In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller, maybe a Hub or a
Switch. All the devices need to send data to this central controller and this controller then forwards it to its
destination device.

Figure 1.5: Star Topology

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Advantages
1. Moderate Traffic : If a Hub is used as a central controller then at a time only two devices can communicate
whereas if a Switch is used any pair of devices can communicate at the same time.
2. Moderate Privacy & Security : If a Hub is used the message is broad casted to all the devices and hence there is no
Privacy and Security but this may be solved with the use of a Switch as it does not transmit the message to all the devices.
Also if the Hub / Switch is compromised there will be no Privacy & Security.

3. Easy Fault Finding : Because of the dedicated links between the devices and the central controller fault
location can be easily identified.
4. Easy Installation & Reconnection : For every new computer added, there is no change on the other devices on
the network and only one cable is required for the connection with the central controller.

Disadvantages
1. Hub/Switch is Central Point of Failure : If Hub/Switch is damaged or unstable leads to breakdown of the
whole network.
2. Rerouting Not Possible : If any link is down the data cannot be sent through any alternate paths.

3. Moderate Cost of Cables : Even though every device needs only one link to connect to the Hub but these
links/wires needs to be drawn from all the devices to a central location where the hub is situated which
requires more cabling as compared Bus & Ring Topology.

Applications
1. Local Area Network.

1.3.3 Bus Topology

Bus Topology is Multi Point. It consist of a Backbone Cable/Bus running throughout the place with Droplines connecting
the Node/Computer to the backbone with the help of Taps. A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or
punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core. Because of the Heat Dissipation and
Reflections caused by the tapings there is a limit to the number of Taps that can be inserted into the Backbone Cable thus
limiting the Length and number of nodes that can be connected.

Figure 1.6: Bus Topology

Advantages
1. Low Cabling Cost: Since there is only one cable running the entire place and only tapings are added to this
cable for connection of the nodes there is a low cabling cost compared to the previous two topologies.
2. Low Hardware Cost: Only one Network Interface card is required per computer results in a low hardware
cost.

3. Less Space Required for Installation: Since the number of cables are very less the installation doesn’t require
large space.

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Disadvantages
1. High Traffic : Since the backbone acts as a common media for the communication between nodes only two
nodes can communicate at the same time resulting in a lot of waiting time.
2. Low Privacy & Security : Because of the common backbone all the data transmitted is received by all the
nodes hence there is very low Privacy & Security.
3. Difficult Fault Finding : Since there is no dedicated link between devices it is very difficult to identify the
location of the problem.
4. Easy Installation but Difficult Reconnection : Initial Installation is easy as once the location of the tapings are
identified then the nodes can be directly tapped on to the backbone but if a reconnection is required as in a
new computer needs to be added then the complete tapings needs to be reconnected so that the Heat
Dissipation and Reflections are minimized.
5. Backbone is Central Point of Failure : If Backbone is damaged or unstable leads to breakdown of the whole
network.
6. Rerouting Not Possible : If any link is down the data cannot be sent through any alternate paths.

Applications
1. Old Local Area Networks.
2. LocalTalk

1.3.4 Ring Topology

In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two devices on either side of
it. A signal is passed along the ring from device to device, until it reaches its destination.

Figure 1.7: Ring Topology

Advantages
1. Low Cabling Cost: Since the device is connected only to its neighbors the number of cables required is less.

2. Moderate Hardware Cost: Every physically connected node requires only two Network Interface Cards
results in a moderate hardware cost.
3. Less Space Required for Installation: Since the number of cables are very less the installation doesn’t require
large space.
4. Easy Fault Finding : Since there is a point to point connection with the neighbors fault finding is easy.

5. Easy Installation & Reconnection : Initial installation is easy and additional nodes can be easily added
without disturbing the whole network hence reconnection is also easy.
6. No Central Point of Failure : There is no central point of failure if Dual Ring Topology is used.
7. Rerouting is Possible : Rerouting of data is possible as every node has two outgoing paths. But rerouting is
not possible if Token Ring topology is used alone.

