mangrove

restoration guide

Best Practices and Lessons Learned

from a Community-based Conservation Project
The best time to plant a tree was 20 years ago.
The next best time is today.

Chinese Proverb
With financial support from the

GNF also wishes to thank Stiftung Ursula Merz and Daimler AG for their support of GNF‘s mangrove activities.
Content Foreword ....................................................................................... 6

Introduction
Mangrove Forests .................................................................................. 9
Mangroves and Biodiversity .................................................................. 10
Mangroves and People .......................................................................... 13
Threats to Mangroves............................................................................. 14

A guide to Community-based Ecological

Mangrove Restoration (CBEMR)
Community-based Ecological Mangrove Restoration defined..............17
Advantages of CBEMR over other current Methods..............................18
When to use Planting and CBEMR . .......................................................18
Guidance to Successful Mangrove Restoration . ...................................20
Before you start ...................................................................................... 22
Get started . ............................................................................................ 23

The Project
Partners and Project Areas .................................................................... 29
Outcomes and Achievements . .............................................................. 36
Mangrove restoration ............................................................................. 36
Livelihood support . ................................................................................ 38
Environmental education and
community involvement . ....................................................................... 40
Establishment of a transnational network for
mangrove protection .............................................................................. 42

Lessons Learnt
Lessons Learnt . ...................................................................................... 45
References and Links ............................................................................. 56
 Foreword

A few weeks after the Tsunami in December 2004, I travelled from Colombo, the capital
of Sri Lanka, to the southern end of the island. The pictures of the massive destruction
caused by the tidal wave stuck in my memories. Railway tracks bent like matchsticks and
completely wrecked buildings demonstrated the destructive power of the billow. What
impressed me on this trip was the outstanding protection a healthy mangrove forest offers
to coastal areas. The massive wave lost nearly all of its deadly strength behind just a small
Udo Gattenlöhner stretch of mangrove forest – decelerated and tamed by the compact roots and branches of
the mangrove trees.

In a dramatic way the Tsunami demonstrated the importance of mangroves for the protection
of people’s lives. However, beside the protection against tidal waves, intact mangrove forests
provide many other valuable functions for climate change mitigation, fisheries and species
protection – a long list. This unique habitat, consisting of many meters deep brackish ground,
can sequester more CO2 and methane than any other forest. Therefore they play a significant
role in fighting climate change. Nevertheless, these essential ecosystems still get destroyed
at an alarming rate. Transformation into commercial shrimp farms and other aquaculture

6 Foreword
enterprises are some of the main reasons for the massive destruction of mangrove forests. Yet the rapid
decline of mangroves gets hardly any recognition.

Our strong hope is that the various Mangrove Projects all over the world will change the attitude towards
the global protection of this fascinating and important habitat. Our project partner organisations in India,
Sri Lanka, Thailand and Cambodia have all been implementing various measures in the framework of our
mangrove project with incredible engagement, based on years of experience. What convinced me most on
my visit, was the strong involvement and commitment of the local people – this surely gives hope for the
protection of these unique and precious forests.

Udo Gattenlöhner
Executive Director

Global Nature Fund Mangrove Restoration Guide

7
 Introduction
introduction
M
angroves are exceptional ecosystems. Up to 50 meters tall, they stand along tropical
and subtropical sheltered coastlines and form forests that are not only home to unique
biodiversity, but also provide a number of ecosystem services that are priceless for humans.
Among others, they provide the basis for many coastal fisheries, work as natural shields against storms and
Tsunamis and form major carbon sinks. Together with coral reefs and tropical forests, mangroves are among
the most productive and at the same time most threatened ecosystems on earth. With them, countless
animal and plant species that breed and live in these niche-rich ecosystems are disappearing.

In spite of all the benefits derived from mangroves’ and 30° S latitude) in the Americas, Africa, Asia and Oceania.
existence, human activities are threatening these unique They grow along seashores and riverbanks, in shallow-
ecosystems. Coastal urbanization, agriculture, aquaculture, water lagoons and in estuaries and deltas. If environmental
logging and other destructive causes made mangrove conditions are suitable, mangroves can be extensive forests
forests shrink by at least 25% from their original worldwide that grow up to 50 metres in height, extend from 30 to 85
cover (UNEP, 2014), with some experts giving even higher km inland and stretch over 150 km along the coastline.
numbers, estimating the actual loss with up to 50%. In this context, the term “mangrove” describes both the
ecosystem (that is to say the forest) and the plants – trees,
The long-standing partnership of Global Nature Fund (GNF) shrubs and palms – that compose the forests.
with organizations such as the Nagenahiru Foundation
and the EMACE Foundation in Sri Lanka, the Center for It is estimated that mangroves cover an area of about
Research on New International Economic Order (CReNIEO) 152,000 km2 worldwide. Hence, they only account for less
in India, the Fisheries Action Coalition Team (FACT) in than 0.4% of the world’s forests and less than 1% of the
Cambodia and the Mangrove Action Project (MAP) in area of tropical rainforests (FAO, 2007). Despite being a
Thailand, aims to put an end to the destruction of valuable relatively minor forest cover, mangroves are incredibly
mangrove forests in the four countries mentioned. In the important ecosystems for biodiversity and people. Half of
framework of a project called “Mangrove reforestation in the global mangrove area is located in just six countries –
Asia – local action and cross-border transfer of knowledge Indonesia (approximately 30,000 km2 – so alone, 20% of
for the conservation of climate, forests and biodiversity” the total world area!), Australia, Brazil, Mexico, Nigeria
the project team restored over 100 hectares of damaged and Malaysia. At the continent level, Asia is by far the
or destroyed mangrove forests – an irreplaceable ecosys- winner, housing around 40% of the world’s mangrove area,
tem for unique biodiversity, important carbon sink, and the highest mangrove species diversity as well as some
essential livelihood support for the local communities. of the world’s largest mangrove forests. The Sundarbans
An important pillar of the initiative and a pre-condition between Bangladesh and India, for example, is the largest
for the long-term success of the activities has been the continuous mangrove forest in the world and covers
involvement of the local communities through environ- approximately 10,000 km2. It is a UNESCO World Heritage
mental education, alternative income generation and the site and home to the majestic but highly endangered
introduction of sustainable resource practices. Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris).

These goals have been achieved only through the Mangroves grow in sheltered, shallow waters where land
indispensable financial support from the German Federal and sea meet, in an area affected by tides (the tidal zone).
Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development Tidal zones are special habitats that are inhospitable for
(BMZ). most plants and animals, due to their unique combination
of environmental characteristics that are highly stressful
for plants. For instance, although plants typically breathe
Mangrove Forests through their leaves, their roots also require oxygen for
respiration. In muddy or waterlogged soils, the roots
Standing on a tangle of slender roots, mangroves form suffocate due to a lack of oxygen. Extreme tides and waves
characteristic forests that are found along the coastlines of also create physical pressures on the trees and shrubs,
the tropics and subtropics (approximately between 30° N uprooting them if they are not solidly anchored in the soil.

Global Nature Fund Mangrove Restoration Guide

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 In addition, water in tidal habitats is salty because of the
presence of seawater, even in estuaries where it mixes
Mangroves and Biodiversity
with freshwater, known as brackish water. Thus, salt With only 50 to 70 known mangrove species worldwide,
poses a major challenge for the survival of plants since it belonging to different plant families (including
creates a pressure on plant tissues that causes them to Rhizophoraceae and Avicenniaceae), mangrove forests
dehydrate (osmotic pressure). Considering that the salinity have a comparatively low tree species diversity compared
of mangrove water fluctuates depending on the tide and to other tropical ecosystems. Despite this, mangroves
can be twice that of the sea when water evaporates at low are exceptional habitats at the interface between land
tide, the plants constantly use energy to deal with salt. and water and have unique characteristics and functions

Mangroves are the only woody plants that can grow in the brackish water of their tidal
habitats, because they have developed remarkable and highly specialized adaptations
that allow them to survive these hostile conditions:

Coping with Salinity Mangroves have several unique adaptations that allow them to cope with excess
salt, such as shedding leaves and bark. Thanks to these adaptations, they can live in hypersaline water and
tolerate up to 100 times more salt than most other plants. While some species remove excess salt through
the roots or the leaves via excretion or transpiration, others accumulate the salt in their leaves and then shed
them when they are full.

