Unit

1
Properties of Matter

Elasticity - Stress-strain diagram and its uses - factors affecting

elastic modulus and tensile strength - torsional stress and
deformations - twisting couple - torsion pendulum. Theory and
Experiment -bending of beams - bending moment - cantilever:
theory and experiment - uniform and non-uniform bending: theory
and experiment - I-shaped girders - stress due to bending in beams.

1.1 ELASTICITY
When an elastic material is deformed due to an external force, it
experiences internal forces that oppose the deformation and restore it to
its original state if the external force is no longer applied.
On the other hand, Material deforms under stress but returns to its
original size and shape when the stress is released. There is no permanent
deformation. Some elastic strain, like in a rubber band, can be large, but
in rocks it is usually small enough to be considered infinitesimal.
Elasticity is a branch of physics which deals with the elastic property
of materials. Materials do not regain its original shape or size even after
the removal of the deforming force are said to be Perfectly Plastic.

1.1
 1.2 Engineering Physics 

1.2 STRESS AND STRAIN

1. Stress
Stress is defined as the restoring force per unit area area which
brings back to original state from deformed state.

i.e. Stress = Deforming force = F

Unit : Nm–2
Area A
Types of Stress
i) Longitudinal (or) Tensile Stress
ii) Shearing (or) Tangential Stress
iii) Axial (or) Compressive Stress

2. Strain
Strain is defined as the ratio of the change in dimension to the
original dimension.

Change in dimension l
i.e., Strain
Original dimension L
Since strain is a ratio, it has no unit.
Types of Strain
i. Longitudinal or Tensile Strain (Change per unit Length)
ii. Shearing Strain (Change per unit Area)
iii. Volume (or) Bulk Strain (Change per unit Volume)

1.3 STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAM AND ITS USES

The elastic behavior of a material of wire can be studied by plotting a
curve between the stress along with y axis and the corresponding strain on
the x axis. The curve is called Stress – Strain Curve.

Let a wire be clamped at one end and loaded at the other end
gradually from zero value until the wire breaks down. The nature of the
stress-strain curve for low carbon steel wire is shown in Fig 1.1.


Properties of Matter 1.3

A – Proportional Limit
A' – Elastic Limit
B – Yield Point
C – Ultimate Tensile Strength
D – Breaking Stress

Fig 1.1 Stress - Strain Curve

(i) The body obeys Hooke’s law upto the region OA called as elastic range
(ii) In the vicinity of the point A there lies another point A' called the
elastic limit. Up to the point A', the wire behaves as a perfectly
elastic body. These two points A and A' are very nearer to each other
and may coincide for some materials.

(iii) On increasing the load still further a point B, called yield point is
usually determined by the minimum value of stress for which the
material begins to deform without an increase of load. The value of the
stress at the yield point is called yield strength of that material.

(iv) If the wire is further loaded, a point represented by C is reached. At

the point C, the value of the developed stress is maximum and is
called the ultimate tensile strength (or) tensile strength of the given
material.

(v) The stress corresponding to the point D where the wire actually breaks
down, is called the breaking stress.

Uses of Stress – Strain Diagram

1. It is used to estimate the elastic strength, yield strength and tensile
strength of metals. Elastic strength is used to define the elastic limit
of a material.

 1.4 Engineering Physics 
2. It is used to estimate the working stress and safety factor of an
engineering material.
3. The area under the curve in the elastic region gives the energy required
to deform it elastically. The area under the curve up to Ultimate Tensile
Strength (UTS) point gives the energy required to deform it plastically.
4. It is also used to identify the ductile and brittle materials.

NOTE :

Normally the working stress on a body is kept far below the ultimate tensile stress
and is never allowed to cross the elastic limit. The above fact is practiced by all
design engineers to get higher stability and reliability of the structures. The ratio
between the ultimate tensile stress and the working stress is called the safety
factor.
Ultimate tensile stress
i.e. Safety factor = Working stress

Hooke’s Law
The maximum stress up to which a body exhibits the property
of elasticity is called elastic limit.
According to this law, within elastic limit, the stress developed
in the body is directly proportional to strain produced in it. i.e.,
the ratio of the stress to the strain is a constant.
Stress Strain

Stress = E Stain.
Stress
Unit : Nm–2
Strain = Constant
E

This constant E is called the modulus of elasticity.

