1

INDEX
CHAPTER TOPICS PAGE
1 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM SAFETY RULES 03
2 INTRODUCTION TO HIGH VOLTAGE IN MARINE 17
INDUSTRY
3 HIGH VOLTAGE SAFETY RULES AND PROCEDURES 22
4 ELECTRICAL HIGH VOLTAGE HAZARDS ARC FLASH 44
AND ARC BLAST

5 SAFETY DOCUMENTATION- PROCEDURS, 87

CONTROL AND POLICIES

6 SAFETY FEATURES ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH 108

VOLTAGE HAZARDS

7 ARRANGEMENT AND REQUIREMENT OF HIGH 115

VOLTAGE SWITCHBOARD ROOMS

8 CONCEPT OF PROTECTION SYSTEMS IN HIGH 125

VOLTAGE

9 HIGH VOLTAGE INTERLOCK SYSTEM 163

10 POWER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM 176

11 ELECTRIC PROPULSION 185

12 HIGH VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKERS 209

13 SAFE ISOLATION PROCESS 222

14 ELECTRIC SOCK TREATMENT 233

15 TESTS IN HV SYSTEM 247

16 PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION OF EQUIPMENTS 256

USED IN HV SYSTEM

2
 CHAPTER 1

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM SAFETY RULES

3
GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

UF Microfarad
ABB Asea Brown Boveri
AC Alternating current
C Celsius
cm Centimetre
COSWP Code of Safe Working Practices for Merchant Seamen
CSM Continuous survey of machinery
DC Direct current
DG Diesel engine driven generator
DNV Det Norske Veritas
ECR Engine control room
EMI Electro magnetic interference
FSS International Code for Fire Safety Systems
FWBLAFF Fixed water-based local application fire-fighting system
GTG Gas turbine driven generator
GUI Graphical User Interface
HF Harmonic filter
HV High voltage
Hz Hertz
IACS International Association of Classification Societies
IAS Integrated automation system
IEC International electrotechnical committee
IEEE The Institution of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
IMO International Maritime Organization
IO Input-output
IP Ingress protection
ISM International Safety Management code
ISO International Organization for Standardization
K Kelvin
kA Kiloamperes
kg Kilogramme
kV Kilovolts
LR Lloyd’s Register (Europe, Middle East and Asia)
mA milliampere
MCA Maritime and Coastguard Agency
mg/g Milligram/gram
mH Millihenry
ml Millilitre
mS Millisecond
MSB Main switchboard
MV Megavolts
Mva Megavolts Amperes

4
Mw Megawatts
NK Nippon Kiji Kyokai
PMS Power management system
RMS root mean square
RPM revolutions per minute
SMS Safety management system
SOLAS International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974
THD Total harmonic distortion
THDv Total harmonic distortion of voltage
UPS Uninterruptible power supply

Definitions
The following defines the terms are used with respect to the High Voltage Equipment /
Installations

Additional Earth - An earth connection applied to apparatus after the application of a

Circuit Main Earth, normally applied at the point of work if not already fitted with Circuit
Main Earth.

Approved - A type of form sanctioned for use by the Superintendent / Senior Electrical
Engineer.

Authorised Person - An Authorised Person is appropriately trained and

appointed in writing by the Superintendent / Electrical Engineer to carry out work as
permitted by these Rules.

Caution Notice - A notice conveying a warning against interference with the apparatus
to which it is attached.

Chief Engineer – Senior Engineer onboard the vessel responsible for all vessel technical
operations and maintenance.

Charged: the item has acquired a charge either because it is live or because it has
become charged by other means such as by static or induction charging, or has retained
or regained a charge due to capacitance effects even though it may be disconnected
from the rest of the system;

Circuit Main Earth - An earth connection applied for the purpose of making apparatus
safe to work on before a Permit to Work or Sanction for Test is issued and which is
nominated on the document.

Competent person - A Competent Person is appropriately trained and has sufficient

technical knowledge or experience to enable him to avoid danger. It is the duty of the
Authorised Person issuing a permit to work covered by these Rules to satisfy himself that
persons are competent to carry out the work involved.

5
Danger Notice- A notice calling attention to the danger of approach or interference with
the apparatus to which it is attached.

Dead - At or about zero voltage and disconnected from all sources of electrical energy.
Not electrically ‘live’ or ‘charged’.

Designated competent person (also known in some industries as ‘authorised

person’ and ‘senior authorised person’): a competent person appointed by the
employer, preferably in writing, to undertake certain specific responsibilities and duties,
which may include the issue and/or receipt of safety documents such as permits-to-work.
The person must be competent by way of training, qualifications and/or experience and
knowledge of the system to be worked on;

Disconnected: equipment (or a part of an electrical system) that is not connected to any
source of electrical energy;

Earthed - Connected to the general mass of earth in such a manner as will ensure at all
times an immediate discharge of electrical energy without danger.

Equipment: electrical equipment including anything used, intended to be used or

installed for use, to generate, provide, transmit, transform, rectify, convert, conduct,
distribute, control, store, measure or use electrical energy.

High Voltage - A voltage exceeding 1000 Volts.

High Voltage Apparatus - Any apparatus, equipment or conductors normally operated

at a voltage higher than 1000 Volts.

Isolated - The disconnection and separation of the electrical equipment from every
source of electrical energy in such a way that this disconnection and separation is
secure.

Key safe - A device for the secure retention of keys used to lock means of isolation,
Earthing or other safety devices.

Limitation of Access - A form issued by an Authorised Person to a

Competent Person, defining the limits of the work to be carried out in the vicinity of, but
not on, High Voltage electrical apparatus.

Live - Electrically charged from a supply of electricity.

Live work: work on or near conductors that are accessible and ‘live’ or ‘charged’. Live
work includes live testing, such as using a test instrument to measure voltage on a live
power distribution or control system.

Permit to Work - A form of declaration signed and given by an Authorised

Person to a Competent Person in charge of the work to be carried out on or in close
proximity to High Voltage Apparatus, making known to him the extent of the work, exactly
what apparatus is Dead, is Isolated from all Live conductors, has been discharged and
Earthed and, insofar as electric hazards are concerned, on which it is safe to work.

6
Safety lock - A lock used to secure points of isolation, safety devices and circuit earths,
being unique from any other locks used on the system.

Sanction for Test - A form of declaration, signed and given by an Authorised Person to
another Authorised Person in charge of testing High Voltage Apparatus making known to
the recipient what apparatus is to be tested and the conditions under which the testing is
to be carried out.
Superintendent/Senior Electrical Engineer - A senior Electrical/Mechanical Engineer
suitably qualified and appointed in writing by the Company to be responsible for
compilation and administration of rules for High Voltage Installations and Operations.

General Safety Rules

Health and safety is at highest priority to achieve the ZERO Accident policy in the
industry.
No activity is permitted without considering the health and safety of the employees,
contractors, and the people.

Safe Switching
Safe switching can only be done by authorised operator suitably trained to understand
the operation of the system within the limitation of operators authority and authorised
instruction.

Switching Operation is a highly technical and demanding task. So, the potential errors
are minimised by applying the STOP- LOOK UPON-CHECK rule.

In short, the operator must follow the prescribed procedure and safety rules to minimise
the accident frequency.

Electric Hazards

There are three direct and two indirect types of electrical injuries:
• Direct:
 Electrocution or death due to electrical shock
 Electrical shock
 Burns
• Indirect:

7
  Falls
 Fire

Electrical Shock

Electric shock is the physiological reaction or injury caused by electric current passing
through the (human) body.
Typically, the expression is used to describe an injurious exposure to electricity.
It occurs upon contact of a (human) body part with any source of electricity that causes a
sufficient current through the skin, muscles, or hair.
Very small currents can be imperceptible. Larger current passing through the body may
make it impossible for a shock victim to let go of an energized object.
Still larger currents can cause fibrillation of the heart and damage to tissues.
Death caused by an electric shock is called ELECTROCUTION.
An electrical injury has many consequences to a body as the electrical currents can
travel through the nervous system and burn out tissue in patches along the way. This can
leave bizarre symptoms anywhere on the body and may lead to complex regional pain
syndrome. Wiring or other metal work which is at a hazardous voltage which can
constitute a risk of electric shock is called "live", as in "live wire".

Shock Severity

• Severity of the shock depends on:

8
 – Path of current through the body
– Amount of current flowing through the body (amps)
– Duration of the shocking current through the body,
• LOW VOLTAGE DOES NOT MEAN LOW HAZARD

Effect of Current on Human body

Step Potential

Step potential is the step voltage between the feet of a person standing near an
energized grounded object. It is equal to the difference in voltage, given by the voltage
distribution curve, between two points at different distances from the electrode. A person
could be at risk of injury during a fault simply by standing near the grounding point.

9
Touch Potential

Touch potential is the touch voltage between the energized object and the feet of a
person in contact with the object. It is equal to the difference in voltage between the
object and a point some distance away. The touch potential or touch voltage could be
nearly the full voltage across the grounded object if that object is grounded at a point
remote from the place where the person is in contact with it. For example, a crane that
was grounded to the system neutral and that contacted an energized line would expose
any person in contact with the crane or its un-insulated load line to a touch potential
nearly equal to the full fault voltage.

What are the risks from electricity?

Harm can be caused to any person when they are exposed to ‘live parts’ that are either
touched directly or indirectly by means of some conducting object or material. Voltages
over 50 volts AC or 120 volts DC are considered hazardous.

10
 Electricity can kill. Each year about 1000 accidents at work involving electric shocks or
burns are reported to the Health and Safety Executive (HSE). Around 30 of these are
fatal, most of them arising from contact with overhead or underground power cables.

Shocks from faulty equipment can cause severe and permanent injury and can also lead
to indirect injuries, due to falls from ladders, scaffolds, or other work platforms.

Faulty electrical appliances can also lead to fires. As well as causing injuries and loss of
life, fires cause damage to plant, equipment and property.

Who is most at risk from electricity?

Anyone can be exposed to the dangers of electricity while at work and everyone should
be made aware of the dangers.

Those most at risk include maintenance staff, those working with electrical plant,
equipment and machinery, and people working in harsh environments such as marine
industry.

Most electrical accidents occur because individuals:

 are working on or near equipment which is thought to be dead but which is, in fact, live
 are working on or near equipment which is known to be live, but where those involved
are without adequate training or appropriate equipment, or they have not taken
adequate precautions

 Misuse equipment or use electrical equipment which they know to be faulty.

Legal duties and obligations around electricity

As well as a moral duty on employers to protect employees and members of the
public, General Health and Safety Legislation covers all employers and workplaces.

In addition, specific duties and obligations are laid out in the following regulations:

The Electricity at Work Regulations apply to all aspects of the use of electricity within the
workplace from electrical supplies to the use of electrical equipment. They place a duty
on employers, employees and the self-employed to:

 have the electrical systems constructed in a way that prevents danger

 maintain their electrical systems as necessary to prevent danger

 have work on, use of, or closure of, electrical systems carried out in a way that prevents
danger.

11
 Additionally:

 electrical equipment used in hazardous environments (e.g. extremes of weather,

temperature, corrosive conditions) must be constructed or protected to prevent it
becoming dangerous
 only those with adequate knowledge or experience, or who are under adequate
supervision should work with, or on, electrical equipment that could cause danger or
injury.

The Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations cover the
reporting of certain incidents, including those involving electricity.
You must notify the enforcing authority immediately by telephone using appropriate
reporting protocol of your company and flag state reporting procedure.
The following incidents must be reported:

 injury to staff due to an electric shock or electrical burn leading to unconsciousness or

requiring resuscitation; or admittance to hospital

 electrical short circuit or overload causing fire or explosion

 plant or equipment coming into contact with overhead power lines.

Assessing the risks from electricity

Consider the following hazards in your risk assessment:

Live parts:
Normal mains voltage, 230 volts AC, can kill. Also, contact with live parts can cause
shocks and burns.
Fire:
Electrical faults can cause fires. This is particularly true where the equipment contains a
heat source (e.g. heaters, including water heaters, washing machines, ovens, heat-seal
packaging equipment).
Flammable or explosive atmospheres:
Electricity can be a source of ignition in a potentially flammable or explosive atmosphere,
e.g. in spray paint booths or around refuelling areas.
Where and how electricity is used
The risks from electricity are greatest in harsh conditions.
In wet conditions, unsuitable equipment can easily become live and can make its
surroundings live.

12
 While outdoors, equipment may not only become wet but may be at greater risk of
damage.
In cramped or confined space with a lot of earthed metalwork, such as inside tanks, ducts
etc, if an electrical fault develops it can be very difficult to avoid a shock.
Types of equipment in use
Some items of equipment can also involve greater risk than others.
Extension leads: are particularly liable to damage to their plugs and sockets, cables, and
electrical connections. Other flexible leads, particularly those connected to equipment that
is moved a great deal, can suffer from similar problems.

Basic electrical safety

Below are some minimum steps you should take to ensure electrical safety.

Mains supplies

 install new electrical systems to as per enforced regulations governing the industry.

 maintain all electrical installations in good working order

 provide enough socket-outlets for equipment in use

 avoid overloading socket-outlets – using adaptors can cause fires

 provide an accessible and clearly identified switch ('Emergency Off) near fixed
machinery to cut off power in an emergency
 for portable equipment, connect to nearby socket-outlets so that it can be easily
disconnected in an emergency.