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Disadvantages
1. High Traffic : Since only tow nodes communicate while the others are forwarding their data results in a lot of
waiting time.
2. Low Privacy & Security : Because the forwarding nodes also receive the data from the actual communicating
node there is low Privacy & Security.

Applications
1. SONET Networks.
2. FDDI Networks

Token Ring Topology

The problem with Traditional Ring Topology is that there is no access control. i.e: When should a node start to transmit is not
controlled. This is where Token Ring Topology play a role. Here we assume that the data can travel in only one direction. When
no station is transmitting a data frame, a special token frame circles the loop. This special token frame is repeated from station to
station until arriving at a station that needs to transmit data. When a station needs to transmit data, it converts the token frame
into a data frame for transmission. Once the receiving station receives its own data frame, it converts the frame back into a token.
If a transmission error occurs and no token frame, or more than one, is present, a special station referred to as the active monitor
detects the problem and removes and/or reinserts tokens as necessary. Token Ring was developed by IBM.

Figure 1.8: Token Ring Topology

Dual Ring Topology

In Dual Ring topology two concentric rings connect each node on a network instead of one ring that is used in a ring
topology as shown in Fig. 1.9. Typically, the secondary ring in a dual-ring topology is redundant. It is used as a
backup in case the primary ring fails. In this topology, data moves in opposite directions around the rings. Each ring
is independent of the other until the primary ring fails and the two rings are connected to form a loop to continue the
flow of data traffic as shown in Fig. 1.9.

Figure 1.9: Dual Ring Topology

1.3.5 Hybrid Topology

A combination of any of the above four primary topologies may be used to form New Hybrid Topology. In real
world application most commonly found Hybrid topology is the Tree Topology. Tree topology may be formed with
the help of one main Bus Topology and several other Star Topologies connected to the Bus Topology as shown in
the last Subfig 1.3. Tree Topology can also be made by cascading several Star Topologies together as shown below.
This is the most common Topology used for setting up big LAN’s.

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Figure 1.10: Tree Topology (Cascaded Star)

Table 1.1: Comparison of Different Topologies

Mesh Star Bus Ring
Traffic/Waiting Very Less Moderate Very High Moderate
Central Point of Failure No Hub / Switch Backbone No
Privacy & Security Very High Moderate Very Less Less
NIC’s per Node n 1 (Very High) 1 (Low) 1 (Low) 2 (Moderate)
n(n 1) 3
No. of Links / Cables 2 (Very High) n (Low) n + 1 (Low) n (Low)
Hardware Cost Very High Moderate Low Low
Fault Finding Very Easy Easy Difficult Moderately Easy
Reconnection Very Difficult Very Easy Difficult Easy
Length of Cables Large Moderate Less Less

1.4 Categories of Networks

The category into which a network falls is determined by its size. A LAN normally covers an area less than a kilometer, a WAN can be
worldwide. Networks of a size in between are normally referred to as MAN and spans arround 5 kms.

1.4.1 LAN (Local Area Network)

LANs are typically used to connect a limited geographical area: a home, a school, an office, a campus, etc. The smallest LAN
can be composed of 2 computers. LANs use routers, Ethernet switches, hubs, repeaters, and bridges to connect to other LAN’s
and computers. LANs provide full-time connectivity to local service and allow multi-access to high-bandwidth media. LANs are
usually connected to other LANs or WANs (such as the Internet).

1. Distance : LANs can span over a range of a 1 kilometer radius.

2. Single Ownership : LANs are typically owned, controlled, and managed by a single person or organization.

3. Local Sharing : They allow users to be able to communicate, share computer files, share games, and share
printers locally.
4. Link Speed : High speed links available. Completely dependent on the internal network and link speed.

5. Technologies : The most common technologies used by LAN are: Ethernet, FDDI and Token Ring.

1.4.2 WAN (Wide Area Network)

WANs are typically used to connect a large geographical area: a county, a state, a continent, the Internet. WANs use
routers, communication servers, and modems to connect with other LANs & MANs.
1. Distance : WANs can span over a range of a 100,000 kilometer radius (between the Earth and artificial satellites).

