Earthworks

EARTHWORK
Excavation, hauling, and placing of soil, rock,
gravel or other material found below the surface of
the earth
EARTHWORK
1. Measurement of earth materials in the field

2. Computation in the office of the volume of such

material

3. Determination of the most economical method

of performing such work.
Unit of Measure
• CUBIC YARD/ CUBIC FT.
• CUBIC METER

• Conversion
• 1 yard = 0.9144 m
• 1 yard = 3 ft
Swell and Shrinkage
• BANK MEASURE – volume of earth in its natural
state

• LOOSE MEASURE – volume of earth in the

vehicle

• COMPACTED MEASURE – volume of earth after

compaction.
Swell and Shrinkage
SWELL
• change in volume from its natural state to
loose state
• expressed as percent of natural volume

( NaturalState)  ( LooseState)
S% 
( NaturalState)
Swell and Shrinkage
SHRINKAGE
• change in volume from its natural state to its
compacted state
• expressed as percent of natural volume

( NaturalState)  (CompactedState)
S% 
( NaturalState)
Example:
• Natural State: 1 m3
• Loose State: 1.2 m3
• Compacted State: 0.85 m3
• Using the equations of Swell and Shrinkage:
Swell:
S% = (1 – 1.2)*100/1 = 20%
Shrinkage:
S% = (1 - 0.85)*100/1 = 15%
 RELATIONSHIP of SHRINKAGE
FACTOR (SF) and SHRINKAGE (S%)
NaturalState
SF 
CompactedState
NaturalState  SF * (CompactedState)

( NaturalState)  (CompactedState)
S% 
( NaturalState)

(SF * CompactedState)  (CompactedState)

S% 
(SF * CompactedState)

SF  1
S% 
SF
RELATIONSHIP of SHRINKAGE
FACTOR (SF) and SHRINKAGE (S%)

( SF * S %)  SF  1

SF ( S %  1)  1

1
SF 
( S %  1)

1
SF 
1 S%
Classification of materials
• COMMON EXCAVATION/ROCK EXCAVATION –
refers to soil; excavated material

• COMMON BORROW
• soil found outside the roadway and brought in
to the roadway.

• Borrow is necessary where there is not enough

material in the roadway excavation to provide
for the embankment.
Classification of materials
• WASTE – materials excavated and thrown away
which is no longer necessary to form
embankments
CUT AND FILL
• CUT
• earthwork which is excavated, or is to be
excavated

• FILL
• excavation which is placed in embankment, or is
to be placed in embankment
Payment for earthwork
Payment is normally either for cut and not for fill
or for fill and not for cut. To pay for both would be
paying for the same earth twice.

• Highway work - for cut

• Dam work - for fill
Payment for earthwork
Two types of Earthwork contracts:

1. The contractor bids a lump sum for the work,

handling the materials as he sees fit

2. The contractor is paid per cubic yard for

excavation (includes excavation, hauling and
placing of embankment)
Payment for earthwork

However, cost of hauling a unit volume of earth

over a long distance can easily become greater
than the cost of excavation, so that it is often
practical to pay a contractor for excavating and
hauling earth.
CROSS SECTIONS
• profiles of the earth taken at right angles to
the centerline of an engineering project (such
as highway, canal, dam, or railroad)

• taken in order to obtain volume

measurement/estimate earthworks
CROSS SECTIONS
• usually taken at each full station and breaks in
the ground along the centerline

• (Assumption: change in earth’s surface from one

cross-section to the next is uniform)
VOLUME DETERMINATION
End Area Method

𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐
𝑽𝒆 = (𝑳)
𝟐

A2

A1
L
VOLUME DETERMINATION
Prismoidal Formula

𝑳
𝑽𝒑 = (𝑨𝟏 + 𝟒𝑨𝒎 + 𝑨𝟐 )
𝟔

A2

Am

A1 L/2 Am = intermediate area,

determined by getting
L/2
the average of the
coordinates of A1 and A2
VOLUME DETERMINATION
Volume with Prismoidal Correction
- applicable to 3-level section only

𝑳
𝑽𝒄𝒑 = (𝑪𝟏 − 𝑪𝟐 )(𝑫𝟏 − 𝑫𝟐 )
𝟏𝟐
D1 D2 C1, C2 – center heights
D1, D2 – center widths