Use the right equipment

 choose electrical equipment that is suitable for its working environment; like normal test
equipments and Ex rated ones.
 ensure that equipment is safe when supplied and maintain it in a safe condition
 electrical equipment used in flammable/explosive atmospheres should be designed not
to produce sparks. Seek specialist advice when choosing this type of equipment.
 protect light bulbs and other easily damaged equipment – there is a risk of electric
shock if they are broken.

Maintenance and repairs

 ensure equipment is fitted with the correctly rated fuse.

 ensure cable ends always have their outer sheaths firmly clamped to stop wires
working loose from plugs or inside equipment

13
 replace damaged sections of cable completely – never repair cuts with insulating tape.
 use proper connectors to join lengths of cable – don't use connector blocks covered in
insulating tape or 'splice' wires by twisting them together
 some equipment is double insulated. These are often marked with a ‘double-square’
symbol.

 make sure all wires are connected firmly.

 Refer the instruction manual before attempting the work.

 Proper planning and secured isolation is the key word for safe working on electrical
system.

Good practices in HV System:

1. All ungrounded terminals of the test equipment or apparatus under test should be
considered as energized.
2. Common ground connections should be solidly connected to both the test set and the
test specimen. As a minimum, the current capacity of the ground leads should exceed
that necessary to carry the maximum possible ground current. The effect of ground
potential rise due to the resistance and reactance of the earth connection should be
considered.
3. Precautions should be taken to prevent accidental contact of live terminals by
personnel, either by shielding the live terminals or by providing barriers around the
area.
4. The circuit should include instrumentation for indicating the test voltages.
5. Appropriate switching and, where appropriate, an observer should be provided for the
immediate de-energization of test circuits for safety purposes. In the case of dc tests,
provisions for discharging and grounding charged terminals and supporting insulation
should also be included.
6. High Voltage and high-power tests should be performed and supervised by qualified
personnel.
TEST AREA SAFETY PRACTICES
1. Appropriate warning signs, for example, DANGER – HIGH VOLTAGE, should be
posted on or near the
entrance gates.
2. Insofar as practical, automatic grounding devices should be provided to apply a
visible ground on the
high-voltage circuits after they are de-energized. In some high-voltage circuits,
particularly those in
which elements are hanged from one setup to the next, this may not be feasible. In
these cases, the
operator should attach a ground to the high-voltage terminal using a suitably insulated
handle. In
the case of several capacitors connected in series, it is not always sufficient to ground
only the highvoltage

14
 terminal. The exposed intermediate terminals should also be grounded. This applies
in
particular to impulse generators where the capacitors should be short-circuited and
grounded before
and while working on the generator.
3. Safe grounding of instrumentation should take precedence over proper signal
grounding unless other
special precautions have been taken to ensure personnel safety.
GROUNDING & SHORTING
1. The routing and connections of temporary wiring should be such that they are secure
against accidental interruptions that may create hazard to personnel or equipments.
2. Devices which rely on a solid or solid/liquid dielectric for insulation should preferably
be grounded and short-circuited when not in use.
3. Good safety practice requires that capacitive objects be short-circuited in the following
situations:
4. Any capacitive object which is not in use but may be in the influence of a dc electric
field should have its exposed high-voltage terminal grounded. Failure to observe
this precaution may result in a voltage included in the capacitive object by the field.
5. Capacitive objects having a solid dielectric should be short-circuited after dc
proof testing. Failure to observe this precaution may result in a build up of voltage on
the
object due to dielectric absorption has dissipated or until the object has
been reconnected to a circuit.
NOTE: It is good practice for all capacitive devices to remain short-circuited when not in
use.
1. Any open circuited capacitive device should be short-circuited and grounded before
being contacted by personnel.

SPACING
1. All objects at ground potential must be placed away from all exposed high voltage
points at a minimum distance of 1 inch (25.4 mm) for every 7,500 Volts, e.g. 50 kV
requires a spacing of at least 6.7 inches (171 mm)
2. Allow a creepage distance of 1 inch (25.4 mm) for every 7,500 Volts for insulators
placed in contact with high voltage points.

HIGH-POWER TESTING
1. High-power testing involves a special type of high-voltage measurement in that the
level of current is very high. Careful consideration should be given to safety
precautions for high-power testing due to this fact. The explosive nature of the test
specimen also brings about special concern relating to
safety in the laboratory.
2. Protective eye and face equipment should be worn by all personnel conducting or
observing a high power test where there is a reasonable probability that eye or face
injury can be prevented by such equipment.
NOTE: Typical eye and face hazards present in high-power test areas included intense
light (including ultraviolet), sparks, and molten metal.
Safety glasses containing absorptive lenses should be worn by all personnel
observing a high-power test even when electric arcing is not expected. Lenses should
be impact-resistant and have shade numbers consistent with the ambient illumination

15
 level of the work area but yet capable of providing protection against hazardous
radiation due to any inadvertent electric arcing.

GENERAL
1. All high-voltage generating equipment should have a single obvious control to switch
the equipment off under emergency conditions.
2. All high-voltage generating equipment should have an indicator which signals that the
high-voltage output is enabled.
3. All high-voltage generating equipment should have provisions for external
connections (interlock) which, when open, cause the high-voltage source to be
switched off. These connections may be used for external safety interlocks in barriers
or for a foot or hand operated safety switch.
4. The design of any piece of high-voltage test equipment should include a failure
analysis to determine if the failure of any part of the circuit or the specimen to which it
is connected will create a hazardous situation for the operator. The major failure shall
be construed to include the probability of failure of
items that would be overstressed as the result of the major failure. The analysis may
be limited to the effect of one major failure at a time, provided that the major failure is
obvious to the operator.

16
 CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCTION TO HIGH VOLTAGE IN

MARINE INDUSTRY

17
HIGH VOLTAGE CONCEPT

Shore Industry:- The International Electro-technical Commission has classified the

voltages into the following levels(IEC 60038).

Low Voltage - up to 1000 V

Medium Voltage - 1000 V to 35 kV

High Voltage - 35 kV to 230 kV

Extra High Voltage - above 230 kV.

In some situations, the term Ultra High Voltage is used to denote voltages above 800 kV.

What is Extra Low Voltage?

Extra low voltage refers to reduced voltages which are used in houses, parks, gardens,
swimming pools to eliminate the risk of electric shock.

AC voltages below 50 volts and DC voltages below 120 volts are considered to be Extra
low Voltage.

LOW VOLTAGES FOUND ON SHIPS

• 440 Vac, 60 Hz, 3 Phase.

• 220 Vac, 60 Hz, 3 Phase.

• 110 Vac, 60 Hz, 3 Phase.

• 24 Vac, 60 Hz, Single Phase.

• 24 Vdc.

• 5 to 10 Vdc from PSUs to various control systems.

18
HIGH VOLTAGES FOUND ON SHIPS
• 3.3 kVac, 60 Hz, 3 Phase.

• 6.6 kVac, 60 Hz, 3 Phase.

• 11 kVac, 60 Hz, 3 Phase

• 4.2 kVac, 60 Hz, 3 Phase stepped up for some bow thrusters.

HIGH VOLTAGE IN MARINE INDUSTRY

Voltage above 1000 Volts are considered as High voltage according to the SOLAS
1974 and IEC (International Electro-technical Commission) agreements.

British Standard defines high voltage as any voltage difference between

conductors that is higher than 1000 V AC or 1500 V DC, or any voltage difference
between a conductor and Earth that is higher than 600 V AC or 900 V DC.

HIGH VOLTAGE VERSUS LOW VOLTAGE IN PRACTICE

1. HV systems have more extensive and complex networks and connections.

2. Access to HV areas is often strictly limited to authorised person only. Any other
person is allowed to enter only if authorised person is present.

3. Isolation procedures are more involved and switching strategies have to be

formulated and recorded.

4. Isolated equipment, must be earthed down.

5. Suitable test probes and instruments must be used.

6. Diagnostic, insulation resistance testing is necessary.

7. Special HV circuit breakers are installed

REASON FOR OPTING HV SYSTEM IN MARINE INDUSTRY

Higher power requirement due to induction of larger vessels and faster cargo operation
as well as electric propulsion has forced the Marine Industry for opting the High Voltage
systems for sea going vessels. In short, It is due to:

- Higher power requirement.

19
- Faster cargo operation @ commercial demand.

- Large vessels demands higher power.

- Large gas carriers power demands.

- Electric propulsion power demands.

ADVANTAGE OF HV SYSTEM
• Simple ohms law
• P= V x I x Cos Ø
• Disregard the Cos Ø for easy calculation purpose only.
• So, for the same power if voltage increased then current will reduce.
• Generating electrical power at 440V from 4 MW, 0.8 power factor diesel generator
sets, each generator main cable and circuit breaker has to handle a full load
current such as :

Current= Power ________

(1.732 x Voltage x Power factor)
= 4,000,000 .
1.732 x 440 x 0.8
= 6,560.99 A

If a short circuit fault occurs on one of the outgoing feeder cables from the main
switchboard, the feeder circuit breaker would need to be rated to break a prospective
fault current of several times the full load current.

For the same system at 6.6 KV the full-load current of each generator is:

= 4,000,000 .
1.732 x 6,600x 0.8
= 437.39 A

Also, the fault level at the main switch board would be lower than a 440 V system.

• For a given power, Higher voltage means Lower current, thus:

• For the same power, the motor would be of a smaller size if it is designed for
6,600 Volts as compared to 440 Volts, for example, a bow thruster.
• Reduction of Heat loss is significant, as when large loads are connected to the LV
system the magnitude of current flow becomes too large thereby resulting in
overheating due to extensive iron and copper losses.
• 3-phase Power P =√3 VI Cos ø; Copper loss = I R (kW)
• Reduction in size of generators, motors, cables etc.
• Saving of Space and weight.
• Ease of Installation.
• Reduction in cost of Installation.
• Lower losses – more efficient utilization of generated power.
• Reduction in short circuit levels in the system which decides the design and
application of the electrical equipment used in the power system.

20
CIRCUITS OPERATED AT HIGH VOLTAGE ONBOARD
MERCHANT VESSELS
• The main generating sets.
• The main and auxiliary HV switchboard with associated switchgear, protective
devices and instrumentation.
• High voltage cables.
• HV to LV transformers.
• HV to HV transformers typically step down or isolating transformers supplying
propulsion converters and motors.
• HV motors for propulsion, thrusters, ballast-pumps, cargo-pumps and
compressors.
• Step up transformer for bow thruster.

DISADVANTAGE OF HV SYSTEM
• Higher Insulation Requirements for cables and equipment used in the system.
• Higher risk factor and the necessity for strict adherence to stringent safety
procedures.

21
 CHAPTER 3

HIGH VOLTAGE SAFETY RULES AND

PROCEDURES

22
Why Safety rules for working on electricity?

The voltage of the electricity and the available electrical current in regular businesses
and homes has enough power to cause death by electrocution. Even changing a light
bulb without unplugging the lamp can be hazardous because coming in contact with the
"hot", "energized" or "live" part of the socket could kill a person.

What to know about electricity?

All electrical systems have the potential to cause harm.

Electricity can be either "static" or "dynamic." Dynamic electricity is the uniform motion of
electrons through a conductor (this is known as electric current).
Conductors are materials that allow the movement of electricity through it.
Most metals are conductors.
The human body is also a conductor.
Note: Static electricity is accumulation of charge on surfaces as a result of contact and
friction with another surface.
This contact/friction causes an accumulation of electrons on one surface, and a
deficiency of electrons on the other surface.
Electric current cannot exist without a close path to and from the conductor.
Electricity will form a "path" or "loop", when you plug in a device to the power source.
The electricity takes the easiest path from the power source to the equipment, and back
to the power source.
This is also known as creating or completing an electrical circuit.

WHAT KINDS OF INJURIES RESULTS FROM ELECTRICAL

CURRENTS:

People are injured when they become part of the electrical circuit.
There are four main types of injuries: electrocution (fatal), electric shock, burns, and falls.
These injuries can happen in various ways:

 Direct contact with exposed energized conductors or circuit parts. When electrical
current travels through our bodies, it can interfere with the normal electrical signals
between the brain and our muscles (e.g., heart may stop beating properly,
breathing may stop, or muscles may spasm).
 When the electricity arcs (jumps, or "arcs") from an exposed energized conductor
or circuit part (e.g., overhead power lines) through a gas (such as air) to a person
who is grounded (that would provide an alternative route to the ground for the
electrical current).

23
  Thermal burns including burns from heat generated by an electric arc, and flame
burns from materials that catch on fire from heating or ignition by electrical
currents or an electric arc flash. Contact burns from being shocked can burn
internal tissues while leaving only very small injuries on the outside of the skin.
 Thermal burns from the heat radiated from an electric arc flash. Ultraviolet (UV)
and infrared (IR) light emitted from the arc flash can also cause damage to the
eyes.
 An arc blast can include a potential pressure wave released from an arc flash.
This wave can cause physical injuries, collapse your lungs, or create noise that
can damage hearing.
 Muscle contractions, or a startle reaction, can cause a person to fall from a ladder,
scaffold or aerial bucket. The fall can cause serious injuries.

So in short, it can be said that the use of electricity need some extra care to work on
safely.

This is taken care by various organizations depending upon the origin of the work
organization.

They Are:
1. International health and safety legislation.
2. Domestic (Flag State) Health and Safety Legislation.
3. UK Marine Statutory Electrical and Safety Regulations.
4. Code Of Safe Working Practices (COSWP).
5. Health and Safety Executive.
6. International Electro-technical Commission (IEC)
7. SOLAS ( Safety of life at sea)

and many more like OSHA, NFPA 70E, Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) etc
-Standard 1584

1. International health and safety legislation.

International Labor Organization (ILO) is the only tripartite U.N. agency, since 1919 the
ILO brings together governments, employers and workers representatives of 187
member states, to set labour standards, develop policies and devise programmes
promoting decent work for all women and men.