Root adaptations Aerial roots are a characteristic feature of mangroves. This trait serves two purposes at
the same time: Firstly, they work as aerating devices, allowing the plants to escape the anaerobic conditions of
waterlogged soil: at low tide their lenticels (the bark pores that enable plant respiration) can breathe directly
in the atmosphere while they close when they are covered by water during high tide. Second, the various
shapes of roots found among different species of mangroves can absorb the impacts of waves or the pressures
of extreme tides by providing solid anchorage in soft, muddy soil for even tall, massive mangrove trees.

Seed Germination Mangroves’ offspring is dispersed by water in all species. In most mangrove species, it
is neither a seed nor a fruit that leaves the parent tree but an already germinated young plant – a seedling.
After pollination, the embryo grows on the parent tree into a more or less fully developed seedling for a period
that often stretches over several months. This rare phenomenon in terrestrial plants is known as vivipary.
Once seedlings fall off the parent trees, they float for some time – several days, weeks or even months – and
then root in the mud or on the ground after sinking. Vivipary is thought to be an adaptation that primarily
enables mangroves to disperse offspring that can take root and establish relatively quickly, thus avoiding being
dislodged by tidal water movements.

10 Introduction
Together with coral reefs and tropical forests,
mangroves are among the most productive and at the
same time most threatened ecosystems on earth.
making them highly attractive for other plant and animal movements. Above water, reptiles, amphibians, birds
species. Therefore, mangroves are home to a unique vari- and insects use the trunk and canopy’s wide network
ety of species. of branches. Many mammal species, like monkeys and
the famous Bengal Tiger, use the dense forest system as
Mangroves support a wide range of organisms by providing shelter and food source. With the ongoing loss of the
habitats, breeding grounds, nurseries and food for a large mangrove ecosystems, many associated animal and plant
variety of animals. Their roots, trunks and canopies are species will inevitably lose their habitats and vanish. In this
inhabited by numerous marine and terrestrial species of connection, UNEP states in a 2014 publication that “40%
other plants, animals and microorganisms. The widely of the animal species dependent on these ecosystems are
ramified mangrove roots provide perfect anchorage for now considered vulnerable and/or at risk of extinction.”
sponges, algae and mussels, while prawns, crabs and fish
use the open area between the roots for shelter, spawning, While many species spend their whole life in the man-
and food source. They also protect soils from erosion and groves, there are also a lot of animals that only use the
thus stabilize a habitat that is exposed to continuous tidal sheltered environment for a stop-over or during a specific

A huge variety of species, such as the majestic Bengal Tiger, lives in and from mangrove forests.
period of their life cycle. Many fish species, for example, 2014). The real value depends on many factors, however,
grow up under the cover of the mangrove trees but such as mangrove age, density, root structure and even
migrate to the open sea as adults. Therefore, mangroves species. There are various reports from villagers in India
play an important role as nursery habitats for many and the Philippines, on how mangroves reduced disaster
commercially important species, such as shrimp and risk and protected them from cyclones and typhoons.
multiple fish species. The many species that live associated
with mangroves form complex forest ecosystems that play For local livelihood support, mangroves are equally
multiple ecological functions which are not only important important as breeding and nursery areas for fish, crabs
locally but also for neighbouring ecosystems. Mangroves and shrimp, which form the basis of major fisheries.
are highly productive forests that enrich the water with The market value of seafood obtained from mangroves
nutrients coming from the organic material they produce, has been estimated to range between US$7,500 and
such as leaves, barks and flowers, as well as from the US$167,500/km2/year by the Millennium Ecosystem
sediment that accumulates around their densely ramified Assessment of 2005 (cited in UNEP, 2006). The continuous
roots. Thanks to the constant tide movements within the destruction of mangrove forests thus very often also
ecosystem, this nutrient-rich water and material is also impacts local fish catch. According to a report by the
being transported to the open sea and further inland Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(UNEP, 2006) (FAO) of 2007, each year coastal fisheries lose about 480
kg in annual production for every hectare of forest that
is being destroyed. By maintaining a rich biodiversity,
Mangroves and People healthy mangrove forests preserve fish stock in the long
term and hence ensure a source of income and food
Around 90% of the worldwide mangrove forests grow in security for local people.
developing countries. More than 100 million people live
within 10 km of large mangroves forests and directly benefit
from the ecosystems (UNEP, 2014). Thus, mangroves are
not only home to a wide variety of animals and plants, According to the UNEP, about 40% of the
they also provide numerous benefits essential to local
communities. These benefits are called ecosystem services
animal species that are dependent on the
and they include protection from floods, cyclones and mangrove ecosystem are considered vulner-
typhoons; reduction of salt water intrusion to agricultural able or at risk of extinction.
lands and freshwater ground supplies; slowing soil
erosion; recycling nutrients; filtering pollutants; regulating
water flows and supplies; maintaining biodiversity; and,
contributing to carbon sequestration.
Moreover, the local population can profit from the
Primarily, the ecosystems provide clean air and water. commercial use of products that can be derived from
Mangrove forests can sequester far more carbon per mangrove trees as well as through eco-tourism. Products
hectare than tropical rainforests or marshes. The UNEP include timber for construction, dye for clothing and
ranks them as one of the most carbon-rich ecosystems coating for tools from the mangroves’ tannins, food for
on earth, due to their ability to store huge amounts of livestock, charcoal and firewood. The robust wood from
carbon (about 1,000 tons per hectare!) over thousands mangroves, which is resistant to rotting and the burrowing
of years (UNEP, 2014). What makes mangroves a unique of many marine invertebrates, makes this timber a
carbon storehouse is their ability to lock carbon up in the valuable high-quality building material (UNEP, 2006).
anaerobic soils. Besides being considered major carbon
In summation, mangroves support the conservation of
sinks, mangroves also keep water systems clean and
biodiversity and, in many ways, they provide invaluable
healthy by soaking up heavy metals and pollutants.
benefits that are precious for human well-being. UNEP
Another important aspect is the forests’ possible lifesaving estimates that, with the current rate of loss, people may
role as shields against storm surges, tsunamis and tropical lose the various values from mangroves’ ecosystem
cyclones, as well as their reduction of soil erosion in coastal services within the next 100 years (UNEP, 2014). Thus, it
areas. Some experts assume that a healthy 100 m wide is of major importance to conserve these irreplaceable
mangrove forest can already buffer the power of smaller ecosystems in order to avoid the adverse consequences
waves caused by hurricanes up to almost 70% (UNEP, that their degradation causes.

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 Mangroves play an important role for local livelihoods, for instance as habitat for edible fish species and for disaster risk reduction.

Threats to Mangroves hectares worldwide since 1980, with Asia and North and
Central America having been hardest hit (UNEP, 2014). The
Despite their priceless value, mangroves have undergone major destruction has occurred in spite of the mangroves’
an alarming decline on all four continents where they important functions, mainly as a result of human-created
are found. This rapid degradation and loss is expected to unsustainable practices. UNEP estimates that by 2050
continue if current trends are not changed. On average, South-East Asia, which is home to about 40% of the global
mangrove forests vanish three to five times faster than mangrove area, will have potentially lost 35% of its forest
other forests (UNEP, 2014). This makes mangroves one cover since the year 2000 (UNEP, 2014). Furthermore, it
of the fastest declining ecosystems in the world, and states that mangrove losses release emissions equivalent to
much of what remains is in a degraded condition. In fact, nearly 20% of the worldwide emissions from deforestation
mangroves have been disappearing faster than coral reefs (while mangroves make up less than 0.4% of the global
and terrestrial tropical forests but have gained less public or forests!), causing economic damages of US$6 billion to
political attention (Valiela et al, 2001). US$42 billion annually.

The continuous degradation of mangroves has caused their More than half of the global loss of mangroves is
ecosystems to shrink by more than 20%, equaling 3.6 million attributable to aquaculture, with 38% alone due to shrimp

14 Introduction
 Mangroves vanish at an alarming rate: since 1980, about 3.6 million hectares of mangrove forests have been destroyed.

farming (Valiela et al, 2001; UNEP, 2014). Especially in degradation of mangroves. Pollutants from these industries
South East Asian countries, the rapidly expanding shrimp further threaten much of the remaining mangroves.
industry is the main cause for loss of area. Because of its Furthermore, habitat, environmental, and hydrologic
high economic return and the huge worldwide demand for changes from dam constructions, regulation of rivers, and
shrimp, unsustainable methods, such as the extensive use diversion of water for example for irrigation, all impact
of pesticides, antibiotics and fungicides, are being used. the composition and input of nutrients, sediments and
This considerably reduces the lifespan of shrimp ponds, freshwater, thus negatively affecting mangrove ecosystem
which soon need to be relocated to a new site, while the equilibrium.
old one is left behind destroyed.
While governments, companies and high-level decision
Further threats to mangroves include coastal urbanization, makers are mainly the cause of this degradation, rural,
climate change with associated rising sea levels, agriculture, local communities are the most affected by the negative
logging, and mining. In many coastal zones, high population consequences of continued mangrove destruction, such as
pressure, the demand for living space and building impacts on subsistence fisheries, climate change and the
materials, charcoal-making, and conversion into agricultural reduced protection from soil erosion and storm surge, just
and aquaculture industry sites, has led to an alarming to mention a few.