C1 C2
𝑽𝒑 = 𝑽𝒆 − 𝑽𝒄𝒑
A1 A2
VOLUME DETERMINATION
Borrow Pit Method

𝑨
𝑽𝒃 = 𝒉𝟏 + 𝟐 𝒉𝟐 + 𝟑 𝒉𝟑 + 𝟒 𝒉𝟒
𝟒
Where:
h1 = elevation pf point adjacent to 1 square
h2 = elevation pf point adjacent to 2 square
h3 = elevation pf point adjacent to 3 square
h4 = elevation pf point adjacent to 4 square
VOLUME DETERMINATION
Borrow Pit Method
Problem 1
End Areas by Simple Figures. Compute the end
areas of the following cross section notes:

Width of Road = 9 meters

Side Slope in Cut = 1:1
Side Slope in Fill = 1.5:1

Note:
Slope (horizontal : vertical)
Problem 1
Problem 1

𝐿 1.5
= → 𝐿 = 4.5 𝑚, 𝑋𝐿 = 9 𝑚
3 1

𝑅 1.5
= → 𝑅 = 9 𝑚, 𝑋𝑅 = 13.5 𝑚
6 1
 Problem 1

Atotal = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4
Atotal = 0.5(4.5)(3) + 0.5(5)(4.5+4.5) + 0.5(5)(4.5+9) + (0.5)(4.5)(6)
Atotal = 76.5 m2
Problem 1

𝐿 1.5
= → 𝐿 = 5.25 𝑚, 𝑋𝐿 = 9.75 𝑚
3.5 1

𝑅 1.5
= → 𝑅 = 10.5 𝑚, 𝑋𝑅 = 15 𝑚
7 1
 Problem 1

Atotal = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 + A5 + A6
Atotal = 0.5(3)(5.25) + 0.5(3)(4.5) + 0.5(5)(4.5) + (0.5)(5)(4.5) +
0.5(7.5)(4.5) + 0.5(7.5)(10.5)
Atotal = 93.375 m2
Problem 1

𝐿 1
= → 𝐿 = 1.8 𝑚, 𝑋𝐿 = 6.3 𝑚
1.8 1

𝑅 1.5
= → 𝑅 = 3 𝑚, 𝑋𝑅 = 7.5 𝑚
2 1
Problem 1

Acut = 0.5(4.5)(1.8) = 4.05 m2

Afill = 0.5(4.5)(2) = 4.5 m2
Problem 2
End Areas by Coordinates. Compute the end area
of the irregular cross section described below:
Problem 2
 Problem 2
𝑨 𝑩 𝑪 𝑫 𝑬 𝑭 𝑮 𝑯
𝑿 −𝟒. 𝟓 −𝟔 −𝟑. 𝟖 𝟎 𝟓. 𝟓 𝟕 𝟗 𝟒. 𝟓
𝒀 𝟎 −𝟓. 𝟐 −𝟔. 𝟖 −𝟕. 𝟐 −𝟔. 𝟏 −𝟕. 𝟒 −𝟗. 𝟔 𝟎
𝑌𝑖 𝑋𝑖+1 − 𝑋𝑖−1 = 𝐷𝑂𝑈𝐵𝐿𝐸 𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴

0(-6-4.5) = 0 -6.1(7-0) = -42.7

-5.2(-3.8+4.5) = -3.64 -7.4(9-5.5) = -25.9
-6.8(0+6) = -40.8 -9.6(4.5-7) = 24
-7.2(5.5+3.8) = -66.96 0(-4.5-9) = 0
 Problem 2
1 1
𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠 = (0 − 3.64 − 40.8 − 66.96 − 42.7 − 25.9 + 24 − 0)
2 2

1 1
𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠 = −156 = −𝟕𝟖 𝒎𝟐
2 2
(double check answer using simple figures)

Note:
Negative net area – Fill
Positive net area – Cut
Problem 3
Volume Determination. Given the following cross
section notes:
Problem 3
Width of the road = 12 m
side slope is 2.5:1

a) Compute the volume between the two

stations using the end area method.
b) Compute the volume between the two
stations using the prismoidal formula.
Problem 3

A1 = 0.5(6)(10) + 0.5(5)(31) + 0.5(5)(13.5) + 0.5(6)(3)

A1 = 150.25 m2
Problem 3

A2 = 0.5(6)(14) + 0.5(7)(41) + 0.5(7)(17.25) + 0.5(6)(4.5)

A2 = 259.375 m2
Problem 3
a) Compute the volume between the two stations
using the end area method.

𝐴1 + 𝐴2 150.25 + 259.375
𝑉𝑒 = 𝐿 = 20
2 2

𝑽𝒆 = 𝟒𝟎𝟗𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝟑
 Problem 3
b) Compute the volume between the two stations
using the prismoidal formula.