2. Distributed Ownership : WANs are not owned, controlled, or managed by any one person or organization,
instead its ownership and management is distributed.

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3. Global Sharing : WANs are used to connect LANs and provide access to computers or file servers outside of
their area. They allow users to communicate, share files, and e-mail over larges distances. They also allow
users to be able to browse the Internet.

Figure 1.11: Area Networks (LAN, MAN & WAN)

4. Link Speed : Low speeds compared to LANs. Completely dependent on the service providers.

5. Technologies : The most common technologies used by WAN are: modems, ISDN, DSL, and ATM.

1.4.3 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

MANs are typically used to connect two or more LANs in a common geographic area: a city or a group of buildings.

1. Distance : MANs can span anywhere from 5 to 50 kilometers in diameter.

2. Ownership : MANs are typically not owned by a single organization, instead they are usually owned by a
consortium of users or by a single network provider who sells the service to the users.
3. Sharing : A MAN is a larger version of a LAN and allows users to share resources at a greater distance than a
LAN allows.

1.4.4 Other Area Network

While LAN and WAN are by far the most popular network types mentioned, you may also commonly see
references to these others:

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

A LAN based on WiFi wireless network technology.

Storage Area Network (SAN)

SANs are used to move data between servers and storage resources. This technology allows high-speed server-to-
storage, storage-to-storage, or server-to-server connectivity. SANs avoid traffic conflict between clients and servers
by having a separate, dedicated network. SAN’s allow same time access from two or more servers at high speeds,
are able to duplicate data for up o 10 kilometers away in case of disaster, and can use a variety of technologies that
allow for the easy relocation of backup data, operations, file migration, and data replication between systems. SANs
usually use Mesh Topology.

Virtual Private Network (VPN)

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VPNs are logical networks that are constructed within a public network infrastructure. VPN offers secure, reliable
connectivity over a shared public network such as the Internet. VPNs allow a telecommuter to be able to remotely
access the network of a company.

Figure 1.12: Virtual Private Network

1.5 Protocols & Standards

Protocols are set of rules whereas Standards mean agreed-upon rules.

1.5.1 Protocols
For communication to occur, the entities must agree on a protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications. A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated.
The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.

Figure 1.13: Protocol (Syntax, Semantics, and Timing)

1. Syntax (Symbolic representation): The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the
order in which they are presented.
2. Semantics (Meaning): Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a particular pattern to
be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation. For example two programs written
in different languages could do the same thing (semantics) but the symbols used to write the program would
be different (syntax).
3. Timing : The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast they can be
sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can process data at only 1Mbps, the
transmission will overload the receiver and some data will be lost.

1.5.2 Standards
Standards are classified broadly into De facto Standards & De jure Standards.
1. De facto : Standards that have not been approved by an organized body but have been adopted as standards
through widespread use are de facto standards.
2. De jure : Those standards that have been legislated by an officially recognized body are de jure standards.

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Standards are developed through the cooperation of standards creation committees, forums, and government
regulatory agencies. e.g: International Organization for Standardization (ISO),International Telecommunication
Union Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T), American National Standards Institute (ANSI), Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), Electronic Industries Association (EIA), Federal Communications
Commission (FCC).

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Imp. Questions
1. Explain any two topologies in detail.[10 marks]

2. Explain Hybrid topology. Draw a Tree Topology with a single Bus & 3 star networks. [5 marks]
3. Differentiate between LAN, MAN & WAN. [5 marks]

Exercises
1. For n devices in a network, what is the number of cable links required for a mesh, ring, bus, and star topology?

2. Assume six devices are arranged in a mesh topology. How many cables are needed? How many ports are
needed for each device?
3. Draw a hybrid topology with a star backbone and three ring networks.