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restoring mangroves
A guide to Community-Based Ecological Mangrove Restoration (CBEMR):
re-establishing a more biodiverse and resilient coastal ecosystem with
community participation
M
angrove restoration is an inherently complex task that is prone to failure when the necessary
conditions are not met. Traditional mangrove rehabilitation follows the same principles as
the restoration of terrestrial forest. This involves collecting seeds, planting them in a prepared
nursery and transplanting the seedlings to the desired location. However, these efforts can have limited
results. Thus, the present project has also emphasised implementing alternative restoration techniques
and furthering innovative approaches to mangrove restoration.

Based on its expertise, the Mangrove Action Project » The normal tidal hydrology is ensured and is not dis-
(MAP) has co-developed and promoted the concept rupted.
and practice of Community-based Ecological Mangrove
Restoration (CBEMR), which has also been applied in the » The availability of waterborne seeds or seedlings
context of this project. This holistic approach to mangrove (propagules) of mangroves from adjacent stands is
restoration views the plant and animal communities to ensured and not disrupted or blocked.
be restored as part of a larger ecosystem, connected with Because mangrove forests may recover without active
other ecological communities and their functions. restoration efforts, it has been recommended that
restoration planning should first look at the potential
existence of stresses such as blocked tidal inundation
Community-based Ecological that might prevent natural secondary succession from
occurring, and removing those stressors before attempting
Mangrove Restoration (CBEMR) reforestation. If stressors are responsible for the lack of
defined regeneration, these should be determined by observing
the site for six months to a year after the stress has been
The CBEMR concept is based upon the fact that mangrove removed. There should be evidence of volunteer seedlings
forests can self-repair, or successfully undergo secondary appearing on site within 12 months after the hydrological
succession, if certain pre-conditions are met. CBEMR thus adjustments. If this is not the case, a reassessment of the
focuses on re-establishing the hydrology that will facilitate hydrology and identification of other potential problems
this natural regeneration process. One of the advantages should be undertaken. If seed limitation is a factor, then
is the restoration of a more biodiverse, natural species buckets of collected seeds from a nearby source can be
composition, as compared to the rather “artificial” compo- broadcasted on an incoming spring tide.
sition achieved through single species, hand planting.

The technique also explicitly engages local communities in

the restoration process, empowering them to be stewards CBEMR views the plant and animal com-
of their environment, and enabling them to regain the munities to be restored as part of a larger
livelihoods lost when the mangroves were destroyed.
Three to eight-day intensive workshops can train local
ecosystem, connected with other ecological
people in the basic principles and applications of CBEMR, communities and their functions.
follow-up processes, long-term community management,
as well as monitoring plans to ensure project sustainability.
Only if natural recovery is not occurring after these
CBEMR is a holistic approach that has been used very activities, the third step of assisting natural recovery,
effectively to restore both the biodiversity and function- through hand planting of nursery-raised seedlings or
ality of mangrove ecosystems. It aims to restore certain propagules collected in the correct zonation, should be
ecosystem traits and replicate natural functions. It has considered.
been shown that mangrove forests worldwide can success-
fully undergo secondary succession over periods of 15 to Unfortunately, many mangrove restoration projects
30 years if: move immediately into planting of mangroves without

Global Nature Fund Mangrove Restoration Guide

17
 CBEMR restores both, the biodiversity and the functionality of mangrove ecosystems.

determining why natural recovery has not occurred. There to better understand the nuances that determine success
may have even been large capital investments in growing or failure at each unique restoration site.
mangrove seedlings in a nursery before the stress factors
are assessed; this often results in major failures of planting
efforts. When to use Planting and CBEMR
Generally, most often, planting is not required if certain
Advantages of CBEMR over other pre-conditions for the area are met, such as an intact
hydrology. Furthermore, proper protection from people
current Methods and grazing livestock needs to be ensured during the time
of natural succession. One needs to be more patient, but if
CBEMR involves a more methodological ecosystem ap-
allowed to restore naturally, a higher species biodiversity
proach than the usual monoculture restoration efforts,
and mangrove restoration closer to the original species
incorporating natural mangrove dispersal and ecological
composition is usually ensured.
recovery. The key is in the re-establishment of the hydrol-
ogy of the area considered for restoration, and then work- If planting is desirable, then all the principles of CBEMR
ing with nature itself to help facilitate regeneration of the should still be followed closely, which includes full in-
area’s naturally occurring mangrove species. volvement of communities from the earliest planning
stages to monitoring. Before planting, one must ensure that
The CBEMR concept is based on a set of basic ecological
any stress factors that may have caused prior mangrove
principles and is capable of producing a much more natu-
loss and destruction are resolved, as for example a changed
rally functional and biodiverse mangrove ecosystem than
hydrology or contaminated soils. During planting it is critical
other more capital and labour-intensive methods such as
to mimic nature by using as many species as were naturally
hand-planting. It is also based on principles of community
occurring on site, by emulating natural growth patterns,
engagement and empowerment, recognizing that sustain-
and by planting each species in its correct zonation.
able restoration requires the active participation of the
affected local communities. Monitoring is an important final step in order to assess
success rates, being able to implement corrective measures
To ensure success, long-term monitoring and evaluation
if needed, and to develop a set of lessons learned in order
need to be built into the restoration framework to assess
to improve the quality of future restoration activities.
progress and take corrective action, if required. Since
short-term progress may be less visible at CBEMR sites The following list of pros and cons of CBEMR and tradi-
than after classical reforestation, monitoring should tional reforestation might help in decision-making and to
involve a sufficient time span (at least three to five years) determine what is best suited for a specific site.

18 A guide to Community-based Ecological Mangrove Restoration (CBEMR)

 Traditional Reforestation
Pro Con

» Planting speeds up recovery. » Planting may be a waste of time and resources if an

area can regenerate naturally.
» Can be a way to demonstrate claim to an area if
there is danger of encroachment. » Reforestation often involves the wrong species in
the wrong zones (e.g. tidal mudflats or eroding high
» If planted in the correct tidal zone, economically
energy zones) and possibly the wrong time, which
desirable plants (e.g. Nypa Palm) can be promoted.
results in a high failure rate.
» Planting can create employment, as the main-
» Dense plantations are not as biologically diverse
tenance of nurseries requires a fair amount of
as natural mangrove stands. Also relatively few
labour – at least over the project period.
mangrove species tend to be grown in nurseries.
» Nurseries can be used for environmental edu-
» Monocultures are more vulnerable to diseases and
cation and raising awareness, especially if sign-
insect infestation.
posted with educational information and labelled
species. » Nurseries may be affected by insects, drought,
floods, or poor maintenance.
» Involving local communities in controlled and
informed planting is important for developing » Often mangrove planting occurs without assessing
awareness and ownership of a project. and eliminating disturbances, which is a guarantee
for failure.

» Successfully growing seedlings in nurseries requires

lots of technical knowledge.

CBEMR
Pro Con

» Success rates are generally higher. » Recovery is generally slower initially as it depends
on natural seeding and production cycles so
» Community is involved from planning to imple-
projects require a longer timeframe.
mentation to monitoring, which ensures success.
» If little or no mangrove seed is available nearby
» CBEMR works with nature and natural cycles
the restoration site, lack of propagules entering
so mangroves grow in the correct zone, which
the site will pose a problem.
ensures good growth rates.
» Donors prefer projects with high visibility, that
» Naturally regenerated mangroves are closer to the
provide good photo opportunities like planting.
original forest and have higher biodiversity.
Naturally regenerating sites may not be as visually
» Restoring large areas can be less expensive using attractive as planted sites.
CBEMR.
» Less employment is created.
» Small-scale planting of desired species in the cor-
rect zone can still be utilized to promote steward-
ship and project ownership.