Corresponding to the three types of strain, there are three kinds of
modulus of elasticity. They are Young’s modulus (Y), Bulk modulus (K)
and Rigidity modulus ( )

 Properties of Matter 1.5

1. Young’s Modulus (Y)

It is defined as the ratio between the longitudinal stress to the
longitudinal strain with in the elastic limits.

Linear stress
–2
Young's Modulus Y = Linear strain Unit:Nm

2. Bulk Modulus (K)

It is defined as the ratio between the volume stress to the volume
strain within the elastic limits.,

Bulk stress
Bulk Modulus K = Bulk strain Unit:Nm–2

3. Rigidity Modulus ( )
It is defined as the ratio between the tangential stress to the
tangential strain within the elastic limits.

Shearing Stress
Rigidity modulus ' ' = Shearing Strain Unit:Nm–2

NOTE:
 The reciprocal of the bulk modulus of a substance is called its compressibility. 


 Derivation and explanation of three modulus of elasticity are discussed in
Appendix - 1

4. Properties of Modulus of Elasticity
1. All solids have three modulus of elasticity and fluids (gases and
liquids) have only bulk modulus of elasticity.
2. By the Young’s modulus and bulk modulus of a material, the material
undergoes change in size (or) volume due to the applied force and
there is no change in shape of the material.
3. But by the rigidity modulus the material undergoes change in shape
only due to the applied force and there is no change in size or volume
of the material.

 1.6 Engineering Physics 
5. Poisson’s Ratio :
It is defined as the ratio between the lateral strains per unit stress (β)
to the longitudinal strain per unit stress (α) with in the elastic limits.

Poisson’s ratio (σ) =

6. Relationship between three modulus of elasticity

We know that,
Y
i.e., Y 2 (1 ) .....(1)
2(1 )
Y
and K i.e., Y 3K(1 2 ) .....(2)
3(1 2 )
The above relations are discussed in Appendix - 2
Thus
2 2 Y 1 2 Y
From eqn.(1), From eqn. (2),
3K

Adding the above two equations, Y Y

3 3K
3 1 1
4

Y3K
Multiply by 3
9 31y
K


Properties of Matter 1.7

1.4 FACTORS AFFECTING ELASTICITY

Some materials losses their elastic properties even within the elastic
limit due to the following factors. They are,
1. Effect of Stress
i) If a body is subjected to a constant stress, it loses its elastic property
even within elastic limit. It will regain its elastic property if it is
allowed to rest sufficiently.
ii) Similarly a wire is loaded repeatedly or subjected to a large number of
cycles of stresses; it gets tired or ruptured due to gradual fracture of
the material and hence loses its elastic property apparently.
2. Effect of Temperature
i) Normally the elasticity decreases with the increase of temperature.
ii) A carbon filament which is highly elastic at normal temperature
becomes plastic when it is at high temperature.
iii) Lead is not a very good elastic material. But at low temperature it
becomes a very good elastic material.
iv) Creep resistance is a property by which the material can withstand
its elastic property without fracture at high temperatures and during
quick loading.
v) If annealing is made to a material, the elastic property is decreases.

3. Effect of Impurities
i) The elastic property of a material may increase or decrease due to the
addition of impurities.
ii) If we add carbon in minute quantities to molten iron., the elastic
properties of iron are increased enormously. But the carbon content is
more than 1% in iron, then the strength of iron decreases.
iii) Similarly the addition of potassium in gold increases the elastic
properties of gold.
iv) If any addition of impurity atoms distorts the lattice structure of the
base metal, then the elastic property of the base metal decreases.

 1.8 Engineering Physics 

4. Effect of Crystalline Nature

For a given metal, the modulus of elasticity is more when it is in
single crystal form. In the polycrystalline state, its modulus of elasticity is
comparatively small.
However, for most of the engineering uses, we are using
polycrystalline form of metals due to the increased mechanical properties
like ductility, malleability, machinability, etc.