4. Draw a hybrid topology with a ring backbone and two bus networks.

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Network Models
2
2.1 Introduction
There are two theoretical models used to describe the way networking should work. Open System Interconnection(OSI)
Model & the TCP/IP Model. The first network model called the OSI Model is both a theoretical model, and a practical
model of the OSI Networking Protocols based on the concepts of abstracting behaviors and providing standardized
interfaces between layered technologies. The second model, the TCP/IP Model, directly reflects the actual networking
protocols used in the Internet and illustrates the basic operation and interactions between IP and TCP. This model is only a
practical model based on layered theory.
Layered Tasks:
Consider two friends who communicate through mail

Fig (i): Tasks involved in sending a letter In the above fig (i), we have a sender, a receiver & a carrier that transports the
letter. There is a hierarchy of tasks.

At the sender site:

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 The sender writes the letter, inserts the letter in an envelope, writes the sender & receiver addresses, and drops
the letter in a mail box.
 Middle layer: The letter is picked up by a letter carrier and delivered to the post office.
 Lower Layer: The letter is sorted at the post office, a carrier transports the letter.

On the way:
The letter is then on its way to the recipient. On the way to the recipients local post office, the letter may actually go
through a central office. In addition, it may be transported by truck, train, airplane, boat, or a combination of these.

At the receiver site:

 Lower layer: The carrier transports the letter to the post office.
 Middle Layer: The letter is sorted & delivered to the recipients mailbox.
 Higher Layer: The receiver picks up the letter, opens the envelope, and reads it.

Hierarchy:
The task of transporting the letter between the sender and the receiver is done by the carrier. The tasks must be done in the
order given in the hierarchy. At the sender site, the letter must be written and dropped in the mailbox before being picked
up by the letter carrier and delivered to the post office. At the receiver site, the letter must be dropped in the recipient
mailbox before being picked up & read by the recipient.

Services:
Each layer at the sending site uses the services of the layer immediately below it. The sender at the higher layer uses the
services of the middle layer. The middle layer uses the services of the lower layer. The lower layer uses the services of the
carrier.

2.1.1 Layered Architecture

In Layered Architecture each layer assumes a specific task, offering it in the form of services to the below layers.
Each layer at the sending site uses the services of the layer immediately below it. The sender at the higher layer uses
the services of the middle layer. The middle layer uses the services of the lower layer. The lower layer uses the
services of the carrier.

Figure 2.1: Layered Architecture

There are two central terms for layer-oriented communication models : A protocol & an Interface.

Communication between two instances of the same layer on different computers is governed by predefined
rules. These rules are called protocols.

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The set of functions offered by a layer, N, to its higher-order layer (N + 1), is called its service. The interface
through which this service is offered is called service interface.

2.1.2 Design issues for layers

The various key design issues are present in several layers in computer networks. The important design issues are:

1. Addressing: Mechanism for identifying senders and receivers, on the network need some form of addressing.
There are multiple processes running on one machine. Some means is needed for a process on one machine to
specify with whom it wants to communicate.
2. Error Control: There may be erroneous transmission due to several problems during communication. These are due
to problem in communication circuits, physical medium, due to thermal noise and interference. Many error
detecting and error correcting codes are known, but both ends of the connection must agree on which one being
used. In addition, the receiver must have some mechanism of telling the sender which messages have been received
correctly and which has not.

3. Flow control: If there is a fast sender at one end sending data to a slow receiver, then there must be flow
control mechanism to control the loss of data by slow receivers. There are several mechanisms used for flow
control such as increasing buffer size at receivers, slow down the fast sender, and so on. Some process will
not be in position to accept arbitrarily long messages. Then, there must be some mechanism to disassembling,
transmitting and then reassembling messages.
4. Multiplexing / demultiplexing: If the data has to be transmitted on transmission media separately, it is inconve-nient
or expensive to setup separate connection for each pair of communicating processes. So, multiplexing is needed in
the physical layer at sender end and demultiplexing is need at the receiver end.

5. Routing: When data has to be transmitted from source to destination, there may be multiple paths between
them. An optimized (shortest) route must be chosen. This decision is made on the basis of several routing
algorithms, which chooses optimized route to the destination.