Standards set by ILO for Seafarers

An estimated 90% of world trade is carried on ships and requires seafarers to operate
ships. Seafarers are in this sense essential to international trade and the international
economic system. In fact shipping and seafarers are one of the earliest of the
“globalized” industries. This means that very often seafarers drawn from many countries
work together on board ships that are registered or “flagged” in yet another country and
owned by ship owners based in still another country.
Under international law, the country in which a ship is flagged – that is, the country
whose flag the ship flies is the country with international responsibility for establishing

24
and implementing and enforcing working and living standards on board ships,
irrespective of the nationality of the seafarers or the ship owner. In ships flying the flags
of countries that do not exercise effective jurisdiction and control over them, as required
by international law, seafarers often have to work under unacceptable conditions, to the
detriment of their well-being, health and safety and the safety of the ships on which they
work. Since seafarers’ working lives are spent outside the home country and their
employers are also often not based in their country, effective international standards are
necessary for this sector. Of course these standards must also be implemented at a
national level, particularly by governments that have a ship registry and authorize ships
to fly their countries’ flags. This is already well recognized in connection with ensuring the
safety and security of ships and protecting the marine environment. It is also important to
understand that there are many flag States and ship owners that take pride in providing
the seafarers on their ships with decent conditions of work. These countries and ship
owners face unfair competition in that they pay the price of being undercut by ship
owners which operate substandard ships. Since the ship is both their home and
workplace for prolonged periods of time, working and living conditions for seafarers are
therefore of primary importance. Moreover, seafarers are exposed to many unique
occupational risks. They also face exposure to extreme weather conditions as well as the
possibility of being abandoned in a foreign country if the ship owner runs into financial or
other difficulties. In addition contemporary concerns for enhanced national security and
border controls have made it difficult for seafarers to exercise right to go ashore for brief
periods for their health and well-being or to travel to join or leave a ship on its voyage.

Relevant ILO instruments

To protect the world’s seafarers and their contribution to international trade, the ILO has
adopted over the years some 70 instruments (41 Conventions and related
Recommendations) through special maritime sessions of the International Labour
Conference.
The ILO’s international standards for this sector establish the minimum conditions for
“decent work” and address almost all aspects of work including minimum requirements
for work on a ship (such as minimum age, medical fitness and training) provisions on the
conditions of employment such as hours of work and rest, wages, leave, repatriation,
accommodation, recreational facilities, food and catering, occupational safety and health
protection, medical care, welfare and social security protection. In addition, they address
issues such as pensions and an internationally recognized document for seafarers (a
seafarers’ identity document) to assist in border control matters.

Consolidation of ILO Maritime Standards

In February 2006, at the 10th Maritime Session, the 94th ILC adopted the Maritime
Labour Convention, 2006 (MLC, 2006). This Convention revised and consolidated 37
existing Conventions and the related Recommendations. Those Conventions are no
longer open for ratification, although ILO Members that have ratified any of these earlier
Conventions but not ratified the MLC, 2006 will remain bound by the Convention in
question, including responsibility for submission of national implementation reports
required under article 22 of the ILO Constitution. Rather than being open for ratification,
those Conventions are now “consolidated” into one instrument, the MLC, 2006, which
uses a new format with some updating, where necessary, to reflect modern conditions
and language. In this connection, it provides, in one instrument, the comprehensive rights
of the world’s 1.5 million seafarers to decent conditions of work on almost every aspect of

25
their working and living conditions including, among others, minimum age, employment
agreements, hours of work or rest, payment of wages, paid annual leave, repatriation at
the end of contract, on board medical care, the use of licensed private recruitment and
placement services, accommodation, food and catering, health and safety protection and
accident prevention and seafarers’ complaint handling.

The MLC, 2006 applies to a wide range of ships operating on international and national
or domestic voyages. It also contains important new compliance and enforcement
components based on flag State inspection and for port State control. Exceptions to its
scope of coverage include those navigating exclusively in inland waters or waters within,
closely adjacent to sheltered waters or areas where port regulations apply; those
engaged in fishing or similar pursuits; and ships of traditional build such as dhows and
junks and warships or naval auxiliaries.

To enter into force, the MLC, 2006 needed to register at least 30 ratifications by countries
representing at least 33 per cent of the world’s gross shipping tonnage. On 20 August
2012, both prerequisites were satisfied, and the Convention entered into force 12 months
later, on 20 August 2013. The Convention has now been ratified by over 60 countries
representing over 80 per cent of the world’s gross tonnage and is continuing to meet
widespread ratification.

In view of its far-reaching impact on the enforcement mechanisms at national level, as

well as to continue to promote its widespread ratification, the ILO delivers a wide range of
capacity-building activities such as national tripartite seminars and has developed a wide
range of resources such as the MLC, 2006 devoted website, which stores updated
information on activities under the Convention, the MLC, 2006 database, which contains
country-specific implementation information of countries that have ratified the
Convention, as well as implementing Guidelines and model national legislation. In
addition, the Maritime Labour Academy based at the ILO’s International Training Centre
in Turin delivers a number of workshops on the MLC, 2006, including short-term
residential training courses for inspectors and trainers of maritime labour inspectors,
workshops in cooperation with the international organizations representing seafarers and
ship owners and workshops on legislative drafting.

In March 2013, the ILO Governing Body adopted the Standing Orders for the Special
Tripartite Committee, which is mandated under Article XIII of the MLC, 2006 to keep the
working of the Convention under continuous review. Under the Convention, the
Committee has the power to consider and propose to the International Labour
Conference amendments to the Code of the Convention and will also play an important
consultative role under Article VII for countries that do not have national ship owners’ or
seafarers’ organizations to consult when implementing the MLC, 2006. The Committee
was established in June 2013 and held its first meeting in April 2014, during which it
adopted amendments to the Code to address the issue of financial security for crew
members/seafarers and their dependents, with regard to compensation in cases of
personal injury, death and abandonment, which was then transmitted to the International
Labour Conference for approval in June 2014. In accordance with the provisions of
Article XV of the MLC, 2006, the amendments will enter into force for ratifying Members
that have not expressed disagreement six months after the end of a prescribed period
(under the Convention the period is usually two years) unless more than 40 per cent of

26
those Members, representing not less than 40 per cent of the gross tonnage of the ships
of those Members, have formally expressed disagreement.

2. Domestic (Flag State) Health and Safety Legislation

"Every countries and flag states has their own safety rules and procedure to
protect their workers and environment".
Health and safety law is a body of law that protects the health, safety and welfare of the
general public and certain defined sectors of the population such as employees. Most
jurisdictions have a framework of health and safety law which will usually be enforced by
the state using an inspectorate, regulatory control and the criminal law.
The regulatory framework for health and safety will usually operate alongside a Civil
Law system which would allow individuals to bring a Lawsuit against a person, company
or organization that may have been liable for personal injury or even death. Thus where
an employee has been injured through an accident at work in the UK the Health & Safety
Executive may instigate a criminal prosecution which may result in a financial penalty
(fine) and now could result in imprisonment of those individuals responsible (Health and
Safety {Offences} Act 2008)– however the injured employee can also seek damages for
the injury caused in the civil courts under areas of civil law such as negligence and
occupiers liability.
One example in the United States was the Station Night Club Fire. In this incident, the
Station nightclub caught fire on February 20, 2003, in West Warwick, Rhode Island, after
the rock band Great White set off pyrotechnics which ignited the club’s highly flammable
soundproofing. One hundred people, including one band member, died in the blaze. The
band’s manager, Daniel Biechele, and club owners Jeffrey and Michael Derderian were
each charged with 100 counts of involuntary manslauter with criminal negligence and 100
counts of involuntary manslaughter in violation of a misdemeanor. Michael Derderian was
sentenced to a four year jail sentence with eligibility for a work release program and
Jeffrey Derderian received a suspended 10-year sentence and a community sentence
while Biechele also received a prison sentence. In civil courts, more than $1 billion in
claims have been made by the families of the dead and injured with defendants including
the manufacturers of the soundproofing, the maker of the pyrotechnics, the band and the
venue.
The regulatory framework in the UK only began to develop towards the end of the
industrial revolution and clearly employers and business at the time had a vested interest
to oppose legislation and regulatory control which might affect their business. But
progressive societies clearly wish to protect their population and workforce and almost all
now have comprehensive legislation. In the United States the law developed in a similar
manner. For example In 1891 Congress passed the first federal statute governing mine
safety, marking the beginning of what was to be an extended evolution of increasingly
comprehensive federal legislation regulating mining activities. The 1891 law was
relatively modest legislation that applied only to mines in U.S. territories, and, among
other things, established minimum ventilation requirements at underground coal mines
and prohibited operators from employing children under 12 years of age. But many would
say that after a golden age of health and safety legislation there is now a major problem
as legislation and regulation often does nothing to actually protect the public and
employees, and indeed has led to the development of a compensation culture.

27
In the United Kingdom the primary legislation governing the enforcement of health and
safety is the Health and safety at work etc Act 1974. Section 1 of the Act sets out the
preliminary purposes of the act.
These are for
(i) securing the health, safety and welfare of persons at work and (ii) protecting others
against risks to health and safety in connection with the activities of persons at work and
(iii) for controlling and managing the use of dangerous substances and
(iv) for controlling certain emissions into the atmosphere.
The European Union has instigated a series of Directives in the field of health and safety
which must be brought into domestic legislation by all the member countries within
agreed time limits. Recent Directives cover noise at work, the manual handling of loads,
carcinogens and biological agents.
A waste disposal, construction and demolition company has been fined £20,000 after an
employee was run over by a dumper truck. The company pleaded guilty to contravening
s2(1) of HSWA by failing to ensure the safety of an employee, it was also ordered to pay
full costs of £6,580. Gloucester Crown Court was told that the incident occurred on 9
August 2004 at a waste transfer station in Gloucester, where rubbish is brought by skips
and lorries for recycling or landfill. A dumper truck being driven out of the waste transfer
station struck the man as he stood with his back to the doors, running him over and
fracturing his pelvis and femur. The driver had been unable to see the supervisor, as the
truck had a high load of wooden pallets in the bucket at the front, and he was coping with
changes in light between the two areas. In mitigation, the company said it had put a lot of
work and investment into health and safety since the incident. The court was told that this
incident was the third for which the company had been prosecuted in the last two years.
Its construction division was fined £5,000 in January 2005 after an untrained worker
overturned a dumper truck while reversing it without wearing a seatbelt, breaking his leg.
Its demolition division was fined £12,500 in September 2005 after an untrained and
unsupervised operative fell through a fragile roof.

3. UK Marine Statutory Electrical and Safety Regulations.

Electricity at Work Regulations 1989 (EAWR) places a legal responsibility on

employers and employees, as duty holders, to ensure that electrical systems used
at work under their control are safe.

4. Code Of Safe Working Practices (COSWP)

COSWP is published by the Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA) and endorsed
by the National Maritime Occupational Health and Safety Committee, UK Chamber
of Shipping as best practice guidance for improving health and safety on board
ship.

Chapter 20.12 to 20.22 deals with the electrical and electronics portions of the safe
practices. They are as below:

20.12 Electrical equipment

28
20.12.1: The risks of electric shock are much greater on board ship than they are
normally ashore because wetness, high humidity and high temperature (including
sweating) reduce the contact resistance of the body. In those conditions, severe and
even fatal shocks may be caused at voltages as low as 60V. It should also be borne in
mind that cuts and abrasions significantly reduce skin resistance.

20.12.2: A notice of instructions on the treatment of electric shock should be posted in

every place containing electrical equipment and switchgear. Immediate on-the-spot
treatment of an unconscious patient is essential.

20.12.3: Before any work is done on electrical equipment, fuses should be removed or
circuit breakers opened to ensure that all related circuits are dead. If possible, switches
and circuit breakers should be locked open or, alternatively, a ‘not to be closed’ notice
attached. Where a fuse has been removed, it should be retained by the person working
on the equipment until the job is finished. A check should be made that any interlocks or
other safety devices are operative. Additional precautions are necessary to ensure safety
when work is to be undertaken on high-voltage equipment (designed to operate at a
nominal system voltage in excess of 1000V). The work should be carried out by, or under
the direct supervision of, a competent person with sufficient technical knowledge and a
permit to work system should be operated.

20.12.4: Some parts of certain types of equipment may remain live even when the
equipment is switched off. Power should always be cut off at the mains.

20.12.6: Work on or near live equipment should be avoided if possible but when it is
essential for the safety of the ship or for testing purposes, the following precautions
should be taken:

- A second person, who should be competent in the treatment of electric shock, should
be continually in attendance.

- The working position adopted should be safe and secure to avoid accidental contact
with the live parts. Insulated gloves should be worn where practicable.

- Contact with the deck, particularly if it is wet, should be avoided. Footwear may not give
adequate insulation if it is damp or has metal studs or rivets. The use of a dry insulating
mat at all times is recommended.

- Contact with bare metal should be avoided. A hand-to-hand shock is especially

dangerous. To minimise the risk of a second contact should the working hand
accidentally touch a live part, one hand should be kept in a trouser pocket whenever
practicable.
- Wrist watches, metal identity bracelets and rings should be removed. They provide low
resistance contacts with the skin. Metal fittings on clothing or footwear are also
dangerous.