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 Guidance to successful Mangrove As each restoration site is unique, this system, however,
can only serve as a basic set of good practices, which
Restoration should be translated into tailor-made work plans for the
respective region.
The following summary gives a brief guide on seven basic
steps that are pre-conditions for successful mangrove In addition, it is important to remember that only when
restoration. The seven-step system has been co-developed combined with the consequent protection of remaining
by the Mangrove Action Project (MAP) in order to provide mangrove ecosystems along with close cooperation
coastal managers and mangrove restoration practitioners and involvement of local communities, can restoration
with a comprehensive and accessible, basic methodology. activities be sustainable and have a long-term success.

THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNITY-BASED

ECOLOGICAL MANGROVE RESTORATION

A proper involvement of community members and any other relevant agencies

should be ensured during the whole process.

1 Understand the autecology (individual species ecology) of the mangrove species at the site; in par-
ticular, the patterns of reproduction, propagule distribution, and successful seedling establishment.

2 Understand the normal hydrologic patterns that control the distribution and successful establishment
and growth of targeted mangrove species.

3 Assess disturbances and modifications of the original mangrove environment that currently prevent
natural secondary succession (recovery after damage).

4 Design the restoration program to restore appropriate hydrology and, if possible, utilize natural
volunteer mangrove propagule recruitment for plant establishment.

5 Implement the restoration plan using the natural nearby mangroves as a reference model.

Only utilize actual planting of propagules, collected seeds, or cultivated seedlings after determining

6 (through steps 1-5) that natural recruitment will not provide the quantity of successfully established
seedlings, rate of stabilization, or rate of growth of saplings defined as objectives for the restoration
project.

7 Design and follow a long-term monitoring plan (usually for 3-5 years) which is critical to ensuring
the success of the restoration project.

20 A guide to Community-based Ecological Mangrove Restoration (CBEMR)

CBEMR explicitly engages local communities,
empowering them to be stewards of their environment
and enabling them to regain the livelihoods lost.
 Before you start: Be prepared that can be worked on with the available funds, time,
and human resources. It may also involve resolving land
and select an appropriate site! ownership and land-use issues necessary to ensure
long-term access to and conservation of the site and its
Before you start a mangrove restoration project it is always associated wildlife.
useful to check whether there were any similar programs
in that area. If so, it is helpful to gather information regard- Try to gather as much information as possible about your
ing their success and/or failure, and to learn from former site (historical photographs, literature, tidal conditions,
consolidated findings. etc.). Understanding your site and the normal hydrologic
patterns is one of the most important attributes of targeted
Equally important is the selection of an appropriate restora- planning. A reference mangrove site for examining normal
tion area that has a good chance for rehabilitation and hydrology in the particular area might be useful.

Things you may need before starting

mangrove restoration activities

» Information on biophysical features of the location (i.e. area topographic maps, land-use plans, historical air
photos, if available, and remote sensing images like Google Earth).

» Major climate parameters (i.e. rainfall, temperature etc.) and information on the tidal and hydrological system
(tide tables) as well as earth movements (e.g. land subsidence).

» Dominant soil type.

» Water chemistry (salinity, pH, temperature).

» Type of forest (primary, secondary, degraded). A forestry management map may be available.

» Species inventories (flora and fauna).

» Local knowledge/traditional uses and land tenure.

» Ecosystem products, functions and attributes.

» Pressures and threats to the area.

» Potential areas available for rehabilitation/restoration.

» Survey equipment (camera, compass, rope, stakes, notebook, measuring tape, GPS unit, auto-level).

22 A guide to Community-based Ecological Mangrove Restoration (CBEMR)

 Tidal Zone
Position Upriver

Natural mangrove distribution depends on the preferences of a particular species for various conditions, such as tidal zone and estuarine position
(according to Duke, 2006).

Get started! Because of their various shapes and sizes, propagules can
float differently. Furthermore, it is important to consider
the different plant zonation which is characterised by

1
different conditions, depending on the tidal zone and the
Understand the mangrove’s position of the restoration site upriver, such as the scope
autecology of tidal inundation, salinity and the amount of fresh water
available (Fig. 1).
In order to understand the patterns of reproduction,
propagule distribution and successful seedling establish- Different mangrove species prefer different conditions
ment, it is necessary to have a look at the individual and thus occur in different zones. Take into account which
species ecology of the mangroves – their autecology. species is appropriate for which zone.

Global Nature Fund Mangrove Restoration Guide

23
 2 Understand the normal
hydrology patterns
» Blocked tidal inundation.

» Lack of groundwater or freshwater runoff.

Each mangrove species thrives at a different substrate » Shoreline abrasion and lowered substrate level caused
level, which in some part dictates the amount of exposure by high wave energy.
the mangrove will have to tidal waters. Understanding
the normal hydrologic patterns that influence the

4
distribution and growth of existing natural mangrove
Develop your hydrological rehabilitati-
plant communities in the restoration area is thus essential.
Therefore, a sufficient understanding of the determining on strategy
factors such as depth, duration and frequency of tidal The basic theory behind hydrological rehabilitation is
inundation of tidal flooding is vital. There are various tide- the recreation of natural slope and substrate height,
classifications to distinguish, like those that are inundated which will support normal tidal flow, and the natural re-
by all high tides, those by all medium-high tides, or those establishment and growth of mangrove seedlings.
by normal tides. In addition, there are those inundations
that only happen during spring tides or equinoctial tides. Another important factor is to ensure unhindered flow of
tidal streams through the entire restoration area. This can
Three important points concerning the tides should be happen by either unblocking possibly restricted canals or
evaluated: water flows, or by creating new streams, e.g. by digging
» Height and depth of the tides. canal systems. The natural exchange and flow of water
– through the whole mangrove area from the terrestrial
» Duration of the tidal inundation. edge to the sea – is essential, as the streams create the
site, including its zone-specific composition of fresh water
» Frequency of the tides. and salinity in the area. From upland, mangroves are fed
If a nearby healthy mangrove forest exists, it is helpful to by ground water, springs, runoff and streams, and connect
imitate the slope and topography of the substrate. this fresh water inflow with the salt water of the seaside,
thus facilitating tidal flooding of the mangrove area. When
these tidal streams are disturbed, a mangrove may dry out

3
and die over time.
Assess disturbances

It must be determined whether the target area for an

intended restoration was a mangrove area in the past. If so, For a successful restoration, imitate nature
it is important to understand why the original mangrove and ensure that hydrological conditions are
cover vanished, if external stressors or disturbances
have been responsible for the loss, and if they currently truly supportive of mangrove growth.
prevent the natural succession of mangrove forest. The
potential stresses on the location should be investigated
and eliminated or at least reduced to a level where long-
term survival of new mangrove saplings can be ensured. In case you want to restore abandoned shrimp ponds or
If you cannot correct these, you should consider picking a areas close to such ponds blocking the hydrology of your
new site. It is also crucial to involve the local communities site, the best option is to level their dyke walls. If you
in this process. cannot level the walls entirely, opening strategic breaches
in the right places – usually the mouths of historic tidal
Some potential stressors could be: creeks – may be enough to support the exchange of
tidal waters and should lead to further degradation and
» Disturbing human activities (shrimp ponds, dykes,
removal of the walls over time.
tree felling, agricultural encroachment or run off, road
construction, etc.). For excavated areas, backfilling the site supports the
recreation of the natural slope. The definition and use of
» Hypersaline or acid sulphate soils (usually after
a benchmark reference site further helps to rebuild the
intensive shrimp farming).
exact tidal elevations relative to this reference site, thus
» Overgrazing by animals. ensuring that the hydrology is correct.

24 A guide to Community-based Ecological Mangrove Restoration (CBEMR)

If allowed to restore naturally, a higher species biodiversity
and mangrove restoration closer to the original species
composition is usually ensured.
 Always keep in mind: Even if mangroves survive for several
years in the rehabilitation area, they may remain stunted
or even die out unless hydrological conditions are truly
6 Planting mangroves –
only if necessary
supportive of mangrove growth. If seedlings have established in the rehabilitation area
but at lower densities than hoped for, you may consider
further supporting the site by direct hand-planting. It is

5 Implementation
important to only plant mangrove species that previously
occurred naturally on the site and in the correct zone.