1.5 TORSIONAL STRESS AND DEFORMATION

When a body is fixed at one end and twisted about its axis by means
of a torque at the other end, the body is said to be under torsion. The
twisting of a rod (or) wire about its longitudinal axis by two equal and
opposite torques (twisting couple) is expressed through a certain angle.
The stress seen in this situation is not tensile or compressive, it is said to
be shearing or shear stress. The strain in this case is measured by an
angle in unit of radians.

Expression for torque per unit twist - Twisting Couple

Let us consider a cylindrical rod of length l and radius r with its
upper end fixed. Let a twisting couple is applied to the lower end of the rod
in a plane perpendicular to its length and let the rod twist through an
angle θ (radians). While the rod is twisted restoring couple acts in the
opposite direction and in the position of equilibrium , the twisting couple is
equal and opposite to the restoring couple.

Fig. 1.2 Twisting Couple


Properties of Matter 1.9
To calculate this couple, let us consider the solid cylinder to be made
up of a larger number of concentric thin walled cylinders. Let us consider
one such hollow cylinder of radius x, and radial thickness dx. When the
rod is twisted through an angle θ , the angle through which the rim of the
cylinder is sheared is .

Due to the twisting torque the line AB which is initially parallel to

the axis OO' of the cylinder is displaced to a position AB' through an angle
as shown in Fig.1.2.
The result of twisting the cylinder is a shearing strain.
The angle of shear BAB '

Here BB ' xl
x
.......(1)
l

Shearing stress
Ridgidity modulus Angle of shear ( )

Shearing stress .....(2)

Substituting eqn.(1) in eqn.(2), we have

x
Shearing stress .....(3)
l
Shearing force
We know shearing stress
Area
Shearing Force = Shearing Stress Area on which the force is acting

x
(i.e.,) F 2 x dx .....(4)
l
Where 2 x dx is the area over which the shearing force acts.

Moment of the force

about the OO' axis of Shearing force Dis tan ce
the cylinder

 1.10 Engineering Physics 

x 2 x dx. x
Moment = Force × Distance
l
2 x 3dx .....(5)
l
By integrating eqn.(5) within the limits 0 to r, we get twisting couple
of the whole cylinder,
r
2
Twisting couple C x 3dx
0 l

(or) C 2 r4
l4

(or) C r4
2l
If twist is unity i.e. = 1 radian.
Then, we can write
r4
The torque per unit twist C
2l
NOTE:
If the material is in the form of hollow cylinder of inner radius
“r1” and outer radius “r2” then,
Cr4 r4
2 1
2l

1.6 TORSIONAL OSCILLATIONS OF A BODY

Suppose a wire is clamped vertically at one end and the other end
carries a body (i.e., a disc, bar or a cylinder) of moment of inertia I about
the wire as the axis. Let the length, radius and rigidity modulus of the
wire be respectively l, r and .
When the body is given a slight rotation by applying a torque, say by
the hand, the wire is twisted. If the body is released, the body oscillates in
the horizontal plane about the wire as axis. These oscillations are called

Properties of Matter 1.11
torsional oscillations and the arrangement is known as a torsion
pendulum.
Let us consider the energy of the oscillating system when the angle of
twist is . Let be the angular velocity of the body.

The potential energy of the wire due to the twist 1

2 C 2

d 2
1 1
The kinetic energy of the body due to its rotation 2
I I
2 2 dt

2
1 d 1
The total energy of the system I C
2
constant
2 dt 2
Differentiating this with respect to t,

1 I.2 d . d 2 1 C2 d 0
2 dt dt 2 2 dt

d2
I C 0 dt2

d2 C 0
2
dt I
The body has simple harmonic motion and its period is given by

T 2 Displacement
Acceleration

T 2
C /I

I
T 2
C

 1.12 Engineering Physics 

1.7 TORSION PENDULUM -

DYNAMIC TORSION METHOD
The torsion pendulum consists of a wire with one end fixed in a split
chuck and the other end to the centre of a circular disc as in Fig.1.3.