20.12.7: Any test meters used should be rated for the voltage being tested with meter
probes having only minimum amounts of metal exposed and insulation of both probes
should be in good condition. Care should be taken that the probes do not short circuit

29
adjacent connections. When measuring voltages that are greater than 250V, the probe
should be attached and removed with the circuit dead.

20.13 Main switchboards

20.13.1: The internal cleaning and maintenance of the main switchboard must only be
carried out while it is in a ‘dead’ condition; after a full risk assessment has been carried
out, as described in Chapter 1, Managing occupational health and safety, and a formal
permit to work issued, as described in Chapter 14, Permit to work systems.

20.13.2: The risk assessment will identify the actions and checks required to make the
switchboard safe, and these actions and checks will be identified in the permit to work.
The major checks to be listed on the permit to work will identify and verify that the
necessary inter-connections to and from, and/or within, the main switchboard are
disconnected. These will include but are not limited to:

- the shore power supply;

- the emergency generator;
- and the emergency power supply.

20.13.3: The internal cleaning and internal maintenance of the main switchboard would,
in general, be an integral part of a ship’s dry-dock programme or that of an extended
maintenance programme.

20.14 High-voltage systems

20.14.1: Additional precautions are necessary to ensure safety when work is to be
undertaken on high-voltage equipment (designed to operate at a nominal system voltage
in excess of 1000V).

20.14.2: Definitions
Definitions related to High Voltage System are discussed in Chapter 1.

20.14.3 Work on high-voltage equipment/installations No work shall be carried out on

high-voltage equipment/installations unless an agreed switching plan has been
developed and implemented so that the equipment/installations are:

- dead;

- isolated and all practicable steps have been taken to lock off live conductors, voltage
transformers (except where the connections are bolted) and dead conductors that may
become live;

- earthed at all points of disconnection of high-voltage supply and caution notices

attached in English and any other working language of the vessel; and

30
- released for work by the issue of a permit to work or a sanction for test.

Also, the competent person designated to carry out the work should fully understand the
nature and scope of the work to be carried out and have witnessed a demonstration that
the equipment/installation is dead at the point of work.
A limitation of access instruction should be used to give written instructions defining the
limits of work to be carried out in the vicinity of but not on high-voltage
equipment/installations.
On completion of work and on clearance and cancellation of the relevant permit to work,
a switching plan should be developed for the removal of earthing and isolations leading
to connecting to the high-voltage supply. It should be noted that a reversal of the plan
used to isolate the equipment may lead to a dangerous or unsafe situation and it is
always best practice to develop a plan for this considering the dead equipment or
network as a starting point.

20.14.4 Operation of switchgear

Routine high-voltage switching shall only be carried out by a person competent to do so
and in the normal course of their duties, using the equipment provided for the purpose.

High-voltage switching undertaken to isolate equipment for maintenance, inspection

and/or testing, shall only be carried out by an authorised person or a competent person
acting in the presence of and to the instructions of a person so authorised. The sequence
of switching, isolation and earthing is to be carried out in accordance with an agreed
switching plan.

In an emergency, high-voltage switching to cut off supply may be carried out by any
person competent to do so.

Any message relating to the operation of the high-voltage system that has been
transmitted by telephone/radio shall be repeated in full by the recipient and confirmed by
the sender to ensure that the message has been accurately received.

Making live or dead by signals or a pre-arranged understanding after an agreed time

interval is not permitted.

20.14.5 Withdrawn apparatus

High-voltage apparatus that has been isolated and removed from its normal operating
position may be worked on without a permit to work or sanction for test, provided that:

- it has been discharged;

- it is prevented by barriers and locking from being restored to a live position; and

- access to high-voltage conductors on the switchboard is prevented.

31
20.14.6: Locking off: All spout (orifice) shutters not required for immediate work or
operations shall be locked shut. (Exception: on certain types of switchgear, access to the
shutters is restricted whilst the circuit breaker is still in the cubicle. Under these
circumstances, it is acceptable to lock either the cubicle door or the racking mechanism,
whichever is appropriate, which must prevent further withdrawal of the circuit breaker, so
long as the circuit breaker has been withdrawn from its normal operating position.)

20.14.7: Protective equipment:

Protective equipment associated with the high-voltage equipment/installations and
forming part of the system shall not be adjusted or put into or taken out of commission
without the sanction of the chief engineer or superintendent/senior electrical engineer.
High-voltage equipment/installations shall not be commissioned or re-commissioned
(after major work) until the protective devices have been proved to be functioning
correctly.

20.14.8: Insulation testing:

All high-voltage equipment/installations that are either new or have undergone
substantial maintenance or alteration shall be subject to a high-voltage test in
accordance with figures approved in writing by the chief engineer or
superintendent/electrical engineer.

20.14.9: Failure of supply:

During failures of supply, all apparatus, equipment and conductors shall be regarded as
being live until isolated and proved dead.

20.14.10: Entry to enclosures containing high-voltage equipment/installations

compartments and other enclosures containing high-voltage apparatus shall be
locked except when entry or exit is necessary.

The keys giving normal access to such enclosures shall be accessible to authorising
officers only.

No person except an authorising officer, or a competent person who is under the

immediate supervision of an authorising officer, who shall be continuously present, shall
enter any enclosure in which it is possible to touch exposed high-voltage conductors.

Entry to compartments or other enclosures containing high-voltage

equipment/installations is limited to authorising officers or other persons only when
accompanied by an authorising officer.

Entry to compartments containing high-voltage equipment/installations that are not

protected by insulated covers should only be undertaken when the
equipment/installations are isolated and earthed

20.14.11: Earthing:

Circuit mains earths shall be applied and removed only by an authorising officer or a
person competent to do so in the authorising officer’s presence and to their instructions.

32
When high-voltage equipment/installations have been made dead and isolated, the
conductors to be earthed shall be proved dead if practicable using an approved potential
indicator. The potential indicator should be in date for calibration and be tested
immediately before and after use, to prove it is in good working order.

Where practicable, circuit main earths shall be applied through a circuit breaker or
earthing switches.

Before closing to earth, the trip features shall be rendered inoperative unless this is
impracticable. After closing, the circuit breaker shall be locked in the earth position and
the trip features rendered inoperative with a caution notice attached.

Additional earths may be applied at the point of work after the issue of a permit to work
by the competent person in charge of the work.

Circuit main earths/additional earths may also be removed/replaced at the point of work
after the issue of a sanction for test by the authorised person conducting the test.

A circuit main earth applied at the point of work may be removed and replaced one phase
at a time to facilitate the work, provided this instruction is recorded on the permit to work.
If this is the only circuit main earth connected to the apparatus, then a person authorised
to issue permits to work shall remain at the point of work and be responsible for the
safety of all those engaged in the work whilst the circuit main earth is removed. No other
simultaneous work shall be permitted on any part of the circuit during the validity of this
permit to work.

20.14.12: Notices:
Caution notices and danger notices shall be applied to all high-voltage
equipment/installations covered by a permit to work or sanction for test calling attention
to non-interference or danger as appropriate.

20.14.13: Work on high-voltage cables:

No person shall touch the insulation that covers or supports any conductor subject to
high voltage unless the conductor is earthed.

Before a permit to work is issued, a person authorised to issue permits shall identify the
cable to be worked on and proven dead at the point of work. All cables shall be assumed
to be live high-voltage cables until proven otherwise.

Before issuing a permit to work to cut into or disturb the insulation of a high-voltage cable
(except as required below) the person who is to issue the permit to work shall ensure
compliance with the following and, where practicable, shall involve the recipient of the
permit to work:

- Check cable records.

- Visually trace the cable from the point of work to a point where the apparatus is clearly
identified by permanent labelling and in such a way that there is no doubt about the cable
identity.

33
- Where this is not practicable, then the cable shall be identified by signal injection
methods; the cable shall be spiked with an approved spiking gun as near to the point of
work as practicable. When practicable, the cable shall be cut with the spiking gun in
position; tests shall be made to confirm the cable cut is the correct one. All this shall be
carried out under a sanction for test.

- Where work is to be carried out on cables where the conductors and/or sheath may be
subject to induced voltages from live equipment in close proximity, then where
practicable the conductors and/or sheath shall be earthed and appropriate personal
protective equipment (PPE) used.

Where the aforementioned procedures are not practicable, then a special procedure shall
be written and approved by the chief engineer or electro-technical officer.

20.14.14: Work on transformers:

When work is to be carried out on any connections up to a point of isolation or the
windings of a transformer, all windings irrespective of voltage shall be isolated. Circuit
main earths shall be applied at the points of isolation from high-voltage supply. Low-
voltage points of isolation shall be locked open.

20.14.15: Work on ring main units:

The design of ring main units usually prevents the use of a potential indicator, prior to
earthing. It is, therefore, extremely important that before any earth is applied the
appropriate remote end is isolated first.

The system diagram should be checked prior to any operations and the onsite labelling
noted on an approved switching procedure prior to commencing operations.

All work and switching on ring main units must be carried out in strict accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions.

Work within the switching chamber of the ring main unit may require the isolation and
earthing of all remote ends of the ring main unit.

20.14.16: Work on busbars and directly connected busbar equipment:

Before any work commences on a busbar or section of busbar, including any directly
connected equipment, the busbar shall be isolated from any point of supply, including
voltage transformers; any directly connected cable shall be isolated and earthed at the
remote end.

All switches on the busbar or section of busbar shall be withdrawn to their isolated
position.

All isolating arrangements are to be locked with shutters covering high-voltage contacts.
Contacts that may become alive and contacts where no work is to be done shall be
locked shut and warning notices posted.

The busbar or section of the busbar to be worked on shall be proved dead with an
approved potential indicator in accordance with the rules for earthing (section 20.14.11).

34
A circuit main earth shall be applied to the busbar on at least one switch panel on the
section of busbar on which work is to be done. An additional circuit main earth shall be
applied at any remote ends of directly connected equipment.

An additional circuit main earth shall be applied at any such other position necessary to
ensure that the busbar remains earthed at all times while work is being carried out.

A separate permit to work or sanction for test shall be issued in respect of each section of
busbar. No more than one permit to work or sanction for test shall be issued
simultaneously in respect of any section of busbar or any electrical equipment directly
connected to it.

Any orifices where work is to be done must be proved dead immediately beforehand by
the use of an approved potential indicator.

20.15 Arc-flash associated with high- and low-

voltage equipment
MGN 452(M)

20.15.1
An arc-flash occurs when an electric current flows through an air gap. The air is the
conductor and an arc can form between phase-to-ground (neutral) or phase-to-phase
and is accompanied by ionisation of the surrounding air.

20.15.2
The incident energy associated with an arc-flash is measured in calories per square
centimetre (cal/cm²). It is the amount of thermal energy from an arc flash that reaches a
surface, such as a person’s skin.

20.15.3
The greater the incident energy value is, the more severe the burn injury. The energy
required to produce the onset of a second-degree burn is 1.2 cal/cm² and this is the
benchmark for personal protection. (A second-degree burn affects both the outer and
underlying layer of skin and causes pain and redness, swelling and blistering (National
Institutes of Health (NIH), 2010).)

20.15.4
The goal of arc-flash protection is to minimise the likelihood of burn injury by providing an
adequate thermal barrier that will limit the energy exposure of a person’s skin to no more
than 1.2 cal/cm². It is important to keep in mind that 1.2 cal/cm² is where the onset of a
second-degree burn can occur, so there is still a possibility of being injured while
protected.

20.16: Storage batteries: general

20.16.1

35
When a battery is being charged it ‘gases’, giving off both hydrogen and oxygen. As
hydrogen is easily ignited in concentrations ranging from 4% to 75% in air, battery
containers and compartments should be kept adequately ventilated to prevent an
accumulation of dangerous gas.

20.16.2
Smoking and any type of open flame should be prohibited in a battery compartment. A
conspicuous notice to this effect should be displayed at the entrance to the compartment.

20.16.3
Lighting fittings in battery compartments should be properly maintained at all times, with
protective glasses in position and properly tightened. If cracked or broken glasses cannot
be replaced immediately, the electric circuit should be isolated until replacements are
obtained.

20.16.4
No unauthorised modifications or additions should be made to electrical equipment
(including lighting fittings) in battery compartments.

20.16.5
Portable electric lamps and tools, and other portable power tools that might give rise to
sparks, should not be used in battery compartments.

20.16.6
The battery compartment should not be used as a store for any materials or gear not
associated.

20.16.7
A short circuit of even one cell may produce an arc or sparks that may cause an
explosion of any hydrogen present. Additionally, the very heavy current that can flow in
the short-circuiting wire or tool may cause burns due to rapid overheating of the metal.

20.16.8
Insulation and/or guarding of cables in battery compartments should be maintained in
good condition.

20.16.9
All battery connections should be kept clean and tight to avoid sparking and overheating.
Temporary clip-on connections should never be used because they may work loose due
to vibration and cause a spark or short circuit.

20.16.10
Metal tools, such as wrenches or spanners, should never be placed on top of batteries
because they may cause sparks or short circuits. The use of insulated tools is
recommended.

20.16.11
Jewellery, watches and rings, etc. should be removed when working on batteries. A short
circuit through any of these items will heat it rapidly and may cause a severe skin burn. If
rings cannot be removed, they should be heavily taped in insulating material.