The area for a mangrove nursery needs to be chosen

Implement the restoration plan by using the natural
nearby mangroves as a reference model. Be aware of the diligently. Preferably, the nursery should be located in
soil substrate level in reference to mean sea level or a the inter-tidal zone so that hand-watering is not required.
Building the nursery close to households will make it easy
datum marker and imitate natural tidal waterways so that
to access and to provide regular maintenance. If there
the frequency, depth and duration of tidal inundation are
have been mangroves in the area before, ask yourself why
also similar. Tidal creeks should be snake-like in shape, and
they have vanished and eliminate possible stressors before
also wider at the mouth and narrowing as they move up-
you start growing seedlings (see step 3). Then, you need
slope. A good tidal channel will be self-flushing preventing
to ensure that sufficient person power and knowledge
siltation. It is important not to pile the dredged spoil on
on growing the seedlings is available. Additionally, it is
the channel banks as this will block tidal flushing and
recommended to clearly define and record criteria such as
be washed back into the waterway. Move the spoil into
species, type of seed, months of seed collection, indicators
islands as far away from the edge as reasonably possible.
of maturity, seed selection, seed storage, sowing, shading,
Use local human labour for excavation and hydrological
watering and pest control.
adjustments where possible, as it provides local wages,
builds stewardship for the restoration site, and has proven When planting, it is critical to emulate nature, e.g. species
to be an excellent tool for teaching the principles of composition of a site, growth patterns and distribution of
CBEMR by doing and observing. These skills will be very species in their correct zonation. Enough space between
useful for needed future adjustments or restoration work. the seedlings allows natural volunteers to grow, ensuring

Some hints for proper mangrove planting

» Hole Size: The prepared hole for planting should be 1.5 times wider and 1.5 times deeper than the root ball of
the seedling.

» Avoid “J“-Roots: When placing the seedling in the prepared hole it is recommendable to hold the seedling so
that the top of the root ball is even with the surface of the soil. It is also important that the roots are allowed
to dangle freely, straight into the hole. Roots in contact with the bottom of the hole will curl upward (like the
letter “J“) which may stunt growth or even kill the plant.

» Loose Soil: Only lightly back-fill soil into the hole so that it is completely filled with loose soil. Compacting the
soil too much eliminates small air pockets needed by the roots.

» Timing: It is best to ensure that saplings are transplanted within a month to gain the best results.

26 A guide to Community-based Ecological Mangrove Restoration (CBEMR)

 Monitoring is key to the long-term restoration success and
helps identifying and correcting possible problems
in due time.

species diversity. Seedlings or prologues are best planted at

the beginning of the rainy season, which is the ideal growing
season with plenty of moisture and lower saline conditions.
7 Monitoring

Monitoring is the final step most often overlooked or carried

Dissemination of Seedlings out only once shortly after restoration, while many potential
problems that might impact the project’s success could
For reforestation through planting, there are different yet occur over the next few years. Monitoring has several
strategies that can be applied: critical functions, including informing if the restoration
» Raising seedlings in a nursery from local seed sources. is meeting the goal for recovery, helping to recognize
problems and make early corrections, and is an important
» Planting propagules (seeds) directly. tool for learning and improving future restoration projects.
Monitoring can be simple time-lapse photos, or more
» Relocating natural seedlings from unsuitable areas or scientific, using fixed or random quadrats or transects. The
very dense sites into the restoration area. method or combination of methods selected should suit the
» Broadcasting propagules by throwing them on the skills, time and budget available over a period of three to
water surface during incoming tides. This enables seeds five years. Regular monitoring allows tracking changes over
to find their own suitable location for rooting and thus time, and seeing if the modifications are working. According
supports natural distribution and growth patterns. to international experts, monitoring is recommended to be
It is recommended to do this on a series of different scheduled at the following monthly intervals: Time Zero
tides during the month of maximum availability of the (TO), + 3, 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48 and 60 months (where
seeds. “Time Zero” is the completion of physical restoration work).
Four monitoring sessions occur in the first year, to find any
No matter which strategy you decide on, you should always problems early and correct them.
make sure to use local sources for seeds and seedlings,
as they are well-adapted to the local environment and The main goal of CBEMR monitoring is to measure the
ensure natural (site-specific) species composition. density of natural seedling recruitment over time. Besides
observing volunteer seedlings on site, there should be an
Propagules and seeds suitable for collection are commonly evaluation of the site hydrology to see if tidal flooding
found along high-tide lines. If an area lacks natural seed is occurring in a similar way to the natural mangrove
sources, seeds may be collected from a similar area that reference forest. Observation should include other flora
has a lot of seeds, transported to the restoration site, and and fauna occurring on-site which can also be a good
distributed by one of the strategies above. indicator of problems or rehabilitation success.

Global Nature Fund Mangrove Restoration Guide

27
the project
The Project
I
n response to the urgent need to protect mangrove ecosystems and their biodiversity, Global Nature
Fund and its five partner organizations from India, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Cambodia jointly launched
the “Mangrove reforestation in Asia – local action and cross-border transfer of knowledge for the
conservation of climate, forests and biodiversity” project in 2012.

In the framework of the four year initiative, the team opened opportunities for the sale of surplus harvests
restored over 100 hectares of degraded or destroyed on the local market.
mangrove forests at five different project locations
Various environmental education programs and regular
throughout Asia. The close collaboration within the team,
exchange meetings between the project team further en-
as well as with the local communities and authorities, has
sured raising awareness and ownership among the project
been key for the success of the project.
communities, as well as expert exchange on challenges,
For restoration activities, the partners used traditional successes and lessons learned.
planting techniques as well as the CBEMR approach. Due
to the longstanding experiences of the partners in their
project areas and the field of mangrove reforestation, the
most suitable methods have been picked in order to allow “Now, when we see the new mangroves
best possible results. growing in the catchment areas, we feel
For the traditional reforestation, seedlings have
that we are supporting our future gen-
been grown in mangrove nurseries and private home erations and preserving the lake and its
gardens and planted out by local community members, environment. We want to see more green
offering employment and additional income to the local
around our lake and safeguard it from be-
communities. The home garden growers have been
paid for each successfully grown seedling and have coming a brown one.”
additionally been provided with vegetable and herb Mr. Chintake – Kaduruduwa, Sri Lanka
seedlings. This further supported their nutrition and

Project Partners...
Between January 2012 and December 2015, the project “Mangrove reforestation in Asia – local action and cross-border
transfer of knowledge for the conservation of climate, forests and biodiversity” has been implemented. In the framework
of this transnational initiative, five experienced project partners from four Asian countries realized activities for the
sustainable protection of valuable mangrove ecosystems. Global Nature Fund, Germany, initiated and managed the
project.

Germany Global Nature Fund and the Living Lakes Network

Global Nature Fund (GNF) is a non-profit, private, independent foundation for the protection
of environment and nature. GNF was founded in 1998 and has offices in Radolfzell, Bonn
and Berlin. One of GNF’s core initiatives is the Living Lakes Network – a global network of
organizations that champion the protection of lakes and wetlands. The network currently
comprises over 100 members all over the world, and has been recognized as an “Official
Project of the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development 2005-2014”
for the fifth time in a row.
www.globalnature.org; www.globalnature.org/livinglakes

Global Nature Fund Mangrove Restoration Guide

29
 Cambodia FACT
The Fisheries Action Coalition Team (FACT) is a group of NGOs that came together to
address coastal issues, especially problems related to local fisheries. FACT was formed in
the year 2000 and mainly works around Tonle Sap Lake. Apart from biodiversity restoration
programs, FACT is involved in mangrove restoration efforts in the coastal zone and has a
strong advocacy on fishing rights and coastal resource usage.
www.fact.org.kh

India CReNIEO
The Center for Research on New International Economic Order (CReNIEO) was established in
1979 as an action research centre and has been involved in fisheries development activities
at the Pulicat Lake since 1984. CReNIEO concentrates on skills development, formal school
education and on income generating actives for local communities. CReNIEO has also been
conducting environment education programs in schools around Pulicat. Since 2008 CReNIEO
has been actively involved in mangrove restoration activities in the South of Pulicat Lake.
www.crenieo.org

Sri Lanka EMACE

EMACE is an experienced NGO that predominantly works in the Bolgoda Lake region in the
areas of biodiversity restoration and biodiversity protection. EMACE implements renewable
energy schemes, biocultivation, climate change mitigation programs and runs environmental
education programs for the community. In addition, EMACE engages in community-based
micro finance programs and strives to be innovative in their approach.
www.emacesrilanka.com

Sri Lanka Nagenahiru Foundation

The Nagenahiru Foundation was established in 1991 and is involved in a variety of activities
including community level environmental education, nature conservation, advocacy
programs as well as poverty mitigation and community empowerment programs. It also
engages in providing skills to women for the fabrication of products made from natural
wetland resources and coir fibre. The foundation is intensively involved in mangrove
restoration and conservation programs.
www.nagenahiru.org