2.1.3 Connection Oriented & Connection Less Services

Layers can offer two types of services namely connection oriented service and connectionless service.

1. Connection oriented service: The service user first establishes a connection, uses the connection and then releases
the connection. Once the connection is established between source and destination, the path is fixed. The data
transmission takes place through this path established. The order of the messages sent will be same at the receiver
end. Services are reliable and there is no loss of data. Most of the time, reliable service provides acknowledgment is
an overhead and adds delay.

Table 2.1: Difference between Connection Oriented & Connection Less Service
Connection Less Service Connection Oriented Ser-
vice
How is data sent? one packet at a time as continuous stream of pack-
ets
Do packets follow same route? No Yes
Are resources reserved in network? No Yes
Are resources reserved in communicat- No Yes
ing hosts (Sender & Receiver)?
Is connection establishment done? No Yes
What is impact of node/switch crash? only packets at that node are The connection is lost and all
lost packets are dropped a new
connection is required there-
after
What addressing information is needed full source and destination full source and destination
on each packet? address on each packet address only on the connec-
tion packet

Connectionless service: In this type of services, no connection is established between source and destination. Here
there is no fixed path. Therefore, the messages must carry full destination address and each one of these messages
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are sent independent of each other. Messages sent will not be delivered at the destination in the same order. Thus,
grouping and ordering is required at the receiver end, and the services are not reliable.There is no acknowledgment
confirmation from the receiver. Unreliable connectionless service is often called datagram service, which does not
return an acknowledgment to the sender.

2.2 OSI Model

OSI stands for Open System Interconnection. It is developed by ISO. The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model
for understanding and designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust, and inter operable. It consists of
seven separate but related layers.

Figure 2.2: Seven layers of the OSI model

Tip: All People Seems To Need Data Processing

Data encapsulation: is the process that takes place when one host on a network needs to send data to another host.
As data is prepared for transit, it flows down through each layer of the OSI model. At each layer, extra control
information is added to the data before being passed to the layer below. This process continues until the data reaches
the physical layer where the data is passed onto the network medium as a series of 0’s and 1’s. In the below Fig. 2.3
the HTML data from the Application layer is encapsulated into the Transport layer where this layer adds its own
header. Then this is passed to the Network Layer where it adds its own header and so on its continued.

Figure 2.3: Encapsulation

Delivery of Packets: There are mainly three delivery of packets that takes place whilst transmitting data from source
to destination as shown in Fig. 2.4. If the data is to be transmitted from Node A to Node F it cannot be transmitted
directly it has to be sent to Node B then to Node E and then finally to Node F. The delivery from Node A to Node F

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 Computer Communication and Telecom Networks (Chapter 1)

is called source-to-destination delivery. whereas delivery of the data to the intermediate nodes is called hop-to-hop
delivery. Finally when the data reaches the destination it has to be delivered to the correct process. This is called the
process-to-process delivery.

Figure 2.4: Delivery of Packets

Types of Delivery: There are basically two types of delivery, direct & indirect delivery. Whenever the delivery is
not to the final destination the delivery is called Indirect Delivery. Whereas if the next hop is the final destination
then that delivery is a Direct Delivery. The hop-to-hop delivery is usually a direct delivery whereas a source-to-
destination delivery consists of one or many indirect delivery followed by a direct delivery as shown in Fig. 2.5.

Figure 2.5: Types of Delivery

2.2.1 Physical Layer

The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream(1s and 0s) over a physical medium. The
following are the functions performed by this layer:-

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1. Type of Interface & Media: The physical layer defines the characteristics of the interface between the devices
and the transmission medium. It also defines the type of transmission medium like wire, air, optical fiber.
2. Representation of bits: The physical layer transmits data in the form of stream of bits (sequence of 0s or 1s)
with no interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals(electrical or optical). The physical
layer defines the type of encoding (how 0s and 1s are changed to signals).