A A A

l l l

d1 d1 d2 d2

B B B

T
0 T1 T2

Fig 1.3 Torsion Pendulum

Two equal symmetrical masses (each equal to m) are placed along a
diameter of the disc at equal distances d1 on either side of the centre of
the disc. The disc is rotated through an angle and is then released. The
system executes torsional oscillations about the axis of the wire. The
period of oscillations T1 is determined.
I1
Then T1 2
C

4 2
or T12 I1
C
Here, I1 = Moment of Inertia (M.I) of the whole system
C = Torque per unit twist.
Let I0 = M.I. of disc alone about the axis of the wire.
i = M.I. of each mass about a parallel axis passing through
its centre of gravity.
Then by the parallel axes theorem,
I I 0
2i 2md 2
1 1

4 2
2 2
T
1 C I
0 2i 2md1 ...(1)

Properties of Matter 1.13
The two masses are now kept at equal distances d2 from the centre of
the disc and the corresponding period T2 is determined. Then,
2
2 4 2 ...(2)
T2 C I 0 2i 2md2
4 2 ...(3)
T22 T12 2m d 22 d12
C
r4
But C
2l
4 2 2m d 22 d12 2l
Hence T 2 T2
2 1 r 4

16 lm d 22 d12
...(4)
or r4 T22 T12
Using this relation is determined.

M.I. of the disc by torsional oscillations:

The two equal masses are removed and the period T0 is found when
the disc alone is oscillating. Then,
2
4
T 02 I0 ...(5)
C
CT2
0

I0 4 2

4 2 2m d 22 d12
From (3), C T2 T2
2 1

2 2m d 22 d12
I 4
0
T2
Hence 0
T 2T 2 42
2 1

2m d 22 d12 T02
Io T 2T 2 ...(6)
2 1

8 I0l
Sub (6) in (4) we get rigidity modulus in terms of Io , 2 4

T0 r

 1.14 Engineering Physics 
Experimental Determination of Rigidity Modulus - Torsion Pendulum
A long, thin specimen wire is rigidly fitted to a circular metallic disc
using chucks from a rigid support as in the Fig 1.5. The length of the
suspension wire is (‘l’ metre) noted. A small twist is given to the circular disc,
so that torsional oscillations are made, First few oscillations can be left
uncounted and then stop clock is started. Start counting the oscillations,
When 10 oscillations are completed, time shown by the stop clock is noted.
The time taken for one oscillation is determined and it is denoted as T0.
Now, two equal masses are placed on the circular disc on either side
of the suspension wire symmetrically at a minimum distance d 1. Again
torsional oscillations are made and the time taken for 10 oscillations is
noted. The time taken for one oscillation is determined and it is denoted as
T1.
To find the time periods of the disc (T 0, T1 and T 2)
Length With equal Masses With equal
of the Without Mass at minimum Masses
Suspension distance d1 at maximum
Wire distance d2
Time for Time for Time for Time for Time for Time for
10 1 10 1 10 1
oscillations oscillation oscillations oscillation oscillations oscillation
To T1 T2
×10–2m Second Second Second Second Second Second

Now, two equal masses are placed on the circular disc on either side of
the suspension wire symmetrically at a maximum distance d 2. Again
torsional oscillations are made and the time taken for 10 oscillations is noted.
The time taken for one oscillation if determined and it is denoted as T2.
The radius of the suspension wire is determined by the screw gauge.

The moment of inertia (I0) of the disc and the rigidity modulus of the wire
can be determined by the relation

2m d 22 d12 T02 8πI0l

I0
T22 T12 ; T0 2 r 4

Properties of Matter 1.15

1.8 BENDING OF BEAMS

A beam is defined as a rod or bar of uniform cross-section
(circular or rectangular) whose length is very much greater than
its thickness. It is used in the construction of bridges to support
roofs of the buildings etc.
Basic assumptions involved in theory of bending :
1. The cross-section of the beam remains unaltered during bending.

2. The shearing stresses over any section are negligibly small.

3. The radius of curvature of the beam is large when compared with its thickness.

4. The Young’s modulus of the beam is not changed during bending. Thus
we are going to see the simple and pure bending only.