Thailand MAP-Asia
Mangrove Action Project (MAP)-Asia is a regional office, which opened in 2001 in Trang,
southern Thailand while MAP has been registered as non-profit in Washington State, USA
since 1992. MAP-Asia focuses on coastal resources conservation, promoting sustainable
community livelihoods, and capacity building. The organization has strong expertise in
mangrove restoration and networks with partners throughout Asia and beyond. MAP-Asia
promotes CBEMR since 2003 and also trained the other project partners on it.
www.mangroveactionproject.org

30 The Project
... and Project Areas

Trapaing Sangke aquaculture. Previous attempts by local fishers in the

community to sustainably manage and restore the man-
[ Cambodia ]
Community FACT
groves failed, due to a lack of knowledge and time.
The project site is situated in the Trapaing
Sangke commune in the Kampot Province However, the vast majority of the community relies on
of Cambodia, where a community fishery was established the mangroves’ natural resources for their livelihoods.
in 2009. The community fishery covers 337 hectares Many of them live below the poverty line. Due to the
including 45 hectares for fish conservation, 30 hectares for poor economic conditions in these rural and structurally
mangroves reforestation and restoration, and 10 hectares weak areas, there are few income alternatives besides
of existing mangroves forest area. The community consists fishing. The only other means of earning an income are
of three villages with more than 1,000 families. 80% of often farming or irregular day labour. In this context,
the community members are fishers and thus are heavily the overuse of the mangrove forests creates a vicious
dependent on the natural resources of the mangrove cycle because the damaged habitats cannot sustain the
forests and sea, such as crab, fishes and shrimp. fisher families. An increase in poverty, poor nutrition
and accelerating degradation are the results. Besides
The mangrove forests in the Trapaing Sangke commune relevant sensitization measures, it is therefore of singular
are rapidly degrading due to increasing coastal population, importance to provide the families with alternative
climate change, coastal development, agriculture, and sources of income.

Global Nature Fund Mangrove Restoration Guide

31
 Pulicat Lake fish resources which puts stress on the people and the
CReNIEO lake. Competition for catches often leads to strife. There
once was a strict traditional fishing rights system called
[ india ]

Pulicat Lake is situated in southern “Padu” which regulated fishing schedules and gears and
India and has a surface area of around 460 km2. The lake is limited overfishing, but nowadays very few villages still
characterised by its shallow depth of 1.5 m on average. It is practice it.
the second largest brackishwater ecosystem in the country
and is situated on the east coast of India. The lagoon is The mangrove restoration project focuses on an area
an important habitat for  160 fish species in 26 families, that was flanked by abandoned aqua farms and left in
and more than 100 species of terrestrial and aquatic birds, degraded conditions for the mangroves, which were
small mammals and reptiles. The Southern part of the lake stunted and barely surviving. In the villages of the project
is considered highly productive and is densely populated. area most people live below the poverty line. Fishing is
done mostly by hand or using small nets predominantly
Pulicat is a thriving fish trading centre but the per capita to catch shrimps and mud crabs. Since 2000, CReNIEO has
catch has declined drastically. Population continues formed women self-help groups in these villages, helping
to increase, as does pollution caused by locals and them to have access to banks and avail themselves of
commercial activity, along with destructive fishing gears Government schemes. They are mostly daily wage earners
and climate change, all of which have led to dwindling and do some small-scale cultivation.

32 The Project
 Bolgoda Lake water stagnation and pollution of the drinking water
EMACE Foundation sources. The filling of the wetlands causes flooding in the

[ Sri Lanka ]
major townships, associated with substantial economic
Bolgoda Lake is located in south losses for the local residents due to the congestion and
western of Sri Lanka. The lake con- inability to access vital services during flood situations.
sists of two major water bodies that cover a vast area of The main objective is to restore the mangroves to mitigate
374 km2. It is one of the biggest sources of fresh water economic losses, to reduce vulnerability to natural
within the western district of Sri Lanka. Bolgoda Lake has a disaster, and to concomitantly improve the livelihoods of
rich biodiversity that harbours seven varieties of mangrove the local community. In this context the project focusses
plants, many associated species and 45 varieties of fauna. on the fisher folk and farmer families of the lake, most of
Its natural beauty has great potential in an area bordering whom live on less than US$2 a day. Overfishing, pollution
the capital of Colombo, for development, tourism and of the lake by hotels and industries, and the unsustainable,
fisheries, but it is gravely threatened by industrial pollu- unplanned development of the area have hindered their
tion. livelihoods for many years.

The main threats in the area are encroachment over the The project site is located at an area that was originally a
reservation zone of the Bolgoda Lake, garbage dumping mangrove habitat but was cleared approximately 70 years
by visitors, and industrial pollutants that are discharged ago and converted into rice paddy fields. A soil dam along
into the lake. Due to the destruction of the mangroves the lake and estuaries was built to control salinity and
caused by felling, industrial and other developments, the tide water flow and allow rice cultivation. However, this
income generated by fishing has been drastically reduced. conversion was not successful and the fields were soon
Land fillings of the Bolgoda wetland, and converting the abandoned. For the last 50 years, weeds and invasive
lake border to residential areas has contributed to lake plants have been thriving in the area.

Global Nature Fund Mangrove Restoration Guide

33
 Madampe Lake Mangroves are one of the most prevalent ecosystems in Sri
Lanka and provide a range of ecosystem services to the local
[ Sri Lanka ]

Nagenahiru Foundation
communities. They play a major role in preventing coastal
The Madampe Lake Wetland erosion and support nesting and reproduction for fish and
system is located on the south birds. Nevertheless, during the past few decades mangrove
west coast of Sri Lanka, which resources have been drastically damaged or reduced due
harbours a unique biodiversity to increasing human activities such as illegal tree felling,
and includes a variety of vegetation types, predominantly aquaculture, clearing for settlements, agriculture and
mangroves and marshlands. Due to the diversity of tourism. The local communities in the project region of
habitats and a broad variety of plants, a large number south western Sri Lanka depend on the natural resources
of animal species including invertebrates, amphibians, provided by the Lake and the surrounding wetland systems.
reptiles, birds, and mammals can be found around the However, there is neither adequate management nor an
lake. The mixture of vegetation types and presence of environmental awareness program in place, by which the
small and large islands within the lake has made the local farmers and fishermen learn about sustainable use of
wetlands an ideal habitat for numerous species of birds. the environment. As a result, the area has already suffered
A total of 83 bird species belonging to 36 families have damage from over-fishing, emissions of pollutants into the
been recorded. water system and the extensive use of chemical fertilizers.

34 The Project
 Andaman Coast management many of these ponds have a short life
MAP span and are abandoned due to disease and water

[ Thailand ]
quality problems after a few years. In addition, existing
The Andaman Sea coast of Thailand mangrove planting programs in Thailand often focus on
is 865 km long and extends from very few species (2-4 at most, primarily Rhizophora spp.)
the Malaysia border in the south to that are not nearly as productive or biologically diverse
Myanmar in the north. The mangrove as the original forest. Therefore, within these mangrove
restoration project sites are located in three of the six plantations natural biodiversity is being lost.
coastal provinces, namely Trang, Krabi and Phang Nga. The
area receives plenty of rainfall nearly year round, so the The target group is the local community of each coastal
vegetation is tropical with forests reaching up to 80 m in village within which the mangrove restoration sites are
height. Mangroves cover more than 600 km2 of the coast. located, often where mangrove loss has been high due
There are about 280 edible fish species belonging to 75 to shrimp aquaculture expansion in the 1990s. These
families, of which 232 species are found in mangroves. The villagers live in close interaction with the mangrove forest
sea also hosts many vulnerable fauna species, including and the estuary.
dugong (Dugong dugon), several dolphin species, such as
Irrawaddy Dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris) and four species Most community members make their living from small-
of endangered sea turtles. scale traditional fishing using multiple gear from long-tail
boats, aquaculture involving mainly fish-rearing in floating
Shrimp aquaculture has been the main cause of man- pens, but also crab, clam and oyster raising, and agriculture,
grove loss in Thailand. Due to unsustainable intensive in particular rubber tree tapping and oil palm plantations.