Am = 0.5(6)(12) + 0.5(6)(36) + 0.5(6)(15.375) + 0.5(6)(3.75)

Am = 201.375 m2
Problem 3
b) Compute the volume between the two stations
using the prismoidal formula.

𝐿
𝑉𝑝 = 𝐴1 + 4𝐴𝑚 + 𝐴2
6

20
𝑉𝑝 = 150.25 + 4(201.375) + 259.375
6

𝑽𝒑 = 𝟒𝟎𝟓𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟔𝟕 𝒎𝟑
Problem 3
• For 3 level sections, we can check using
prismoidal correction.

𝐿
𝑉𝑐𝑝 = 𝐶1 − 𝐶2 𝐷1 − 𝐷2
12

20
𝑉𝑐𝑝 = 5 − 7 44.5 − 58.25 = 45.8333 𝑚3
12
𝑉𝑝 = 𝑉𝑒 − 𝑉𝑐𝑝 = 𝟒𝟎𝟓𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟔𝟕 𝒎𝟑
Problem 4
Unit Area or Borrow Pit Method. A 90 m x 90 m
square lot is divided into square sections, and the
elevations at every corner were recorded. If the
ground is to be leveled at an elevation of 10 m,
solve the volume of excavation.

A1 = 16.2 m B1 = 17.1 m C1 = 14.3 m D1 = 12.7 m

A2 = 15.62 m B2 = 12.9 m C2 = 16.7 m D2 = 13.3 m
A3 = 14.5 m B3 = 15.4 m C3 = 12.2 m D3 = 15.9 m
A4 = 13.1 m B4 = 16.5 m C4 = 13.8 m D4 = 16.6 m
Problem 4
ℎ1 = 6.2 + 2.7 + 6.6 + 3.1 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟔

ℎ2 = 7.1 + 4.3 + 3.3 + 5.9 + 3.8 + 6.5 + 5.62 + 4.5 = 𝟒𝟏. 𝟐

ℎ3 = 𝟎

ℎ4 = 6.7 + 2.2 + 2.9 + 5.4 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟐

Problem 4
Total area = 90 m x 90 m

Unit area = 30 m x 30 m

30 × 30
𝑉𝑏 = 18.6 + 2 41.2 + 4 17.2
4

𝑉𝑏 = 𝟑𝟖𝟏𝟐𝟒 𝒎𝟑
MASS DIAGRAM
Determining:
• economic handling of material
• Quantities of overhaul
• Location of balance points

Plotted below the centerline profile so that like

stations are vertically aligned
MASS DIAGRAM
• Cut and fill (plus shrinkage) are taken from cross-
section sheets

• CUT – positive sign

• FILL – negative sign

ABSCISSA – distance in stations

ORDINATE – algebraic sums of cut and fill
Plotting the Mass Diagram…
1. Compute of cut and fill (plus shrinkage)
between stations

2. Add algebraically. The cumulative volume is the

ordinate of the mass diagram. The baseline
(which is parallel to the centerline profile)
serves as the x-axis.
• Negative cumulative volume – plotted below the
baseline
• Positive cumulative volume – plotted above the
baseline
Plotting the Mass Diagram…
• The initial ordinate in the tabulation is arbitrarily
set at some large number so that all ordinates
are positive

• For sections where both excavation and

embankment occur: excavation is carried from
one side of the roadway to the other during
grading, only the net amount of cut or fill is used
to compute the mass diagram ordinate.
 Plotting the Mass Diagram…
Notes on ordinates:
a) if final ordinate = initial ordinate
• total volume of excavation = total volume of embankment

b) if final ordinate > initial ordinate

• Excess of excavation

c) if final ordinate < initial ordinate

• volume of embankment is greater
 Problem 5
Volume (m3)
Mass Diagram. STA
Cut Fill
From the 0+000
following 50
0+020
tabulations of 100
volumes of cut 0+040
and fill between 80
0+060
stations 0+000 120
and 0+140: 0+080
60
0+100
15 40
0+120
20
0+140
30
0+160
Problem 5
a) Draw the mass diagram if shrinkage factor is
1.30.
b) Is there an excess of excavation or
embankment?
c) Compute the volume of earthworks between
station 0+060 and 0+100
d) Compute the volume of earthworks between
station 0+100 and 0+140.
a) Draw the mass diagram if shrinkage factor is 1.30.
Volume (m3) Mass
STA
Cut Fill Fill (+1.3) Diagram
0+000 200
50
0+020 250
100
0+040 350
80
0+060 430
120 156
0+080 274
60 78
0+100 196
15 40 52
0+120 159
20
0+140 179
30
0+160 209
Problem 5: Mass Diagram
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
b) Is there an excess of excavation or
embankment?
Excess in excavation since final ordinate (209
m3) is greater initial ordinate (200 m3)