3. Data rate: The transmission rate i.e the number of bits sent each second is also defined by the physical layer.
4. Synchronization of bits: The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate but also must be synchronized
at the bit level. In other words, the sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.
5. Line configuration: The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the media. In a point-to-
point configuration, two devices are connected through a dedicated link. In a multi point configuration, a link
is shared among several devices.
6. Physical topology: The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a network. Devices can
be connected by using a mesh topology (every device is connected to every other device), a star topology
(devices are connected through a central device), a ring topology (each device is connected to the next,
forming a ring), a bus topology (every device is on a common link), or a hybrid topology (this is a
combination of two or more topologies).

7. Transmission mode: The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between two devices:
simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex. In simplex mode, only one device can send; the other can only receive.
The simplex mode is a one-way communication. In the half-duplex mode, two devices can send and receive,
but not at the same time. In a full-duplex (or simply duplex) mode, two devices can send and receive at the
same time.

2.2.2 Data Link Layer

The data link layer makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network layer). The data link layer
is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next hop. This is the only layer which adds Header as
well as trailer to the data received from the above layers.

1. Framing: The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into manageable data
units called frames.
2. Physical addressing: It adds the source and destination MAC Address / Physical Address / Hardware Address
to the header of the frames.
3. Flow control: If the rate at which the data transmitted by the transmitter is greater than the rate that the
receiver can handle then the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid buffer overflow of the
receiver.
4. Error control: The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect and
retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames. Error control is
normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.
5. Access control: When two or more devices are connected to the same link (Like the Bus Topology), data link
layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given time.

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2.2.3 Network Layer

The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet when the source and destination are on
different network. If the Source and Destination is on the same network then there is no need of Network Layer.

1. Logical addressing: The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles the addressing
problem locally. If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another addressing system to help
distinguish the source and destination. The Network layer adds the source and destination Logical Address /
IP Address / Networking Address to the Network layer header.
2. Routing: When working with large networks there are always multiple paths to the destination. Selection of the
best and the shortest path is called routing. This function is done by the Network Layer.

2.2.4 Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message. A process is an application
program running on a host. Whereas the network layer oversees source-to-destination delivery of individual packets,
it does not recognize any relationship between those packets. It treats each one independently, as though each piece
belonged to a separate message, whether or not it does. The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that the whole
message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error control and flow control at the source-to-destination level.

1. Service-point addressing: Computers often run several programs at the same time. Process-to-process
delivery delivers data from a specific process (running program) on one computer to a specific process
(running program) on the other. The transport layer header includes a type of address called a service-point
address (or port address) to identify each process.
2. Segmentation and reassembly: A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each segment
containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the message correctly
upon arriving at the destination and to identify and replace packets that were lost in transmission.
3. Connection control: The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection oriented. A connectionless
transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the
destination machine. A connection oriented transport layer makes a connection with the transport layer at the
destination machine first before delivering the packets. After all the data are transferred, the connection is
terminated.
4. Flow control: Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control. However, flow
control at this layer is performed end to end rather than hop-to-hop.
5. Error control: Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error control. However, error
control at this layer is performed process-to-process rather than hop-to-hop.

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2.2.5 Session Layer

The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among
communicating systems.

1. Dialog control: The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog.
2. Synchronization: The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or synchronization points, to a stream
of data. For example, if a system is sending a file of 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert checkpoints after
every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-page unit is received and acknowledged independently. In this case,
if a crash happens during the transmission of page 523, the only pages that need to be resent after system
recovery are pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need not be resent.

2.2.6 Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two
systems.

1. Translation: The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging information in the
form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The information must be changed to bit streams before being
transmitted. Because different computers use different encoding systems, the presentation layer is responsible
for interoperability between these different encoding methods. The presentation layer at the sender changes
the information from its sender-dependent format into a common format. The presentation layer at the
receiving machine changes the common format into its receiver-dependent format.
2. Encryption: To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy. Encryption means that
the sender transforms the original information to another form and sends the resulting message out over the
network. Decryption reverses the original process to transform the message back to its original form.
3. Compression: Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information. Data compression
becomes particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such as text, audio, and video.