Global Nature Fund Mangrove Restoration Guide

35
 Outcomes and Achievements restoration sites. This positive development is further
supported by the implementation of comprehensive
species inventories in the project areas, which help the
Mangrove restoration project partners to better understand the ecosystems they
are working in and develop tailor-made projects on basis
In the framework of the project, more than 100 hectares
of long-term conservation strategies in future.
of degraded or destroyed mangrove forests have been
restored. In order to achieve this effort, almost 140,000 The restoration has not only contributed to nature
seedlings were grown in nurseries and replanted by local conservation, it has also improved the livelihoods of local
community members at the restoration sites in Sri Lanka, communities and especially fisher families who live in
Cambodia and India. the catchment areas. In addition, the implementation of
the restoration activities offered people possibilities for
In Thailand, the CBEMR method has been applied in six
supplementary income, for example through supporting
communities, where encroached mangrove areas as
seedling planting, land preparation or by growing
well as abandoned shrimp ponds have been secured and
seedlings in private gardens, which have been purchased
restored through the correction of the sites’ hydrology. The
from them for the project. The involvement in the growing
other partners have been trained in the CBEMR method
and planting process as well as the further monitoring
and successfully implemented it on own pilot sites.
of the restored areas considerably increased the aware-
Together with the reviving forests, a constant increase ness and acceptance of the project within the local
of mangrove-associated flora and fauna, such as birds, communities and built up capacities that empower people
fish and crustaceans, has been observed throughout the to independently manage and conserve an important part
of their own livelihoods.

“I am fishing near the restoration site in

Thangal and I see more fishes and prawns
since the project started. Nowadays, I do
not go far but fish between the mangroves
here. The catches I get have increased by 2
to 3 times which I sell at the Pulicat market.”
Ms. Devanayki – India

Irrespective of which restoration method is being used, community involvement is key to the long-term success.

36 The Project
Mangroves are unique ecosystems, harbouring a huge variety of associated animal and plant species. Healthy
forests are thus particularly suitable for sustainable eco-tourism activities, from which the local, surrounding
communities can benefit. This positive impact of the reforestation activities has also taken place at the
restoration site in Cambodia, where the local communities recorded increased national and international
tourists in the area, due to the reviving mangrove forests and the returning biodiversity.

A story from the field

Mr. Sem, 47 years old, is chief of the Trapaing Sangke Community Fisheries, the local fishermen association in
the project area. He supported the project from its beginning. “During my involvement”, he says, “I observed
a positive change in mindset and attitudes of the local people towards mangroves. The increase in tourists
helped the local communities a lot.” In total, the invloved communities earned around US$4,000 in 2014
through touristic activities, such as provison of meals and guiding. Many of the visitors have been students,
who further increased the income generation by buying mangrove seedlings and supporting the reforestation
activities. The revenues through tourism allowed investments in maintenance of touristic infrastructure, such
as tour boats, but also in regular mangrove patrolling and the support of the most vulnerable community
members, like poor and widowed families.

The income generation through healthy mangrove forests creates a win-win situation for people and nature
and thus considerably supports the long-term survival of the restoration area in Cambodia.
 Livelihood support
The creation of alternative income opportunities for the tribution of crops seedlings, such as vegetables and
local communities surrounding the project areas consti- herbs that have been grown in the private gardens for
tuted an important pillar of the project. The generation own use or sale on the local market.
of alternative sources of income improves livelihoods,
builds relationships within the local population, increases Furthermore, the partners realized a series of other small-
the awareness of and the support for project activities and scale livelihood initiatives in accordance with the special
is an important measure to reduce the pressure on the needs of the different communities. Among others, these
mangrove forests. included the support of further agricultural programs,
such as raising goats and chickens, construction of wells
Within the project, two major activities for livelihood and toilets, or provision of equipment and training for
support were applied. On the one hand, a buyback fishermen and other small businesses like beekeeping.
system for mangrove seedlings from household nurseries In return, the local communities actively supported the
has been established. Participating families received project implementation and committed to the long-term
mangrove seeds and training on how to grow the seeds preservation and protection of the restoration sites as
successfully in their private home gardens. Once old well as to the use of sustainable resource practices.
enough, the seedlings were bought back for restoration
purposes.

The buyback scheme has been complemented with “Before the project we used to cut man-
training on sustainable growing practices and the dis-
groves and sell the wood for construction
and other purposes. Through the project
we received a cage and 60 hens to start a
poultry farm. Now, we sell the eggs from
our hens instead of wood.”
Mrs. Jayanthi Ranasinghe & Mr. Nelson –
Sri Lanka

Alternative sources of income are important in fishing communities with mangroves suffering from excessive overuse.

38 The Project
Mr. Muthukrishnan, his wife and his four kids, live in one of the project villages in India. Mr. Muthukrishnan
is a tribal fisherman, fishing in Pulicat Lake. The familiy is participating in the buyback system for mangrove
seedlings. For each successfully grown sapling, the family received 25 Rupees (about 0.35 Euro). With this

A story from the field

income and some of his own savings, Mr. Muthukrishnan was able to buy his own fiber catamaran (a small
fishing boat) for himself and his son. By using this boat, he can increase his catch and therefore income,
he says. Additionally, the fisherman participated in enivironmental education activities and community
meetings. “Through the project, we were able to understand the importance of mangroves and the role they
play for shrimp, fish and mud crab, which I fish.”

Mrs. Nagabossham, her husband and her three kids live in the neighbouring village Edaiyankulam. The family
received one female goat through the project in December 2012. Since then, the goat gave birth to two
male and two female kids. Mrs. Nagabossham reared the two males for some months and sold them on the
market. She invested the money she earned into the education of her children. The two female kids, she
kept: “I feel blessed with the two females. Now I can expand, double my stock and double my income” she
says, smiling.
 Environmental education and community
involvement
Environmental education plays an important role to ensure key to the success of the project, as they built up trusting
the long-term success and sustainability of (mangrove cooperation with the most important stakeholders of the
restoration) projects. Sensitizing children and community project and thus support sustainability. A bi-directional
members to the importance of mangroves provides information flow thereby ensured a platform for the local
them with essential knowledge about the benefits of the communities to give feedback on the project activities,
ecosystems, and generates awareness of why these forests express concerns and to support the implementation
should be protected in the future. Therefore, all partners process with traditional knowledge of the ecosystems.
established or refurbished information centres where At the same time it provided the project partners the
they have been conducting continuous environmental chance to consistently sensitize and train the target group
education programs. A huge variety of activities for pupils on mangrove protection and CBEMR, as well as other
and adults such as exhibitions, drawing contests, field topics, such as recycling and practices on sustainable crop
visits and visitation of the mangrove nurseries have been growing and fishing techniques.
conducted here.
Overall, several thousand people participated in
Furthermore, regular exchange meetings with the local environmental education activities or received educational
communities, village elders, and different representatives information throughout the project timeframe and have
from ministries, universities, fishing associations and thus been sensitized on the importance of mangrove
women’s groups have been realised. These have proven ecosystems for themselves and future generations.

Environmental education programs and regular exchange with the local communities inform,
sensitize and build up trust.

40 The Project
Mr. Bung Bao is a senior member of the Laem Makham Village in Trang, Thailand. He is descended from a long
line of fishermen who have lived next to the mangroves and utilized them for generations. Locally he is known
as the “mangrove expert”. When the village was identified as one of the project locations, he immediately

A story from the field

stepped forward, excited to contribute to the restoration of an area his family and village hold sacred. Mr.
Bung Bao helped take the lead on the CBEMR project and showed great initiative so that he quickly became
the project’s contact person in the village. Particularly important was Mr. Bung Bao’s local knowledge, with
which he supported the project implementation and restoration of an abandoned rice paddy adjacent to
the village. Mr. Bung Bao explains “The private property area was excavated by the government to extract
fill material for a new road construction to the village ten years ago. The soil in the area was too dry making
mangrove growth impossible”. By creating new channels for water to flow through the land, soil conditions
improved, so the team was able to prepare the area in order to allow natural colonization of mangroves,
as they never previously grew on this site behind the natural mangroves. Several months later Bung Bao
was excited to announce: “Now that the mangroves have started to grow and the hydrology of the area has
improved, fish and crabs have begun to populate the water ways providing the village with extra food and
income from selling them at the market.”
Establishment of a transnational network
for mangrove protection
Not only the exchange and communication on a local restoration methods, and provided the rest of the team
level was important for the project’s success, but also the with helpful advice to make the implementation more ef-
regular, cross-border exchange of the project partners. ficient and successful.
By combining knowledge and expertise from Sri Lanka,
Cambodia, Germany, India and Thailand, they formed a At the beginning of the project, all partners participated in
transnational network for mangrove protection. training on CBEMR in order to enable them to implement
this technique on pilot areas in their own project countries.
The framework of the network allowed regular exchange Afterwards, the partners met on a yearly basis in one of
on lessons learned and challenges during implementation, the project countries to learn about different strategies
as well as discussion of strategies on different aspects, such and approaches by visiting the project site and meeting
as long-term sustainability and community involvement, local stakeholders. By the end of the project, each partner
and to transfer recommendations of the other partners to had the opportunity to visit each project site and thus
their own project context. Each partner has their own field gained a great deal of valuable new input for their own
of expertise, as environmental education and alternative project work.
Project community in Thailand.