36
20.16.12
The battery chargers and all circuits fed by the battery should be switched off when leads
are being connected or disconnected. If a battery is in sections, it may be possible to
reduce the voltage between cells in the work area, and hence the severity of an
accidental short circuit or electric shock, by removing the jumper leads between sections
before work is begun. It should be appreciated that whilst individual cell voltages may not
prevent a shock risk, dangerous voltages can exist when numbers of cells are connected
together in series. A lethal shock needs a current of only tens of milliamps and particular
care should be exercised when the voltage exceeds 50V.

20.16.13
The battery-charging systems should be checked to ensure that it is only possible to
charge within the specified rate. Battery boxes should be checked for fixing and integrity
as part of the planned maintenance.

20.16.14
Battery cell vent plugs should be screwed tight while connections are being made or
broken.

20.16.15
The ventilation tubes of battery boxes should be examined regularly to ensure that they
are free from obstruction.

20.16.16
Lids of battery boxes should be fastened while open for servicing and properly secured
again when the work is finished.

20.16.17
Batteries should be kept battened into position to prevent shifting in rough weather.

20.16.18
Alkaline and lead-acid batteries should be kept in separate compartments or separated
by screens. Where both lead-acid and alkaline batteries are in use, great care should be
exercised to keep apart the materials and tools used in servicing each type, because
contamination of the electrolyte may cause deterioration of battery performance and
mixing of the two electrolytes produces a vigorous chemical reaction, which could be very
dangerous.

20.16.19
Both acid and alkaline electrolytes are highly corrosive. Immediate remedial action
should be taken to wash off any accidental splashes on the person or the equipment.
Hands should always be washed as soon as the work is finished.

20.16.20
Batteries should always be transported in the upright position to avoid spillage of
electrolyte. A sufficient number of people should be employed because the batteries are
heavy and painful strains or injury can otherwise easily result (see Chapter 10 of
COSWP, Manual handling)

37
 20.17: Storage batteries: lead acid
20.17.1
When the electrolyte is being prepared, the concentrated sulphuric acid should be added
slowly to the water. If water is added to the acid, the heat generated may cause an
explosion of steam, splattering acid over the person handling it.

20.17.2
Goggles, rubber gloves and a protective apron should be worn when acid is handled.

20.17.3
To neutralise acid on skin or clothes, copious quantities of clean fresh water should be
used.

20.17.4
An eyewash bottle should be to hand in the compartment for immediate use on the eyes
in case of accident. This bottle should be clearly distinguishable by touch from acid or
other containers, so that it may be easily located by a person who is temporarily blinded.

20.17.5
The corrosion products that form round the terminals of batteries are injurious to skin or
eyes. They should be removed by brushing, away from the body. Terminals should be
protected with petroleum jelly.

20.17.6
An excessive charging rate causes acid mist to be carried out of the vents onto adjacent
surfaces. This should be cleaned off with diluted ammonia water or soda solution, and
affected areas then dried.

20.18: Storage batteries: alkaline

20.18.1
The general safety precautions with this type of battery are the same as for the lead-acid
batteries with the following exceptions.

20.18.2 The electrolyte in these batteries is alkaline but is similarly corrosive. It should
not be allowed to come into contact with the skin or clothing, but in the case of an
accident the affected parts should be washed with plenty of clean fresh water. Burns
should be treated with boracic powder or a saturated solution of boracic powder. Eyes
should be washed out thoroughly with water, followed immediately with a solution of
boracic powder (at the rate of one teaspoonful to 1/2 litre or one pint of water). This
solution should always be readily accessible when electrolyte is handled.

20.18.3 Unlike lead-acid batteries, metal cases of alkaline batteries remain live at all
times and care should be taken not to touch them or allow metal tools to come into
contact.

38
20.19: Work on apparatus on extension runners or on
the bench
20.19.1
Chassis on extension runners should be firmly fixed, either by self-locking devices or by
use of chocks, before any work is done.

20.19.2
Where units are awkward or heavy for one person to handle easily, assistance should be
sought (see Chapter 10, Manual handling). Strain, rupture or a slipped disc can result
from a lone effort.

20.19.3
Any chassis on the bench should be firmly wedged or otherwise secured to prevent it
overbalancing or moving. Should a live chassis overbalance, no attempt should be made
to grab it.

20.19.4
Temporary connections should be soundly made. Flexible extension cables should have
good insulation and adequate current carrying capacity.

20.22: Valves and semi-conductor devices

20.22.1
Valves being removed from equipment that has recently been operating should be
grasped with a heat-resistant cloth; in the case of large valves (e.g. power amplifier,
output valves and modulators, which reach a high temperature in operation), the cooling-
down time should be allowed before they are removed. Severe burns can result if they
touch bare skin.

20.22.2
Cathode ray tubes and large thermionic valves should be handled with care; although
they implode when broken, there is still a risk of severe cuts from sharp-edged glass
fragments. Some special purpose devices contain vapour or gas at high pressure (e.g.
Trigatron) but these are usually covered with a protective fibre network to contain the
glass should they explode.

20.22.3
Beryllia (beryllium oxide) dust is very dangerous if inhaled or if it penetrates the skin
through a cut or abrasion. It may be present in some electronic components. Cathode ray
tubes, power transistors, diodes and thyristors containing it will usually be identified by
the manufacturers’ information provided, but lack of such information should not be taken
as a positive indication of its absence. The heat sink washers that contain it are highly
polished and look like dark brass. These items should be carefully stored in their original
packaging until required.

20.22.4

39
Physical damage to components of this kind, whether they are new or defective, is likely
to produce dangerous dust; abrasion should be avoided, they should not be worked by
tools and encapsulations should be left intact. Excessive heat can be dangerous, but
normal soldering with thermal shunt is safe. Damaged or broken parts should be
separately and securely packed, following the manufacturer’s instructions for return or
disposal.

20.22.5
Seafarers handling parts containing beryllia should wear protective clothing, including
gloves, to prevent the substance coming into contact with the skin. Tweezers should be
used where practicable. If the skin does become contaminated with the dust, affected
parts, particularly any cuts, should be cleaned without delay.

5. Health and Safety Executive.

The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) is the national independent watchdog for work-
related health, safety and illness. It acts in the public interest to reduce work-related
death and serious injury across Great Britain’s workplaces.

The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) is a national independent watchdog of

the United Kingdom with its headquarters in Liverpool, England.
It is the body responsible for the encouragement, regulation and enforcement
of workplace health, safety and welfare, and for research into
occupational risks in England and Wales and Scotland.
Responsibility in Northern Ireland lies with the Health and Safety Executive for Northern
Ireland.
The HSE was created by the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974, and has since
absorbed earlier regulatory bodies such as the Factory Inspectorate and the Railway
Inspectorate though the Railway Inspectorate was transferred to the Office of Rail
Regulation in April 2006.
The HSE is sponsored by the Department for Work and Pensions.
As part of its work HSE investigates industrial accidents, small and large, including major
incidents such as the explosion and fire at Buncefield in 2005. Though it formerly
reported to the Health and Safety Commission, on 1 April 2008, the two bodies merged.

The Executive's duties are to:

 Assist and encourage persons concerned with matters relevant to the operation of the
objectives of the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974.
 Make arrangements for and encourage research and publication, training and
information in connection with its work.
 Make arrangements for securing government departments, employers, employees,
their respective representative organisations, and other persons are provided with an
information and advisory service and are kept informed of, and adequately advised on
such matters.
 Propose regulations.

40
The Executive is further obliged to keep the Secretary of State informed of its plans and
ensure alignment with the policies of the Secretary of State, giving effect to any directions
given to it. The Secretary of State can give directions to the Executive.
On 1 April 2006, the Executive ceased to have responsibility for railway safety.
The Executive is responsible for the Employment Medical Advisory Service, which
operates as part of its Field Operations Directorate.
It is to be noted that points discussed in the COSWP are more or less similar to HSE
points.
For further studies below link can be referred.
http://www.hse.gov.uk/pUbns/priced/hsr25.pdf

6. International Electro-technical Commission (IEC)

Organization & funding
The IEC is a not-for-profit, non-governmental organization, founded in 1906, which
develops International Standards and operates conformity assessment systems in the
fields of electro-technology.

The IEC comprises one member National Committee per country, they each pay
membership fees and in exchange can participate fully in IEC work.

The IEC operates on an annual budget of approximately CHF (Swiss Franc) 20 million.

The International Electro-technical Commission(IEC) is the world’s leading

organization that prepares and publishes International Standards for all electrical,
electronic and related technologies.

Close to 20 000 experts from industry, commerce, government, test and research labs,
academia and consumer groups participate in IEC Standardization work.

Globally relevant
The IEC is one of three global sister organizations (IEC, ISO, ITU) that develop
International Standards for the world.

When appropriate, IEC cooperates with ISO (International Organization for

Standardization) or ITU (International Telecommunication Union) to ensure that
International Standards fit together seamlessly and complement each other. Joint
committees ensure that International Standards combine all relevant knowledge of
experts working in related areas.

Role of IEC
The International Electro-technical Commission is the leading global organization that
publishes consensus-based International Standards and manages conformity

41
assessment systems for electric and electronic products, systems and services,
collectively known as electro-technology.

IEC publications serve as a basis for national standardization and as references when
drafting international tenders and contracts.

Statutes & Procedures

The IEC Statutes and Rules of Procedure is the governing document of the IEC. It details
the rights and obligations of the member National Committees, the IEC Officers and the
different IEC management boards.

The Directives outline the procedures of the IEC's technical work, including the rules for
the structure and drafting of International Standards.

Management Structure of IEC:

42
Its central office is based in Geneva, Switzerland.

7. SOLAS ( Safety of life at sea)

The SOLAS Convention in its successive forms is generally regarded as the most
important of all international treaties concerning the safety of merchant ships.
The first version was adopted in 1914, in response to the Titanic disaster, the second in
1929, the third in 1948, and the fourth in 1960.
The 1974 version includes the tacit acceptance procedure - which provides that an
amendment shall enter into force on a specified date unless, before that date, objections
to the amendment are received from an agreed number of Parties.
As a result the 1974 Convention has been updated and amended on numerous
occasions. The Convention in force today is sometimes referred to as SOLAS, 1974, as
amended.

The current version of the SOLAS Convention is the 1974 version, known as SOLAS
1974, which came into force on 25 May 1980.
As at March 2016, SOLAS 1974 has 162 contracting States, which flag about 99% of
merchant ships around the world in terms of gross tonnage.
The SOLAS Convention in its successive forms is generally regarded as the most
important of all international treaties concerning the safety of merchant ships.

Chapter II-1 (of SOLAS deals with electrical installation.)

- Construction - Subdivision and stability, machinery and electrical installations

Requirements covering machinery and electrical installations are designed to ensure that
services which are essential for the safety of the ship, passengers and crew are
maintained under various emergency conditions.

43
 CHAPTER 4
ELECTRICAL HIGH VOLTAGE HAZARDS
ARC FLASH AND ARC BLAST.

44
 INTRODUCTION
Apart from all the basic hazards present with the electrical low voltage system there are
followings hazards also exists with the High voltage system:

- Arc Flash
- Arc Blast
- Skin Effect
- Corona effect
- Generation of Harmonics.

What is an Electric Arc?

• Simply put, an electric arc is a short circuit through the air.

• When insulation or isolation is breached or can no longer withstand the applied
voltage between phase conductors or between a phase conductor and ground, the
air between the conductors becomes ionized. Ionized air will conduct electricity
and an arc fault occurs between those conductors.
• The power source will pump as much current into the arc fault as the supplying
transformer, conductors, and arc impedance will allow until the fault is cleared by a
protective device such as a fuse or circuit breaker or the fault burns itself out.
• The amount of energy released depends, in part, on the amount of energy in the
circuit. The more energy, the more powerful the arc.
• Electric arcs produce some of the highest temperatures known to occur on earth.

Characteristics of an Electric Arc

• An electric arc will oscillate and escalate if not constrained.

45
 • A single-phase electric arc can engulf a second or third conductor in only two
cycles.
• An electric arc’s current propels the arc away from the power source.

Arc Flash

“. . . a dangerous condition associated with the release of energy caused by

an electric arc.”
Arc flash is the explosive release of energy when electrical current jumps the distance
from one conductor to another, or when it jumps from a conductor to ground.

That jump is called an “arc”.

“Flash” refers to the release of light and heat energy.

Lightening is an example of arc flash, when current jumps from sky to ground. The
results are heat, light, and a pressure wave which you hear as thunder.

In the workplace, arc flash can be deadly. It can happen anywhere you find energized
electrical equipment or conductors.

What Causes Arc Flash?

• Dust, impurities, corrosion, condensation, animals
• Spark discharge from:
– Accidental touching
– Dropping tools
• Over-voltages across narrow gaps
• Failure of insulating materials
• Equipment failure

What is Arc Blast?

46
 • The intense heat from the arc causes the sudden expansion of air. The result is an
explosive blast with very strong air pressure.
• Equipment and materials melt and are vaporized during an arc flash. When
materials vaporize they expand in volume.
• For example, copper expands by a factor of 67,000 times* when it turns from a
solid to a vapor. Water expands by a factor of 1670 times*.
• The dangers associated with this expansion are:
• High pressures,
• Sound, and
• Shrapnel in the form of molten steel and other fragments.