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 Computer Communication and Telecom Networks (Chapter 1)

2.2.7 Application Layer

The application layer serves as the window for users and application processes to access network services. This
layer contains a variety of commonly needed functions:

1. Resource sharing and device redirection

2. Remote file access

3. Remote printer access

4. Inter-process communication
5. Network management

6. Directory services
7. Electronic messaging (such as email)

8. Network virtual terminals

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2.3 TCP/IP Model
The TCPIIP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model. TCP/IP is based on a four-layer reference model.
All protocols that belong to the TCP/IP protocol suite are located in the top three layers of this model. The host-to-
network layer or commonly called as the Network Access Layer is equivalent to the combination of the physical and
data link layers of the OSI model. The Internet layer is equivalent to the network layer, and the application layer is
roughly doing the job of the session, presentation, and application layers with the transport layer in TCPI/IP Model
taking care of transport layer functions and part of the duties of the session layer too.

Figure 2.6: TCP/IP Protocol Suite

2.3.1 Network Access Layer

Network Access Layer is the first layer of the four layer TCP/IP model. Network Access layer defines details of how
data is physically sent through the network, including how bits are electrically or optically signaled by hardware
devices that interface directly with a network medium, such as coaxial cable, optical fiber, or twisted pair copper
wire. The protocols included in Network Access layer are Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, X.25, Frame Relay etc. The
most popular LAN architecture among those listed above is Ethernet. Ethernet uses an Access Method called
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection) to access the media. An Access Method determines
how a host will place data on the medium.
This layer performs all the functions done by the Physical & Datalink layers of the OSI Model1.

2.3.2 Internet Layer

Internet Layer is the second layer of the four layer TCP/IP model. The position of Internet layer is between Network
Access Layer and Transport Layer. Internet layer pack data into data packets known as IP datagrams, which contain
source and destination address (logical address or IP address) information that is used to forward the datagrams
between hosts and across networks. The Internet layer is also responsible for routing of IP datagrams.
The main protocols included at Internet layer are IP (Internet Protocol), ICMP (Internet Control Message
Protocol), ARP (Address Resolution Protocol), RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol) and IGMP (Internet
Group Management Protocol).

Internetworking Protocol (IP)

The Internetworking Protocol (IP) is the transmission mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols. It is an unreliable
and connectionless protocol-a best-effort delivery service. The term best effort means that IP provides no error
checking or tracking. IP assumes the unreliability of the underlying layers and does its best to get a transmission
through to its destination, but with no guarantees. IP transports data in packets called datagrams, each of which is
transported separately. Datagrams can travel along different routes and can arrive out of sequence or be duplicated.
IP does not keep track of the routes and has no facility for reordering datagrams once they arrive at their
destination.

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

ARP is used to find the physical address of the node when its IP address is known.
ReverseAddress Resolution Protocol (RARP)
The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) allows a host to discover its IP address when it knows only its
physical address.

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a mechanism used by hosts and gateways to send notification of
datagram problems back to the sender.

Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP)

The Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) is used to facilitate the simultaneous transmission of a message to a
group of recipients.

2.3.3 Transport Layer

Transport Layer is the third layer of the four layer TCP/IP model. The position of the Transport layer is between
Application layer and Internet layer. The purpose of Transport layer is to permit devices on the source and
destination hosts to carry on a conversation. Transport layer defines the level of service and status of the connection
used when transporting data.
The main protocols included at Transport layer are TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User
Datagram Protocol).

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is the simpler of the two standard TCPI/IP transport protocols. It is a process-to-
process protocol that adds only port addresses, checksum error control, and length information to the data from the
upper layer. UDP is connection less and unreliable but has good speed because of the lower overhead.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides full transport-layer services to applications. TCP is a reliable stream
transport protocol. The term stream, in this context, means connection-oriented: A connection must be established
between both ends of a transmission before either can transmit data. At the sending end of each transmission, TCP divides
a stream of data into smaller units called segments. Each segment includes a sequence number for reordering after receipt,
together with an acknowledgment number for the segments received. Segments are carried across the internet inside of IP
datagrams. At the receiving end, TCP collects each datagram as it comes in and reorders the transmission based on
sequence numbers.