1.9 BENDING MOMENT

The moment of the internal restoring couple is called bending
moment of the beam.
In the bent beam, let EF be the neutral filament (Fig 1.4). The filament
AB, shown above the neutral filament gets elonged and thus it is under a
stretching force F. Similarly the filament CD, shown below the neutral
filament, gets compressed and thus it is under a compressive force ‘F’. These
two forces constitute a clockwise couple. This couple is called external couple
or bending couple and it has a tendency to rotate the beam clockwise.
f F
Force Neutralaxis Force
A B

E F f F
D C

Fig 1.4 Longitudinal Section of a Bent Beam

Again as the beam is at rest, the moment of this couple must be
balanced by an internal couple tending to rotate the beam anticlockwise.
Thus when the filament above EF is stretched by F, an equal but opposite
restoring force f arises in it. Similarly when the filament below EF is

 1.16 Engineering Physics 
compressed by F, an equal and opposite restoring force arises in it. These
forces f and f constitute an anticlockwise internal couple which is called
balancing couple or restoring couple which has a tendency to rotate the
beam anticlockwise. This is true for all other filaments above and below
the neutral filament.
Thus in equilibrium,
Moment of Bending Couple = Moment of Restoring Couple.

Expression for bending moment of a beam

Let a beam ABCD having
rectangular cross-section be bent in
the form of an arc of a circle of
radius R with the centre at O (Fig
1.5). Consider a small portion ‘ab’ of
neutral axis of the beam subtending
an angleat the centre O, a'b' is
another small portion of a filament
at a distance ‘z’ above the neutral
filament ab. Before bending, a'b' =
ab. After bending, a'b' > ab since a'b'
is above the neutral surface.
ab = R Fig 1.5 Calculation of the Strain in
the Bend Beam
When ' ' is small, a'b' =
(R+z)

The increase in length of small element = a'b' – ab

= (R z) R z

Increase in length z zθ
Strain in a'b' = = = ...... (1)
Original length Rθ R
Let BB'C'C be the cross-section of the beam perpendicular to plane of
bending (Fig 1.6). The line FF' lies in the neutral surface. Let us consider
an area of cross-section A of a'b' at a distance ‘z’ above the neutral line FF'
on this cross-section BB'C'C.

Properties of Matter 1.17

B B'

A
Z
F F'

C'
C

Fig 1.6 Calculation of the Restoring Force in the Bent Beam

The Young’s modulus of the material is given by
Stress
Y=
Strain

Stress = Y Strain...... (2)

Substitute (1) in (2)

z
Stress = Y
R
Force
We know that, Stress = Area F = Stress × Area
Yz A
Total internal force =
R
We know that, Momentum = Force × Distance
Yz Az Y Az2
Moment of this force about the neutral line FF' =
R R
Y Az2
So the total moment of the restoring couple =
R
Y
= R Ig

Where Az Ig = AK2 where A is the total area of the beam and K is the
2

radius of gyration.


 1.18 Engineering Physics 

NOTE :
3
i. For a rectangular beam = bd I
g 12
Where b is the breadth and thickness is d.

ii. For a beam of circular cross section Ig = πr4 4

Where r is the radius of the rod.

1.10 DEPRESSION OF CANTILEVER

A cantilever is a beam fixed horizontally at one end and
loaded at the other end.
The young’s modulus of the material of the cantilever can be
determined using the value of depression produced in that cantilever.
Let PQ be the neutral axis of a cantilever fixed at P. Let ‘l’ be its
length and the weight of the cantilever be negligible. It is loaded at Q with
a weight W. So the end Q is depressed to Q'.
l
P Q
X A
d
dX B C
dy
D
d(l -X)
R Q'

O W
Fig 1.7 Cantilever with Depression

Consider a point ‘A’ at a distance ‘x’ from ‘P’ as shown in

Fig 1.7.
'
Moment of the deflecting couple W.AQ = W (l – x)
Y Ig
Moment of restoring couple
R