c) Compute the volume of earthworks between

station 0+060 and 0+100
430 – 196 = 234 m3

d) Compute the volume of earthworks between

station 0+100 and 0+140.
196 – 179 = 17 m3
ELEMENTS OF MASS DIAGRAM
Haul Distance
Can have two meanings:

1. LINEAR DISTANCE
• linear distance of hauling earth measured along the
centerline

2. VOLUME TIMES DISTANCE

• The product of the volume of the earth excavated
and the distance it is transported to either from an
embankment or to be disposed as waste
FREE HAUL DISTANCE
• Haul distance for which no pay is received,
usually 500 ft to 200 m long
OVERHAUL
• Hauling of material beyond the free haul, for
which there is a charge

• Volume of material beyond the free haul limit

• The product of the volume in excess of the free

haul mass and the length of overhaul
Length of Overhaul
• Distance between center of gravity of the mass of
excavation beyond the free haul mass and the
center of gravity of the resulting embankment
minus the free haul distance
BALANCE POINTS
• Points between which cut equals the fill

• excavated material will provide the material

needed for embankment
BALANCE LINE
• Any horizontal line cutting off a loop of the mass
curve intersecting the curve at two points,
between which the cut is equal to the fill
LIMIT OF ECONOMIC HAUL (LEH)
• distance within which it is more economical to
haul materials than to throw them as waste, or
beyond which, it is more economical to borrow
than to haul

𝐶𝐵 ∗ 20
𝐿𝐸𝐻 = + 𝐹𝐻𝐷
𝐶𝑂𝐻

Where:
CB – unit cost of borrow
COH – unit cost of overhaul
Properties of Mass
Diagram
Grade points on the profile correspond to maximum
and minimum points of the mass diagram.
Ascending lines denote cut or excavation and
descending lines denotes fill or embankment.
The difference in length between any two vertical
ordinates of the diagram is the volume between
stations at which the ordinates were erected.
Between any two points where the curve is
intersected by a horizontal line, excavation equals
embankment.
The area cut off by any horizontal line and the curve
is the measure of the haul between the two points
where the line cuts the diagram.
In the mass diagram, a loop that forms a peak
indicates haul forward and a loop that form a sag
indicates haul backward.
Problem 6
The cross-sectional area of STA 1+260 is 40
m2 in cut and at STA 1+860 is 60 m2 in fill.
The free haul distance is 100 m and the cost
of borrow is PhP 30/m3 while that of cost of
excavation is PhP 20/m3. The cost of haul is
PhP 2/meter-station. The balancing point is
at STA 1+560. Assume the ground surface
to be sloping downward uniformly up to STA
1+560 and then with steeper slope to STA
1+860. Determine the following:
Problem 6
Stationing of the limit of free haul
Stationing of the limit of economic haul
Overhaul volume
Length of overhaul
Cost of overhaul
Cost of waste
Cost of borrow
Problem 6
a) Stationing of the limit of free haul
By ratio and proportion:
a 40 40x
= → a=
x 300 300

b 60 100 − x
= →b=
100 − x 300 5
For free haul distance:
𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐮𝐭 = 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐢𝐥𝐥

1 1
x a = 100 − x b
2 2
1 40x 1 100 − x
x = 100 − x
2 300 2 5

𝐱 = 𝟓𝟓. 𝟎𝟓 𝐦
𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝐱 = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟗𝟓 𝐦
𝐚 = 𝟕. 𝟑𝟒 𝐦𝟐
𝐛 = 𝟖. 𝟗𝟗 𝐦𝟐

Limits of Free Haul:

STA 1+560 – 55.05 = STA 1+504.95
STA 1+560 + 44.95 = STA 1+604.95
b) Stationing of the limit of economic haul

Cb
LEH = × 20 + FHD
Ch
Php 30/m3 20m
= 3
× + 100
Php 2/m sta sta

𝐋𝐄𝐇 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝐦
By ratio and proportion:

c 400 40e
= →c=
e 300 300

d 60 300 − e
= →d=
300 − e 300 5
For limit of economic haul distance:
𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐮𝐭 = 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐢𝐥𝐥