2.3.4 Application Layer

Application layer is the top most layer of four layer TCP/IP model. Application layer defines TCP/IP application
protocols and how host programs interface with transport layer services to use the network.
Application layer includes all the higher-level protocols like DNS (Domain Naming System), HTTP (Hypertext
Transfer Protocol), Telnet, FTP (File Transfer Protocol), TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol), SNMP (Simple
Network Management Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) , DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol), X Windows, RDP (Remote Desktop Protocol) etc.

2.4 Types of Addresses in Networking

Four types of addresses are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP protocols: physical (link) addresses, logical
(IP) addresses, port addresses, and specific addresses.
i) Physical addresses
ii) Logical addresses
iii) Port addresses
iv) Specific addresses
2.4.1 Physical / MAC / Hardware Address
This address is provided by the Network Interface Card (NIC) or sometimes by the link.
The size and format of this addresses vary depending on the network. For example, Ethernet uses a 6-byte
(48-bit) physical address
It is added to the frame by the Datalink

Layer. It is unique.

This address change between Hops.

e.g: For Ethernet: 00:67:12:AB:C5:34

2.4.2 IP / Logical / Networking Address

Since the Physical address does not have a standard format and its completely dependent on the Hardware
Technology, IP Address provides uniformity amongst all the Nodes visible in a Network.
This address is provided by the Network or sometimes by the Network Administrator.

The size and format of this addresses is fixed. For IPv4 its 32 bits and for IPv6 its 128 bits.
It is added to the packet by the Network Layer.
It is unique.

This address doesnot change between Hops.

e.g: For IPv4: 160.160.0.5

2.4.3 Port / Service Point Address

The label assigned to a process is called a port address. i.e. the port address identifies a process running on the
device.
This address may a standard number assigned to the process or a randomly generated one for each process.
The size and format of this addresses is fixed. TCP and UDP uses 16 bits.
It is added to the segment by the Transport Layer. Every

process will have a unique port address.

 This address doesnot change between Hops

e.g: 80

Port address range from 0 to 65535. This range is divided into three groups. Well-known ports ranging from 0 to 1023 used
for standard applications only. Registered ports ranging from 1024 to 49,151used by other registered applications. Dynamic ports
or the Ephemeral ports ranging from 49,152 to 65,535 may be used by any application.

2.4.4 Specific Address

Application specific address.

It is added to the data by the Application Layer.

e.g: Email: [email protected]

Chapter 2 Network Models

Table 2.2: Compare OSI Model & TCP/IP Model

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

It has 7 layers Has 4 layers

Transport layer gurantees delivery of packets Transport layer does not gurantees delivery of pack-
ets
Horizontal approach Vertical approach
Seperate presentation layer No presentation layer, characteristics are provided
by application layer
Seperate session layer No session layer, characteristics are provided by
transport layer
Network layer provides both connectionless and Network layer provides only connection less ser-
connection oriented services vices
It defines the services,interfaces and protocols very It does not clearly distinguishes between service
clearly and makes a clear distinction between them interface and protocols
The protocols to be used at each layers are not Standard protocol for Internetworking are defined.
defined
OSI truly is a general model TCP/IP can not be used for any other application
The protocol are better hidden and can be easily It is not easy to replace the protocols
replaced as the technology changes

Imp. Questions
1. What is the need for Layering. Discuss the design issues for layers. [10 marks]

2. Differentiate between connectionless and connection oriented service. [5 marks]

3. Explain the layers details of oSI and TCP/IP Models. [10 marks]
4. Draw layered structures and compare the two network reference models – OSI and TCP/IP Model. [10 marks]

5. Explain the following with examples:- MAC Address, IP Address, Port Address, Specific Adddress. [2 marks
each]