The exchange of international experts helps disseminating lessons learned

and best practices which improve future projects.
Lessons
Lessons Learned
Les-
sons
learned
Site Selection
Choosing sites with the right conditions is crucial for the success of mangrove restoration projects.
Hydrology is one of the most essential factors for the successful restoration of mangrove forests.
Similar to many possible sites for mangrove restoration, hydrology was also challenging at some of
the project sites. Under these conditions traditional reforestation measures are prone to failure.
Thus, re-establishing hydrology should be the first step, before considering rehabilitation.

Mind Seasonal Patterns

If restoration is conducted, ensure increased survival rates through planting only during the rainy
season. If fires are an issue for the project site, water should be sprayed during the dry season.
Protective, sufficiently wide canals across the land can prevent wildfire from spreading to the
project areas.

Global Nature Fund Mangrove Restoration Guide

45
 Distribution of Restoration Sites
Although having multiple restoration sites can be complex and time-consuming, a wide variety of
sites in different zones can also be beneficial for future trainings and field study trips. The number
of villages involved in Thailand, for example, has helped to disseminate the CBEMR approach
more widely and expanded the partners’ connections and networking.

Land Tenure
Unclear land tenure can be a fundamental obstacle to mangrove restoration. It is therefore very
important to clarify land ownership from the very beginning so there are no misunderstandings on
the long-term conservation of the site and project investment. This also includes making written
long-term agreements with the landowners, to make sure that they are actually committed to the
project. The provision of livelihood support to the communities in exchange for long-term user
rights of the site can further facilitate long-term support and acceptance.

46 Lessons Learned
Benefit from Local Knowledge
Local fishermen often have good traditional knowledge about tidal patterns during different sea-
sons. Including their knowledge can be very helpful and, for example, allowed the creation of
hydrology correcting canals without further technical consultancy in India.

Community Involvement
In many areas, mangroves disappear due to coastal development or remain degraded because the
local communities over-utilize them in an unsustainable way. These processes often occur because
local communities have limited knowledge about mangroves and are unaware of the benefits they
provide. Therefore, the involvement of the local communities is indispensable for the success of
mangrove conservation and restoration. However, it has to be kept in mind that developing a
relationship with a new community can take quite some time, effort and budget. This particularly
applies when it is intended to actively work with a community that has little knowledge and
experience in conservation work. If possible, try to select restoration sites in communities that
already have strong capacity in conservation work or calculate sufficient time and resources when
starting to work in unexperienced ones.

Global Nature Fund Mangrove Restoration Guide

49
 Alternative Incomes
The unsustainable use of mangroves often occurs due to a lack of alternative income opportunities.
It is therefore important to develop alternative income strategies together with local communities.
The provision of alternative income sources through the cultivation of cash crops and the buyback
scheme of mangrove seedlings grown in household nurseries, have been very successful in the
context of the project. Livelihoods can be a good mechanism to promote long-term conservation,
especially when the livelihoods are directly linked with conservation work e.g. beekeeping, fishing
and eco-tourism.

Project Organisation
Building a good organisational structure for the project is crucial. Especially regarding the involve-
ment of the local communities, a proper structure and internal regulations that assign clear but
realistic responsibilities are key. A regular follow up and exchange is vital.

50 Lessons Learned
Sufficient Time for
Follow-up Processes
In order to ensure a successful and sustainable project implementation, a follow-up phase of at
least five years is required for restoration sites. Thus, sufficient time for monitoring and evaluation
activities after actual restoration should be allocated. Unless external funding is sourced to finance
the activities, this can become challenging.

Law Enforcement
Although mangrove forests are often legally protected, low awareness among local communities
and local law enforcement officers commonly results in poor law enforcement with regard to
encroachments. Sensitization of local communities and law enforcement agencies is thus important
to encourage collective action of the civil society for mangrove protection.

Global Nature Fund Mangrove Restoration Guide

53
 Let Nature Come Back on its Own
Allowing a site to restore naturally usually ensures an ecosystem closer to the original species
composition and a higher species biodiversity. If the site needs further support by direct hand-
planting, make sure that nature is emulated, e.g. by considering species composition of a site,
growth patterns and distribution of species in their correct zonation. Sufficient space between
the planted seedlings allows room for saplings returning naturally and thus increases biodiversity.
Whatever restoration practice is selected, never forget to involve local communities in the
planning, implementation and monitoring process.

54 Lessons Learned
 References and » Conservation International (2008), Economic Values of Coral Reefs, Mangroves,
and Seagrasses: A Global Compilation. Center for Applied Biodiversity Science,
further literature Conservation International, Arlington, VA, USA.

» Duke, N.C. (2006), Australia’s Mangroves. The authoritative guide to Australia’s

mangrove plants. University of Queensland, Brisbane.

» Duke, N.C., Ball, M.C. and Ellison, J.C. (1998), Factors influencing biodiversity
and distributional gradients in mangroves. In: Global Ecology and Biogeography
Letters, Mangrove Special Issue 7: 27-47.

» Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2007),

The world’s mangroves 1980–2005: A thematic study prepared in the framework
of the Global Forest Resource Assessment 2005. Rome, Italy.

» Global Nature Fund (2007), Mangrove Rehabilitation Guidebook.

» IUCN (2011), An Appraisal of Mangrove Management in Micro-tidal Estuaries and

Lagoons in Sri Lanka. IUCN Sri Lanka Country Office, Colombo.

» IUCN (2006), Ecological and socio-economic values of Mangrove

ecosystems in tsunami affected areas: rapid ecological-economic-livelihood
assessment of Ban Naca and Ban Bangman in Ranong Province, Thailand.

» Lewis, R.R. and Brown, B. (2014), Ecological mangrove rehabilitation – a field

manual for practitioners. Version 3. Mangrove Action Project Indonesia, Blue
Forests, Canadian International Development Agency, and OXFAM.

» Lewis, R.R. and Flynn, L.L. (2014), Mangrove Zone Ecology. In: Oxford
Bibliographies in Ecology. Ed. David Gibson. Oxford University Press, New York.

» Lewis, R. R. (2005), Ecological Engineering for Successful Management and

Restoration of Mangrove Forests. In: Ecological Engineering 24 (2005) 403–418.

» Nagelkerken, I. et al. (2007), The habitat function of mangroves for

terrestrial and marine fauna: A review. In: Aquatic Botany 89 (2008) 155–185.

» Primavera J.H., et al. (2012), Manual on community-based mangrove

rehabilitation – Mangrove Manual Series No. 1. London. Zoological Society of
London, UK.

» UNEP (2014), The importance of mangroves to people: A call to Action. van

Bochove, J., Sullivan, E., Nakamura, T. (Eds). United Nations Environment
Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge.

» UNEP-WCMC (2006), In the front line: Shoreline protection and other ecosystem
services from mangroves and coral reefs. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK.

» Valiela, I., Bowen, J.L., and York, J.K. (2001), Mangrove forests: one of the world’s
threatened major tropical environments. In: BioScience Vol. 51 No. 10: 807-815.

» Van Lavieren, H., Spalding, M., Alongi, D., Kainuma, M., Clüsener-Godt, M., and
Adeel, Z. (2012), Securing the Future of Mangroves. A Policy Brief. UNU-INWEH,
UNESCO-MAB with ISME, ITTO, FAO, UNEP-WCMC and TNC.

56 References
Photo Credits
Crenieo: p. 14 (top left), p. 25 (top), p. 33 (bottom), p. 36 (left), p. 38 (middle), page 40 (left and right),
p. 47, p. 51

EMACE: p. 35 (bottom right), p. 39

FACT: p. 27, p. 36 (right), p. 40 (middle)

GNF: p. 8, p. 11, p 31 (top left and right, bottom left and right), p. 32 (top, bottom left and right),
p. 33 (top), p. 34, p. 37, p. 42, p. 44, p. 52, p. 55

MAP: p. 14 (bottom left, right), p. 15, p. 16, p. 18, p. 21, p. 22, p. 25, p. 28, p. 35 (top, bottom left),
p. 36 (middle), p. 41, p. 43, p. 48, p. 57

Nagenahiru: p. 38 (left, right)

© Stefano Guidi / Fotolia.com: p. 12

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