Arc Flash Events

• Electric arc Arc flash Arc blast

The arc formation in a cubicle can be described in 4 phases:

1. Compression phase:

The volume of the air where the arc develops is overheated due to the release of energy. The
remaining volume of air inside the cubicle heats up from convection and radiation. Initially there
are different temperatures and pressures from one zone to another;

2. Expansion phase:

From the first instant of internal pressure increase, a hole is formed through which the
superheated air begins to escape. The pressure reaches its maximum value and starts to
decrease from the release of hot air;

3. Emission phase:

Due to continued contribution of energy by the arc, nearly all the superheated air is forced out by
an almost constant overpressure;

4. Thermal phase:

After the expulsion of the air, the temperature inside the switchgear nears that of the electrical
arc. This final phase lasts until the arc is quenched, when all the metals and the insulating
materials coming into contact undergo erosion with production of gas, fumes and molten material.
Should the electrical arc occur in an open configuration some of the described phases might not
be present or have less effect; however, there will always be a pressure wave and a rise in
temperature in the zones surrounding the arc.

47
Most faults occur during switchgear maintenance or during manual operation of the equipment
(eg: racking in/out of withdrawal of equipment). Under these circumstances, not only are
personnel in front of the switchgear, and consequently likely to be engulfed by the electrical arc,
but the fault is very often caused by the operations carried out (closing a circuit breaker under
short-circuit, dropping a tool on live bus bars, etc.). Being in the proximity of an electrical arc is
extremely dangerous:

• Pressure: at a distance of 24” (61cm) from an electrical arc associated with a 22 kA arcing fault
a person can be subject to a force of 500lb (225kg); furthermore, the sudden pressure wave may
cause rupture of the eardrums or permanent injuries;

• Temperatures of an arc can reach about 34,232 ºF (19,000°C; the surface of the Sun is
6,000°C)

• Sound: electrical arc sound levels can reach 160 db, (a jet engine at 100’ (30m) is 140 db).

The electrical arc lasts until the opening of the over current protective device on the supply side
of the electrical arc.

The faults that may occur in electrical switchgear are primarily:

• Phase-to-ground fault;

• Phase-to-phase fault.

A three-phase fault is less common, but it is necessary to remember that phase-to-

ground and phase-to-phase faults may rapidly evolve into a three-phase fault.
Both types of fault may be caused by accidental contact of a person or a tool with live
parts.
The physical effects of an arc flash are:

• Pressure wave in the environment where the arc is generated;

• Heating of the materials coming into touch with the arc flash;

• Potentially harmful light and sound. Personnel hazards due to the release of energy
generated by an arc event may include:

• Burns;

• Injuries due to ejection of materials;

• Damage to hearing and to eye-sight;

• Inhalation of toxic gases

48
Burns

• Arc Flash - 19425 degC

• Sun- 5480 degC

The high temperature levels of the gases produced by the electrical arc and the
expulsion of incandescent metal particles may result in severe burns.

Flames can cause all types of burns, up to carbonization: the red-hot solid metal
fragments can cause third degree burns, superheated steam causes burns similar to hot
liquids and the radiant heat generally causes less severe burns.

Injuries due to ejected materials

• Material and molten metal can hit the body at over 700 miles per hour.

The ejection of metal particles or other loose items caused by the electric arc can result
in severe injuries to the most sensitive parts of the human body, like the eyes. The
materials expelled due to the explosion produced by the arc may penetrate the cornea.
The extent of the lesions depends on the characteristics and kinetic energy of these
objects.
Also, the eye area can sustain injuries to the mucosa, such as the cornea or retina,
because of the gases released by the arc and the emission of ultraviolet and infrared
rays.

Hearing As already mentioned,

The electric arc is a true explosion, whose sound may cause permanent hearing loss.

49
Inhalation of toxic gases

The fumes produced by burnt insulating materials and molten or vaporized metals can be
toxic. These fumes are caused by incomplete burning and are formed by carbon particles
and by other solid substances suspended in the air

• Arc blast can cause inhalation injuries.

For example:
– Inhaling high temperature
copper vapor.
– More than 100 toxic
substances can be found
in the fumes.
– BLI+ Burn = Greater chance of death

Pressure Wave Injuries

• Arc blast can throw a worker:

– Off a ladder
– Into nearby walls or equipment.
• 2000 lbs/ft2 pressure on the body can cause:
– Concussion
– Collapsed lungs
– Other internal injuries

The Standards dealing with prevention of arc flash effects are:

• OSHA 29 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 1910 Subpart S,

• NFPA 70-2008 National Electrical Code,

• NFPA 70E-2009 Standard for Electrical Safety Requirements for Employee

Workplaces,

50
• IEEE Standard 1584-2008 Guide for Performing Arc Flash Hazard Calculations.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulates worker’s safety
and health and has asked the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) to prepare a
standard to safeguard employees working in the proximity of energized electrical
equipment (NFPA 70E). OSHA is not obliged to comply with NFPA 70E, but does
recognize it as a standard for industrial applications.

OSHA 29 CFR requires that employers assess the arc flash hazard (CFR 1910.132).
Should this hazard be present or likely in determined areas, the standard itself requires
the use of suitable personal protective equipment (clothing and tools), which personnel
shall wear within certain boundaries. If the requirements of NFPA 70E standard are
applied, compliance with OSHA 29 CFR is guaranteed.

The NEC (NFPA 70) concerns electrical installations and personnel health and safety in
general, whereas NFPA 70E is a document that is specifically for people working on
electrical devices.

These standards require:

• To assess whether there are arc flash hazards (if the electrical equipment was de-
energized, for example, the hazard would not be present);

• To calculate the energy released by the arc, if present;

• To determine the flash protection boundary;

• To provide appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) for the personnel working
within the flash protection boundary;

• To appropriately label the equipment. These warning labels are placed on the
equipment by the plant owner and not by the manufacturer. The labels shall indicate the
minimum protective distance, the energy level which can be released and the required
personal protective equipment (PPE).

The standards give the following guidelines:

• Defining a safety program with clear responsibilities;

• Procedures for arc flash hazard assessment;

• Defining appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) to be provided for the

employees;

• Training program for the employees regarding arc flash hazards;

• Choosing suitable tools for a safe workplace;

51
• labelling equipment; labels shall be placed on the equipment by the plant owner and not
by the manufacturer. The labels shall indicate the minimum protective distance, the
energy level which can be released and required personal protective equipment (PPE).
OSHA Standards require circuits to be de-energized prior to work on them unless de-
energizing introduces additional hazards or is unfeasible. Some examples include de-
energizing emergency lighting, which might increase health and safety hazards, or the
performance of a particular test that requires the equipment be energized.

Therefore if personnel worked on a completely de-energized switchboard and no

operations were performed manually, no arc flash hazard would be present.

Of course, this can rarely be achieved, so a detailed assessment of the incident energy is
required. Based on this analysis, the appropriate personnel protective equipment can be
provided and the limited approach boundaries defined.

Arc flash hazard analysis

To perform the arc flash hazard analysis, the following details of the electrical installation
are required:

• Short-circuit power at the supply point or short-circuit current and voltage values;

• Ratings of any possible power transformer;

• Single line diagram;

• Size and length of cables;

• Protective equipment scheme used.

Then:

1. The short-circuit currents are calculated;

52
2. The risk area and the energy released by the arc (the formulas are given by NFPA and
IEEE) are calculated; these values depend on the trip time of the protection functions and
on the short-circuit values;

3. The risk category is defined to determine the minimum requirements for the personal
protective equipment (PPE).

To summarize:

Arc flash analysis input:

• Short-circuit current value for bolted fault Ik;

• Protective equipment scheme.

Arc flash analysis output:

• The flash protection boundary Dc, the distance from live parts within which a person
could receive a second degree burn, if an electrical arc were to occur;

• The incident energy E

• The risk category of the PPE to be used within the flash protection boundary

NFPA 70E defines six flash hazard risk categories and the requirements of the PPE to be
used according to the arc rating, i.e. to the maximum resistance of a determined material
to the incident energy.

Outside the area limited by the flash protection boundary, a person would sustain no
more than a curable burn (second degree burns or less). The maximum incident energy
causing curable burns has been measured in1.2 cal/cm2 (5 J/ cm2). As a result, within
the flash protection boundary, the level of PPE required reduces the incident energy on
the human body to quantities lower than this value.

After calculation of the flash protection boundary Dc and of the incident energy E within
the area, the appropriate level of personal protective equipment (PPE) shall be used. As
the risk category rises, so does the cost of protective clothing. More importantly, this
clothing may be uncomfortable and awkward, making work more difficult and subject to
mistakes.

53
In summary the arc flash hazard analysis is calculated using the short-circuit level
present in the network and the specific protective and switching devices to be installed.
The use of a circuit breaker with faster opening times reduces the amount of available
energy, which reduces the cost of personal protective equipment. The smaller amount of
released energy, the more economical the PPE.

NFPA 70E and IEEE 1584 Standards provide the formulas for calculation of the flash
protection boundary Dc and the incident energy E, which defines the minimum PPE
requirements. These formulas can be simplified as follows:

where:
• Ia is the current which flows in the electrical arc (which is lower than the bolted fault
current), called arcing current;

• Ibf is the current calculated by short-circuit analysis, called the bolted fault current;

• t is the clearing time and is obtained by the trip curves corresponding to current I a.

NOTE: t is the clearing time corresponding to Ia (arcing current), not the time
corresponding to Ibf (bolted fault) Once the incident energy has been calculated, the risk
category is defined in Table shown above.

The incident energy E depends on the tripping time of the protection device, which is
dependent on its settings.

54
The choice of protection devices with fast tripping times reduces the incident energy and
consequently the PPE category and the relevant costs.

However, this often clashes with the requirement for selective coordination in which the
tripping time is necessarily high, in order to clear the fault.

While the flash hazard analysis is performed primarily to determine the risk areas, it can
also improve the choice of the protective and switching devices. The use of a circuit
breaker with fast trip times reduces the incident energy, as the examples on the following
pages demonstrate.

Minimize arc flash effects

The standards state that before working on electrical equipment, the equipment must be
de-energized. This solution eliminates arc flash hazard but is sometimes difficult to apply.

To minimize the arc flash effects, it is necessary to limit the energy released so that
personnel are not in harm’s way. Measures may be divided into passive measures and
active measures. Passive measures limit the effects of the incident energy, such as
distance and barriers. Active measures limit the incident energy level.

Passive measures

Passive measures can be barriers or procedures:

• Arc-proof switchgear: designed to direct the arc energy to vent out the top of the
switchgear, and limit the energy directed to the front;

• Remote control operation of protection and switching devices; keep personnel at a safe
distance from the equipment;

55
• Closed door racking-in/out of the VCB. Example- ABB Emax circuit breakers allow
closed door operations and have their primary connections isolated by shutters;

• Remote or longer operating mechanisms so that racking-in/out operations can be

carried out at a safe distance;

• Barriers between personnel and equipment during racking-in/out or opening/closing

operations;

• Reduction of the short-circuit current by disconnection of unnecessary power supply

sources: for example, disconnecting parallel transformers and opening bus ties;

• Remote control devices for racking-in/out of the circuit breaker at a safe distance.

Active measures

The passive measures described above might not be adequate with a high available
short-circuit current; limiting the time of the energy release becomes necessary. In order
to reduce the released energy, the following measures can be taken:

1. Circuit breakers with fast tripping times: a fast trip may clash with the selectivity
requirements; typically the nearer to the supply source the circuit breaker is, the
higher the trip times shall be set. Also, the higher the short-circuit power, the
higher the requirement for service continuity, as in the main circuit breaker;
2. Zone selectivity: this co-ordination type allows setting of a fast trip time only for
the circuit breaker immediately upstream of the fault. Thus it is possible to
achieve a high selective coordination while keeping a fast trip;
3. Choosing ‘fast’ setting values for maintenance operations only: the ‘dual setting’
functions of the ABB Emax allows adoption of two different parameter sets.
Normally the settings can comply with the selectivity limits, trip thresholds and
times. During maintenance operations, a command can be sent to the trip unit
so that it switches to the ‘fast’ setting mode and operates more safely.

Skin effect
Skin effect is the tendency of an alternating electric current (AC) to become distributed
within a conductor such that the current density is largest near the surface of the
conductor, and decreases with greater depths in the conductor.

The electric current flows mainly at the "skin" of the conductor, between the outer surface
and a level called the skin depth.

The skin effect causes the effective resistance of the conductor to increase at
higher frequencies where the skin depth is smaller, thus reducing the effective cross-
section of the conductor.

56
The skin effect is due to opposing eddy currents induced by the changing magnetic field
resulting from the alternating current. At 60 Hz in copper, the skin depth is about 8.5 mm.
At high frequencies the skin depth becomes much smaller.

Distribution of current flow in a cylindrical conductor is shown in cross section.

For alternating current, most (63%) of the electric current flows between the surface and
the skin depth, δ, which depends on the frequency of the current and the electrical and
magnetic properties of the conductor.

CORONA

57
 Introduction:

One of the phenomena associated with all energized electrical devices, including high-
voltage transmission lines, is corona.
The localized electric field near a conductor can be sufficiently concentrated to ionize air
close to the conductors.
This can result in a partial discharge of electrical energy called a corona discharge, or
corona.

What is corona?

 Electric transmission lines can generate a small amount of sound energy as a result of
corona.
 Corona is a phenomenon associated with all transmission lines. Under certain
conditions, the localized electric field near energized components and conductors can
produce a tiny electric discharge or corona that causes the surrounding air molecules
to ionize, or undergo a slight localized change of electric charge.
 Utility companies try to reduce the amount of corona because in addition to the low
levels of noise that result, corona is a power loss, and in extreme cases, it can damage
system components over time.
 Corona occurs on all types of transmission lines, but it becomes more noticeable at
higher voltages (345 kV and higher). Under fair weather conditions, the audible noise
from corona is minor and rarely noticed.
 During wet and humid conditions, water drops collect on the conductors and increase
corona activity. Under these conditions, a crackling or humming sound may be heard in
the immediate vicinity of the line.