 Properties of Matter 1.19

Y Ig
W ( l x) = ......(1)
R
Where R is the radius of curvature of the neutral axis at A. Let B be
another point at a distance dx from A and AB subtending an angle 'd ' at
O. When is small,
'd '
dx
dx = R dθ (or) R =
dθ
Substituting the value of R in equation (1)
dθ
W (l – x) = YIg dx

(or) W (l – x) dx = YIgdθ ......(2)

Draw the tangents at A and B meeting the vertical line QQ' at C and
D respectively. Consider that the distance between CD is dy.
dy = (l – x) d
dy
(or) = dθ ......(3)
(l x)
Substitute (3) in (2), we get
dy
W (l – x) dx = YIg(l x)

i.e. W (l – x)2 dx = Y Igdy

W(l x)2
Thus dy = dx
Y Ig
Therefore total depression of the cantilever,
l
W
2
y = Y I (l x ) dx
g0
l
W 2 2
= YI (l 2lx + x )dx
g0
l
W x2 x3
= l 2x 2l +

Y Ig 2 30 
 1.20 Engineering Physics 

3
W 3 3 l
= Y I (l l +3 )
g
Wl3
Depression of the cantilever y =
3Ig Y
Hence the Young’s modulus of cantilever

Wl3
Y=
3Ig y
If the beam is of rectangular cross section then
3
bd
Ig =
12
.
If M is the Mass, the corresponding weight W = Mg.
3
4gl M
Hence Y bd3 y

Experimental Determination of Young’s Modulus - Cantilever Depression

It consist a beam clamped rigidly at one end on the table by the use of
a G-clamp. The weight hanger (H) is suspended at the other end of the
beam, through a small groove on the beam as shown in Fig 1.8. A pin is
fixed at the free end of the beam by means of a wax. A microscope (M) is
placed in front of this arrangement for measuring the variation of height
of the pin.
Beam
M
G

H
Fig 1.8 Young’s Modulus - Cantilever
The weight hanger is kept hanged in a dead load position (W), (i.e)
without any slotted weights.


Properties of Matter 1.21
The microscope is adjusted and the tip of the pin is made to coincide
with the horizontal cross wire. The reading in the vertical scale of the
microscope is noted.
Now the weights are increased in step of 50 grams to the weight
hanger. Each time the corresponding microscope readings are noted and
tabulated. The experiment is repeated for decreasing order of weights and
the same is tabulated. The mean depression of the bar is determined.

Load Microscope reading for depression Mean

depression for
in kg Load Load
Mean a load of M kg.
increasing decreasing
W y1
W + 50 gm y2 y2 – y1
W + 100 gm y3 y3 – y2
W + 150 gm y4 y4 – y3
W + 200 gm y5 y5 – y4
y6 y6 – y5
W + 250 gm
If the length of the beam ‘l , the breadth (b) an thickness (d) of the
beam are measured using vernier calipers and screw gauge, then Young’s
modulus of the material of the beam is determined by the relation
4g l3 M
Y ...Nm
3
2 bd y

1.11 YOUNG’S MODULUS BY NON UNIFORM BENDING

Non-Uniform Bending
The beam is loaded at its midpoint; the depression produced in the
beam will not form an arc of a circle. This type of bending is called non-
uniform bending.

Let AB represent a beam of length l, supported on two knife - edges

at A and B and loaded with a weight W at the centre C. The reaction at
each knife-edge is W/2 acting vertically upwards. The beam bends as
shown in Fig.1.9, the depression being maximum at the centre. The
bending is non-uniform. Let CD = y.

 1.22 Engineering Physics 

Fig.1.9. Non - uniform Bending

The portion DA of the beam may be considered as a cantilever of
length l/2, fixed at D and bending upwards under a load W/2. Hence the
elevation of A above D or the depression of D below A.
Wl3
We know depression of a cantilever y
3YIg
Therefore substituting the value of l as l/2 and W as W/2 in the
expression for the depression of a cantilever.
we have, Depression of D below A, y
W212
3 3YI
g

Wl3
(or) y
48YIg
Y Wl3
48yIg
bd3
If the beam is of rectangular cross section then Ig 12 and W=Mg,
gl3 M
then, Young’s Modulus, Y 3

4bd y
Experimental Determination of Young’s Modulus - Non Uniform Bending
Description: It consists of a beam, symmetrically supported on the
two knife edges A and B. A weight hanger is suspended at the centre (C) of
the beam my means or a loop (or) thread. A pin is fixed vertically at ‘C’ by
some wax as shown in fig 1.10. In order to focus the tip of the pin a
travelling microscope (M) is placed in front of this arrangement.