1 1
e 2a + c = 300 − e 2b + d
2 2
1 40e 1 300 − e
e 2 7.34 + = 300 − e 2 8.99 +
2 300 2 5

𝐞 = 𝟏𝟔𝟓. 𝟏𝟓 𝐦
𝟑𝟎𝟎 − 𝐞 = 𝟏𝟑𝟒. 𝟖𝟓 𝐦
𝐜 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟎𝟐 𝐦𝟐
𝐝 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟗𝟕 𝐦𝟐

Limits of Economic Haul:

STA 1+504.95 – 165.15 = STA 1+339.8
STA 1+604.95 + 134.85 = STA 1+739.8
c) Volume of overhaul
For cut volume:
1 1
2a + c e = 2 7.34 + 22.02 165.15 = 𝟑𝟎𝟑𝟎. 𝟓𝟎𝟐𝟒 𝐦𝟑
2 2
For fill volume:
1 1
2b + d 300 − e = 2 8.99 + 26.97 134.85 = 𝟑𝟎𝟑𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝐦𝟑
2 2
c) Volume of overhaul

1
VOH = Vcut + Vfill = 3030.628125 m3
2
Theoretically, Vcut = Vfill so just take the average.
d) Length of overhaul
𝐿𝑂𝐻 = 𝐷 − 𝐹𝐻𝐷 = 𝑥𝐿 + 𝑥𝑅
d) Length of overhaul

(Atrapezoid )(xL ) = (A∎ )(x∎ ) + (A∆ )(x∆ )

1 1 1 2
c + 2a e xL = a e e + c e e
2 2 2 3

𝐱𝐋 = 𝟗𝟗. 𝟎𝟗 𝐦
d) Length of overhaul

(Atrapezoid )(xL ) = (A∎ )(x∎ ) + (A∆ )(x∆ )

1 1 1 2
d + 2b 300 − e xR = b 300 − e [300 − e] + d 300 − e [300 − e]
2 2 2 3

𝐱 𝐑 = 𝟖𝟎. 𝟗𝟏 𝐦

LOH = xL + xR = 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝐦
e) Total cost of haul

1
TChaul = VOH × cost of haul × × length of overhaul
length per station

Php 2 1 sta
TChaul = 3030.62815 m3 × 3 × × 180 m = Php 54 551.31
m − sta 20 m

Note:
1 STA = 20 m for Metric units
1 STA = 100 ft for English units
f) Total cost of waste
STA 1+339.8 - STA+260 = 79.8 m

Vwaste = area of trapezoid in cut beyond the LEH

1
40 + c + a 79.8 = 2764.464 m3
2
Php 20
TCwaste = 2767.464 m3
m3

𝐓𝐂𝐰𝐚𝐬𝐭𝐞 = 𝐏𝐡𝐩 𝟓𝟓, 𝟑𝟒𝟗. 𝟐𝟖

f) Total cost of borrow
STA 1+860 - STA+739.8 = 120.2 m

Vborrow = area of trapezoid in fill beyond the LEH

1
60 + d + b 120.2 = 5767.196 m3
2
Php 30
TCborrow = 5767.196 m3
m3

𝐓𝐂𝐛𝐨𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐰 = 𝐏𝐡𝐩 173,015.88

Problem 7
Given the following data of a single summit mass diagram:

Volume (m3)
STA
Cut Fill
10+000 +200
10+040 +100
10+080 +150
10+120 +140
10+160 +110
10+200 +190
10+240 +50
10+280 -40
10+320 -120
10+360 -90
10+400 -80
10+440 -200
10+480 -220
10+520 -110
10+560 -320
10+600 -280
Problem 7

FHD = 50 m
LEH = 400 m
Mass ordinate of initial limit of FHD = +910 m3
Mass ordinate of initial limit of LEH = +350 m3

a) Compute the volume of waste

b) Compute the volume of overhaul
c) Compute the volume of borrow
Problem 7
Volume (m3)
STA Mass Ordinates
Cut Fill
10+000 +200 200
10+040 +100 300
10+080 +150 450
10+120 +140 590
10+160 +110 790
10+200 +190 890
10+240 +50 940
10+280 -40 900
10+320 -120 780
10+360 -90 690
10+400 -80 610
10+440 -200 410
10+480 -220 190
10+520 -110 80
10+560 -320 -240
10+600 -280 -520
Vwaste = 350 – 200 = 150 m3
VOH = 910 – 350 = 560 m3
Vborrow = 350 + 520 = 870 m3