58
 Corona results in a power loss. Power losses like corona result in operating
inefficiencies and increase the cost of service for all ratepayers; a major concern in
transmission line design is the reduction of losses

Source of Corona

 The amount of corona produced by a transmission line is a function of the voltage of

the line, the diameter of the conductors, the locations of the conductors in relation to
each other, the elevation of the line above sea level, the condition of the conductors
and hardware, and the local weather conditions. Power flow does not affect the amount
of corona produced by a transmission line.
 The electric field gradient is greatest at the surface of the conductor. Large-diameter
conductors have lower electric field gradients at the conductor surface and, hence,
lower corona than smaller conductors, everything else being equal. The conductors
chosen for the Calumet to the line were selected to have large diameters and to utilize
a two conductor bundle. This reduces the potential to create audible noise.
 Irregularities (such as nicks and scrapes on the conductor surface or sharp edges on
suspension hardware) concentrate the electric field at these locations and thus
increase the electric field gradient and the resulting corona at these spots. Similarly,
foreign objects on the conductor surface, such as dust or insects, can cause
irregularities on the surface that are a source for corona.
 Corona also increases at higher elevations where the density of the atmosphere is less
than at sea level. Audible noise will vary with elevation. An increase in 1000 feet of
elevation will result in an increase in audible noise of approximately 1 dB (A). Audible
noise at 5000 feet in elevation will 5 dB (A) higher than the same audible noise at sea
level, all other things being equal. The new Calumet to Comanche 345 kV double
circuit line was modelled with an elevation of 6000 feet.
 Raindrops, snow, fog, hoarfrost, and condensation accumulated on the conductor
surface are also sources of surface irregularities that can increase corona. During fair
weather, the number of these condensed water droplets or ice crystals is usually small
and the corona effect is also small.
 However, during wet weather, the number of these sources increases (for instance due
to rain drops standing on the conductor) and corona effects are therefore greater.
 During wet or foul weather conditions, the conductor will produce the greatest amount
of corona noise. However, during heavy rain the noise generated by the falling rain
drops hitting the ground will typically be greater than the noise generated by corona
and thus will mask the audible noise from the transmission line.
 Corona produced on a transmission line can be reduced by the design of the
transmission line and the selection of hardware and conductors used for the
construction of the line. For instance the use of conductor hangers that have rounded
rather than sharp edges and no protruding bolts with sharp edges will reduce corona.
The conductors themselves can be made with larger diameters and handled so that
they have smooth surfaces without nicks or burrs or scrapes in the conductor strands.
The transmission lines proposed here are designed to reduce corona generation.

Types of corona

There are three types of corona.

59
 A glow discharge occurs at a gradient of approximately 20 kV rms/cm. Glow discharge
is a light glow off sharp points that does not generate objectionable RIV/TVI or cause
any audible noise.
 At about 25 kV rms/cm, negative polarity “brush” discharges occur. So named because
the appearance is similar to the round ends of a bottle brush. The audible noise
associated with brush corona is generally a continuous background type of hissing or
frying noise.
 At a gradient of around 30 kVrms/cm positive polarity plume corona is generated; so
named because of its general resemblance to a plume. When viewed in the dark it has
a concentrated stem that branches and merges into a violet-colored, tree-like halo. The
audible noise associated with plume corona is a rather intense snapping and hissing
sound. Plume corona generates significant RIV/TVI.
 These observations are based on fair weather conditions. Under wet conditions
virtually all energized electrodes will be in corona of one form or another.
 Many are under the impression that the dielectric strength of air is greater under dry
conditions. That is not true. In fact, the dielectric strength of air increases with
increased moisture up to the dew point when moisture begins to condense on the
surface of insulators and other components of the line.

Physical parameters of corona

 Corona is caused by the ionization of the media (air) surrounding the electrode
(conductor)
 Corona onset is a function of voltage
 Corona onset is a function of relative air density
 Corona onset is a function of relative humidity

1. Corona and the Electric Field

 Corona is NOT solely a function of the Electric Field
 Corona is a function of the electric field on the surface of the electrode (conductor)
 Corona is also a function of the radius of curvature of the electrode (conductor)
 Corona is also a function of the rate of decay of the electric field away from the
electrode (conductor)
 For the preceding reasons, selecting the conductor with the smallest electric field at its
surface is not correct.

2. Corona and the Relative Air Density

 Corona has an inverse relationship with air density
 Standard line designs that perform well at sea level, may have significant corona
issues if used on lines that are installed over mountainous areas

3. Corona and the Humidity

 Corona has an inverse relationship with humidity at power frequencies
 Fair weather corona is more prevalent in low humidity environments

4. Corona is Dependent Surface Condition of the Conductors

 Corona is enhanced by irregularities on the conductor surface

60
 Irregularities include: dust, insects, burrs and scratches and water drops present on
new conductors
 Corona will generally be greater on new conductors and will decrease to a steady-state
value over a period of approximately one year in-service
 Corona is significantly increased in foul weather.

What is the fuss?

 Corona can be avoided

1. By minimizing the voltage stress and electric field gradient.: This is accomplished
by using utilizing good high voltage design practices, i.e., maximizing the distance
between conductors that have large voltage differentials, using conductors with large
radii, and avoiding parts that have sharp points or sharp edges.
2. Surface Treatments: Corona inception voltage can sometimes be increased by using
a surface treatment, such as a semiconductor layer, high voltage putty or corona dope.
3. Homogenous Insulators: Use a good, homogeneous insulator. Void free solids, such
as properly prepared silicone and epoxy potting materials work well.
4. If you are limited to using air as your insulator, then you are left with geometry as
the critical parameter. Finally, ensure that steps are taken to reduce or eliminate
unwanted voltage transients, which can cause corona to start.
5. Using Bundled Conductors: on our 345 kV lines, we have installed multiple
conductors per phase. This is a common way of increasing the effective diameter of
the conductor, which in turn results in less resistance, which in turn reduces losses.
6. Elimination of sharp points: electric charges tend to form on sharp points; therefore
when practicable we strive to eliminate sharp points on transmission line components.
7. Using Corona rings: On certain new 345 kV structures, we are now installing corona
rings. These rings have smooth round surfaces which are designed to distribute charge
across a wider area, thereby reducing the electric field and the resulting corona
discharges.
8. Whether: Corona phenomena much worse in foul weather, high altitude
9. New Conductor: New conductors can lead to poor corona performance for a while.
10. By increasing the spacing between the conductors: Corona Discharge Effect can
be reduced by increasing the clearance spacing between the phases of the
transmission lines. However increase in the phase’s results in heavier metal supports.
Cost and Space requirement increases.
11. By increasing the diameter of the conductor: Diameter of the conductor can be
increased to reduce the corona discharge effect. By using hollow conductors corona
discharge effect can be improved.

Corona detection

 Light Ultraviolet radiation: Corona can be visible in the form of light, typically a purple
glow, as corona generally consists of micro arcs. Darkening the environment can help
to visualize the corona.
 Sound (hissing, or cracking as caused by explosive gas expansions): You can often
hear corona hissing or cracking Sound.

61
 In addition, you can sometimes smell the presence of ozone that was produced by the
corona.
 Salts, sometimes seen as white powder deposits on Conductor.
 Mechanical erosion of surfaces by ion bombardment
 Heat (although generally very little, and primarily in the insulator)
 Carbon deposits, thereby creating a path for severe arcing
 The corona discharges in insulation systems result in voltage transients. These pulses
are superimposed on the applied voltage and may be detected, which is precisely what
corona detection equipment looks for. In its most basic form, the following diagram is a
corona (or partial discharge) measuring system:
 It is important that the voltage source and the coupling capacitor exhibit low noise so
as not to obscure the corona. In its simplest form the pulse detection network is a
resistor monitored by an oscilloscope. Don’t dismiss this simple technique as crude, as
we once used this method to observe the presence of corona in an improperly
terminated high voltage connector, even after a dedicated corona tester failed to find
any. Commercially available corona detectors include electronic types (as above) as
well as ultrasonic types.

Corona calculation

 The following corona calculations are from Dielectric Phenomena in High Voltage
Engineering

1. For Concentric Cylinders in Air:

 Corona will not form when RO / RI < 2.718. (Arcing will occur instead when the voltage
is too high.)

2. For Parallel Wires in Air:

 Corona will not form when X / r < 5.85. (Arcing will occur instead when the voltage is
too high.)

3. For Equal Spheres in Air:

 Corona will not form when X / R < 2.04. (Arcing will occur instead when the voltage is
too high.)
 Arcing difficult to avoid when X / R < 8

Where
 RO = Radius of outer concentric sphere
 RI = Radius of inner concentric sphere
 R = Sphere radius
 r = wire radius
 X = Distance between wires or between spheres

Effects of corona

(1) Audible Noise

 During corona activity, transmission lines (primarily those rated at 345 kV and above)
can generate a small amount of sound energy. This audible noise can increase during
foul weather conditions. Water drops may collect on the surface of the conductors and
increase corona activity so that a crackling or humming sound may be heard near a

62
 transmission line. Transmission line audible noise is measured in decibels using a
special weighting scale, the “A” scale that responds to different sound characteristics
similar to the response of the human ear. Audible noise levels on typical 230 kV lines
are very low and are usually not noticeable. For example, the calculated rainy weather
audible noise for a 230 kV transmission line at the right-of-way edge is about 25 dBA,
which is less than ambient levels in a library and much less than background noise for
wind and rain.

(2)Radios and Television Interference:

 Overhead transmission lines do not, as a general rule, interfere with radio or TV
reception.
 There are two potential sources for interference: corona and gap discharges. As
described above, corona discharges can sometimes generate unwanted electrical
signals.
 Corona-generated electrical noise decreases with distance from a transmission line
and also decreases with higher frequencies (when it is a problem, it is usually for AM
radio and not the higher frequencies associated with TV signals).
 Corona interference to radio and television reception is usually not a design problem
for transmission lines rated at 230 kV and lower. Calculated radio and TV interference
levels in fair weather and in rain are extremely low at the edge of the right-of-way for a
230 kV transmission line.
 Gap discharges are different from corona. Gap discharges can develop on power lines
at any voltage. They can take place at tiny electrical separations (gaps) that can
develop between mechanically connected metal parts. A small electric spark
discharges across the gap and can create unwanted electrical noise. The severity of
gap discharge interference depends on the strength and quality of the transmitted radio
or TV signal, the quality of the radio or TV set and antenna system, and the distance
between the receiver and power line. (The large majority of interference complaints are
found to be attributable to sources other than power lines: poor signal quality, poor
antenna, door bells, and appliances such as heating pads, sewing machines, freezers,
ignition systems, aquarium thermostats, fluorescent lights, etc.).
 Gap discharges can occur on broken or poorly fitting line hardware, such as insulators,
clamps, or brackets. In addition, tiny electrical arcs can develop on the surface of dirty
or contaminated insulators, but this interference source is less significant than gap
discharge.
 Hardware is designed to be problem-free, but corrosion, wind motion, gunshot
damage, and insufficient maintenance contribute to gap formation. Generally,
interference due to gap discharges is less frequent for high-voltage transmission lines
than lower-voltage lines. The reasons that transmission lines have fewer problems
include: predominate use of steel structures, fewer structures, greater mechanical load
on hardware, and different design and maintenance standards.
 Gap discharge interference can be avoided or minimized by proper design of the
transmission line hardware parts, use of electrical bonding where necessary, and by
careful tightening of fastenings during construction. Individual sources of gap discharge
noise can be readily located and corrected. Arcing on contaminated insulators can be
prevented by increasing the insulation in high contamination areas and with periodic
washing of insulator strings.

63
 (3) Gaseous Effluents
 Corona activity in the air can produce very tiny amounts of gaseous effluents: ozone
and NOX. Ozone is a naturally occurring part of the air, with typical rural ambient levels
ranging from about 10 to 30 parts per billion (ppb) at night and peaks at approximately
100 ppb. In urban areas, concentrations exceeding 100 ppb are common. After a
thunderstorm, the air may contain 50 to 150 ppb of ozone, and levels of several
hundred ppb have been recorded in large cities and in commercial airliners.
 Ozone is also given off by welding equipment, copy machines, air fresheners, and
many household appliances. The National Ambient Air Quality Standard for Oxidants
(ozone is usually 90 to 95 percent of the oxidants in the air) is 120 ppb, not to be
exceeded as a peak concentration on more than one day a year.
 In general, the most sensitive ozone measurement instrumentation can measure
about 1 ppb. Typical calculated maximum concentrations of ozone at ground level for
230 kV transmission lines during heavy rain are far below levels that the most sensitive
instruments can measure and thousands of times less than ambient levels. Therefore,
the proposed transmission lines would not create any significant adverse effects in the
ambient air quality of the project area.