Properties of Matter 1.23

Fig.1.10 Young’s Modulus - Non uniform Bending

Procedure: Taking the weight hanger as the dead load (W) the
microscope is adjusted and the tip of the pin is made to coincide with the
horizontal cross wire. The reading is noted from the vertical scale of the
microscope.
The weights are added (loaded) in steps of m, 2m, 3m kilograms and
the corresponding readings are noted from the vertical scale of the
microscope. The same procedure is repeated while unloading and the
readings are tabulated in the tabular column as shown. The mean
depression ‘y’ is found for a load of M kg.

Load Microscope reading for depression Mean

depression for
in kg Load Load
Mean a load of M kg.
increasing decreasing
W y1
W + 50 gm y2 y2 – y1
W + 100 gm y3 y3 – y2
W + 150 gm y4 y4 – y3
W + 200 gm y5 y5 – y4
y6 y6 – y5
W + 250 gm
If the length of the beam ‘l’ the breadth (b) and thickness (d) of the
beam are measured using vernier caliper and screw gauge, the youngs
modulus of the beam is determined by relation.
gl3 M
2
Y ...Nm

4bd 3 y

 1.24 Engineering Physics 

1.12 YOUNG’S MODULUS BY UNIFORM BENDING

Uniform bending: The beam is loaded uniformly on its both
ends, the bend beam forms an arc of a circle. The elevation in the
beam is produced. This bending is called uniform bending.
Consider a beam (or bar) AB arranged horizontally on two knife-
edges C and D symmetrically so that AC = BD = a (Fig 1.11).

Fig 1.11 Uniform Bending

The beam is loaded with equal weights W at the ends A and B. The
reactions on the knife edges at C and D are equal to W acting vertically upwards.
The external bending moment on the part AF of the beam is

= W × AF – W × CF

= W (A F – C F )

= W ×AC

=W ×a .....(1)
YIg
I n t er n al ben d i n g m om en t = R
In the equilibrium position,

External bending moment = Internal bending moment

YIg
Hence, Wa = .....(2)
R
Since for a given value of W, the values of a Y and I are constant. So
that the beam is bend uniformly into an arc of a circle of radius R.
CD=l and y is the elevation of the midpoint E of the beam so that y=EF.


Properties of Matter 1.25

Then, from the property of the circle Fig 1.12, i.e., according to the
rule of sagitha,
F
OC2
l l
C 2 y 2 D
EF EF = (CE)2 E
EF R
R 2
R2 l 2 O
y y =

R/2 2
l 2
y (2R–y) = Fig 1.12 Rule of Sagitha
2
The rule of sagitha is
l2 explained in Appendix – 4
y 2 R=
4
( y 2 is negligible)

l2
y =
8R

1 8y
R = l2 .....(3)

From eqn.(2) and (3), Wa = 8y Y Ig

l2
W l2 a
or, Y = 8y Ig
If the beam is of rectangular cross-section I g = bd3 , where b is the
breadth 12
and d is the thickness of beam.
If M is the mass, the corresponding weight W = Mg.

3 Mg l2
a Hence Y = 2 bd 3 y
from which Young’s modulus of the material of the bar is determined.

 1.26 Engineering Physics 
Experimental Determination of Youngs Modulus – Uniform Bending
A rectangular beam (or bar) AB of uniform section is supported
horizontally on two knife-edges K1 and K2 (Fig 1.13), at the position C and
D respectively.

Fig 1.13 Young’s Modulus - Uniform Bending

Two weight hangers of equal masses are suspended from the ends of
the beam. A pin is arranged vertically at the mid-point of the beam. A
microscope is focussed on the tip of the pin. Initial reading of the
microscope in the vertical scale is noted.
Equal weights are added to both hangers simultaneously and the
corresponding reading of the microscope in the vertical scale is noted. Now
the weight on each hanger is increased gradually and the corresponding
readings are noted.
The experiment is repeated for decreasing order of magnitude of the
equal masses. The observations are then tabulated and mean elevation (y)
at the mid-point of the bar is determined.
Load Microscope reading for elevation Mean
in kg Load Load elevation for
increasing decreasing Mean a load of M kg.

W y1
W + 50 gm y2 y2 – y1
W + 100 gm y3 y3 – y2
W + 150 gm y4 y4 – y3
y5 y5 – y4
W + 200 gm
y6 y6 – y5
W + 250 gm

 Properties of Matter 1.27
The length of the bar between the knife edges ‘l is measured. The
distance of the one of the weight hangers from the adjacent knife edge ‘a’
is measured. The breadth ‘b’ and thickness ‘d’ of the bar are measured
using vernier calipers and screw gauge.
Young’s modulus of the material of the beam is determined by the relation

3 Mg a l2
Y= ...Nm 2

3
2 bd y
1.13. I SHAPE – GIRDERS
For purpose of stability girders with the upper and lower parts of the
cross-section will be broader and middle section is trapped, so that the
girders will have the shape of I, so called I shape girders.
When a heavy girder is supported at its ends, it is bent non-uniformly
under its own weight into the form of an inverted double cantilever. We
know that the depression of its mid-point is given by
3
y = Wl
48 Ylg

Fig 1.14 I Shape Girders

If it has rectangular cross-section of breadth ‘b’ and thickness ‘d’, then
3
bd
Ig = 12 and W = Mg

Mg l3 Mgl 3
Depression y = 3 =
48 Y bd 4 Y bd3
12
3
gl M
Therefore Young’s Modulus of I Shape Girders y 3
y
4bd


 1.28 Engineering Physics 
When a beam is used as a girder, it should have minimum depression
under its own weight. Further depression of the girder should be small for
a given load. This can be achieved by decreasing its length or increasing Y
and increasing b or d.
When we decrease the length of the girder, the depression is reduced.
But it is found that the decreasing ‘l’ to get minimum depression is not
economical in so many respects. By selecting the girder material with high
Young’s modulus (like steel) one can get the small depression.

Since d occurs in the equation in the form of d 3, therefore a small

increase in d produces a larger change in Y.
When a girder is supported at its two ends, its middle part is depressed
and the surfaces above and below its neutral surface are compressed and
extended respectively. Compression is maximum at the upper face and
extension is maximum at the lower face since stresses are maximum there.
Stresses are decreasing as we proceed towards the neutral surface from either
side. It follows therefore that the upper and lower faces of the girder should
be much stronger than that its middle portions. In other words, the middle
portions of the girder may be made of a much smaller breadth than the upper
and the lower faces. That is why the girders have the shape of I.

Advantages of I Shape Girders

1. They have very smaller depression even for a large dynamical
load, ie., it has more stability and more stronger.
2. It has High Durability.

3. They are cheaper than the solid girders.

Application of I shape Girders

1. It is used in the construction of bridges.

2. It is used to produce iron rails.

3. It is used as supporting beams in the construction of buildings.


Properties of Matter 1.29

1.14 STRESS DUE TO BENDING IN BEAMS

Normal stress
A normal stress occurs, when a beam is loaded by an axial force.
Normal stress can be written as

A - Normal stress
where

F - Axial force

A - cross sectional area.

Examples of normal stress includes columns, collar ties etc…

Bending Stress
When a beam is bent, its fibers (imaginary) above neutral axis are
compressed and below neutral axis are under tension. These compression
and tension leads to stresses on both theseareas.These are called bending
stresses. The value of bending stress will vary linearly with distance from
the neutral axis. It can be expressed as
My
b=
I
where b - bending stress
M - Calculated bending moment
y - Vertical distance away from the neutral axis
I - Moment of inertia around the neutral axis.
Calculating the maximum bending stress is crucial for determining
the adequacy of beams, rafters etc..