(4) Induced Currents

 Small electric currents can be induced by electric fields in metallic objects close to
transmission lines. Metallic roofs, vehicles, vineyard trellises, and fences are examples
of objects that can develop a small electric charge in proximity to high voltage
transmission lines. Object characteristics, degree of grounding, and electric field
strength affect the amount of induced charge.
 An electric current can flow when an object has an induced charge and a path to
ground is presented. The amount of current flow is determined by the impedance of the
object to ground and the voltage induced between the object and ground.
 The amount of induced current that can flow is important to evaluate because of the
potential for nuisance shocks to people and the possibility of other effects such as fuel
ignition.
 The amount of induced current can be used to evaluate the potential for harmful or
other effects. As an example, when an average woman or man grips an energized
conductor, the threshold for perception of an electric current is 0.73 milli ampere (mA)
and 1.1 mA, respectively. If the current is gradually increased beyond a person’s
perception threshold, it becomes bothersome and possibly startling.
 However, before the current flows in a shock situation, contact must be made, and in
the process of establishing contact a small arc occurs. This causes a withdrawal
reaction that, in some cases, may be a hazard if the involuntary nature of the reaction
causes a fall or other accident.
 The proposed 230 kV transmission lines will have the highest electric field within the
right-of-way, approximately 0.2 to 1.5 kV per meter (kV/m), and approximately 0.1 to
0.9 kV/m at the edge of the right-of-way. These fields are less than many other 230 kV
transmission lines due to the use of cross-phasing on the double-circuit lines and
higher clearance above ground. Induced currents have been calculated for common
objects for a set of worst-case theoretical assumptions: the object is perfectly insulated
from ground, located in the highest field, and touched by a perfectly grounded person.
Even though the maximum electric field only occurs on a small portion of the right-of-
way, and perfect insulation and grounding states are not always common, the

64
 calculated induced current values are very low therefore, in most situations, even in the
highest field location, induced currents are below the threshold of perception and are
far below hazardous levels.
 Agricultural operations can occur on or near a transmission line right-of-way. Irrigation
systems often incorporate long runs of metallic pipes that can be subject to magnetic
field induction when located parallel and close to transmission lines. Because the
irrigation pipes contact moist soil, electric field induction is generally negligible, but
annoying currents could still be experienced from magnetic field coupling to the pipe.
Pipe runs laid at right angles to the transmission line will minimize magnetically
induced currents, although such a layout may not always be feasible. If there are
induction problems, they can be mitigated by grounding and/or insulating the pipe runs.
Operation of irrigation systems beneath transmission lines presents another safety
concern. If the system uses a high-pressure nozzle to project a stream of water, the
water may make contact with the energized transmission line conductor. Generally, the
water stream consists of solid and broken portions. If the solid stream contacts an
energized conductor, an electric current could flow down the water stream to someone
contacting the high-pressure nozzle. Transmission line contact by the broken-up part of
the water stream is unlikely to present any hazard.

(5) Fuel Ignition

 If a vehicle were to be refueled under a high-voltage transmission line, a possible
safety concern could be the potential for accidental fuel ignition. The source of fuel
ignition could be a spark discharge into fuel vapors collected in the filling tube near the
top of the gas tank.
 The spark discharge would be due to current induced in a vehicle (insulated from
ground) by the electric field of the transmission line and discharged to ground through
a metallic refueling container held by a well-grounded person. Theoretical calculations
show that if a number of unlikely conditions exist simultaneously, a spark could release
enough energy to ignite gasoline vapors. This could not occur if a vehicle were simply
driven or parked under a transmission line. Rather, several specific conditions would
need to be satisfied: A large gasoline-powered vehicle would have to be parked in an
electric field of about 5 kV/m or greater. A person would have to be refueling the
vehicle while standing on damp earth and while the vehicle is on dry asphalt or gravel.
The fuel vapors and air would have to mix in an optimum proportion. Finally, the
pouring spout must be metallic. The chances of having all the conditions necessary for
fuel ignition present at the same time are extremely small.
 Very large vehicles (necessary to collect larger amounts of electric charge) are often
diesel-powered, and diesel fuel is less volatile and more difficult to ignite. The
proposed 230 kV transmission line electric field levels are too low (about 0.2-1.5 kV/m
on the right-of-way) for the minimum energy necessary for fuel ignition under any
practical circumstances.

(6) Cardiac Pacemakers

 One area of concern related to the electric and magnetic fields of transmission lines
has been the possibility of interference with cardiac pacemakers. There are two
general types of pacemakers: asynchronous and synchronous. The asynchronous
pacemaker pulses at a predetermined rate. It is practically immune to interference
because it has no sensing circuitry and is not exceptionally complex. The synchronous

65
 pacemaker, on the other hand, pulses only when its sensing circuitry determines that
pacing is necessary.
 Interference resulting from the transmission line electric or magnetic field can cause a
spurious signal in the pacemaker’s sensing circuitry. However, when these
pacemakers detect a spurious signal, such as a 60 hertz (Hz) signal, they are
programmed to revert to an asynchronous or fixed pacing mode of operation and
return to synchronous operation within a specified time after the signal is no longer
detected. The potential for pacer interference depends on the manufacturer, model,
and implantation method, among other factors.
 Studies have determined thresholds for interference of the most sensitive units to be
about 2,000 to 12,000 milli gauss (mG) for magnetic fields and about 1.5 to 2.0 kV/m
for electric fields. The electric and magnetic fields at the right-of-way edge are below
these values, and on the right-of-way, only the lower bound electric field value of 1.5
kV/m is reached. Therefore, the potential impact would not be significant.

(7) Computer Interference

 Personal computer monitors can be susceptible to 60 Hz magnetic field interference.
Magnetic field interference results in disturbances to the image displayed on the
monitor, often described as screen distortion, “jitter,” or other visual defects. In most
cases it is annoying, and at its worst, it can prevent use of the monitor. Magnetic fields
occur in the normal operation of the electric power system.
 This type of interference is a recognized problem by the video monitor industry. As a
result, there are manufacturers who specialize in monitor interference solutions and
shielding equipment. Possible solutions to this problem include: relocation of the
monitor, use of magnetic shield enclosures, software programs, and replacement of
cathode ray tube monitors with liquid crystal displays that are not susceptible to 60 Hz
magnetic field interference. Because these solutions are widely available to computer
users, potential impacts would be less than significant

Harmonics
Harmonics are a distortion of the normal electrical current waveform, generally
transmitted by nonlinear loads. Switch-mode power supplies (SMPS), variable speed
motors and drives, photocopiers, personal computers, laser printers, fax machines,
battery chargers and UPSs are examples of nonlinear loads.
Single-phase non-linear loads are prevalent in modern office buildings, while three-
phase, non-linear loads are widespread in factories and industrial plants.

Most power systems can accommodate a certain level of harmonic currents but will
experience problems when harmonics become a significant component of the overall
load. As these higher frequency harmonic currents flow through the power system, they
can cause communication errors, overheating and hardware damage, such as:

• Overheating of electrical distribution equipment, cables, transformers, standby

generators, etc.

• High voltages and circulating currents caused by harmonic resonance

66
• Equipment malfunctions due to excessive voltage distortion

• Increased internal energy losses in connected equipment, causing component failure

and shortened life span

• False tripping of branch circuit breakers

• Metering errors

• Fires in wiring and distribution systems

• Generator failures

• Crest factors and related problems

• Lower system power factor, resulting in penalties on monthly utility bills

A technical view of harmonics

Harmonics are currents or voltages with frequencies that are integer multiples of the
fundamental power frequency. If the fundamental power frequency is 60 Hz, then the 2nd
harmonic is 120 Hz, the 3rd is 180 Hz, etc. (see Figure 1).
When harmonic frequencies are prevalent, electrical power panels and transformers
become mechanically resonant to the magnetic fields generated by higher frequency
harmonics. When this happens, the power panel or transformer vibrates and emits a
buzzing sound for the different harmonic frequencies. Harmonic frequencies from the 3rd
to the 25th are the most common range of frequencies measured in electrical distribution
systems.

All periodic waves can be generated with sine waves of various frequencies. The Fourier
theorem breaks down a periodic wave into its component frequencies.

67
The total harmonic distortion (THD) of a signal is a measurement of the harmonic
distortion present and is defined as the ratio of the sum of the powers of all harmonic
components to the power of the fundamental. It provides an indication of the degree to
which a voltage or current signal is distorted (see Figure 3).

Harmonic generation
Static power converters are the equipments that utilize power semiconductor devices for
power conversion from AC to DC, DC to DC, DC to AC and AC to AC; and constitute the
largest nonlinear loads connected to the electric power systems. These converters are
used for various purposes in the industry, such as adjustable speed (or variable
frequency) drives, uninterruptable power supplies, switch-mode power supplies etc.

68
These static power converters used in a variety of applications draw non-linear (i.e. non-
sinusoidal) currents and distort the supply voltage waveform at the point of common
coupling (PCC). This phenomenon is explained here using Figure 3.1 and 3.2.

The PCC is a point between the system owner or operator and a user. The PCC is
usually taken as the point in the power system closest to the user where the system
owner or operator could offer service to another user. Frequently for service to industrial
users (i.e., manufacturing plants) via a dedicated service transformer, the PCC is at the
HV side of the transformer. For commercial users (i.e. office parks, shopping malls, etc.)
supplied through a common service transformer, the PCC is commonly at the LV side of
the service transformer. In general, The PCC is a point on a public power supply system,
electrically nearest to a particular load, at which other loads are, or could be connected
and is located on the upstream of the considered installation.

Figure 3.1(a) shows the single-phase full wave diode bridge rectifier supplying a load
containing an inductance (Ldc) and a resistance (Rdc). The impedance of the AC power
supply is represented by the inductance (Lac).

Figure 3.1(b) depicts the DC load current (idc) without ripple (i.e. assuming highly
inductive load) and corresponding AC input current (iac) of this rectifier. A trapezoid shape
of the AC current is due to the presence of finite AC line inductance and shows overlap
(or commutation) period during which the two diodes are conducting thereby resulting in
a transient short circuit through them. Ideally, if this AC line inductance is zero (i.e. an
infinite source feeding the rectifier), the transition of the AC current is instantaneous and
the current wave shape is rectangular.

69
Figure 3.2(a) shows the single line representation of the power distribution system with
the point of common coupling (PCC). The source/system voltage (vs) is assumed to be
purely sinusoidal and the system/source impedance is represented by an inductance Ls.

The voltage at the PCC, vPCC can be obtained by subtracting the voltage drop (vL) across
the system impedance due to the flow of non-linear current iac as shown in Figure 3.2(b).

v
Figure 3.2(c) shows the distortion in the waveform of PCC due to the flow of non-linear
current through the finite system impedance. The notches in the voltage wave are

70
caused by the commutating action of the rectifier. As explained above, ideally, when the
rectifier is fed from an infinite source, the current wave shape is rectangular and in this
case voltage notching does not occur.

These non-sinusoidal quantities (voltages and currents) can be divided into sinusoidal
components, the fundamental frequency (i.e. 50 or 60 Hz) component and the harmonic
components. Figure 3.3 shows the harmonic spectrum up to the 50th order of the
“Trapezoid” shape AC current of Figure 3.2(a) as a percentage of fundamental current.
The fundamental component, I1 (i.e. 100% component) is intentionally omitted in Figure
3.3, for the clarity.

71
The higher the harmonic components of a quantity, the larger the distortions of this
quantity; in other words, the larger the deviations of this quantity from the sinusoidal
fundamental frequency.
Moreover, the harmonic components of the voltages and currents are integer multiples of
the fundamental frequency.
For example on 60Hz supply,
the 3rd harmonic is 3 x 60Hz (=180Hz);
the 5th harmonic is 5 x 60Hz (=300Hz),
and so forth.
When all harmonic currents are added to the fundamental a waveform known as complex
wave is formed. An example of complex wave consisting of the fundamental (1st
harmonic), 3rd harmonic and 5th harmonic is illustrated in Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4 is an example of a symmetrical complex waveform in which the positive

portion of the wave is identical to the negative portion and symmetrical waveforms only
contain “odd” ordered harmonics (i.e. 3rd, 5th, 7th etc). Whereas the asymmetrical
waveforms are the waves in which the positive and negative portions of the wave are
different (or asymmetrical). The asymmetrical waveforms contain “even” (i.e. 2nd, 4th, 6th
etc) and “odd” ordered harmonics and also sometimes DC components. An example of
an asymmetrical waveform would be that produced by a half wave rectifier as illustrated
in Figure 3.5.

72
 Effects of harmonics
As shown in Figure 3.2(a),
When a non-linear load draws distorted (non-sinusoidal) current from the supply, then a
distorted current passes through all of the impedance between the load and power
source. The associated harmonic currents passing through the system impedance cause
voltage drops for each harmonic frequency based on Ohm’s Law shown in Eq. 4.1. The
vector sum of all the individual voltage drops results in total voltage distortion, the
magnitude of which depends on the system impedance, available system fault current
levels and the levels of harmonic currents at each harmonic frequency.

High fault current (stiff system)

-Distribution system impedance and distortion is low
-Harmonic current draw is high

Low fault current (soft system)

-Distribution system impedance and distortion is high
-Harmonic current draw is low

Figure 4.1 shows in detail the effect individual harmonic currents have on the
impedances within the power system and the associated voltages drops for each. Note
that the “total harmonic voltage distortion”, %THDV (based on the vector sum of all
individual harmonics), is reduced at source as more impedance is introduced between
the nonlinear load and source.

73
At Load:

At transformer:

At Source:

where:
Zh =Impedance at frequency of harmonic (e.g., for 5th harmonic, 5x60=300 Hz)
Vh =Harmonic voltage at hth harmonic (e.g. 5th )
Ih = Harmonic current at hth harmonic (e.g. 5th)

Generators

In comparison with utility power supplies, the effects of harmonic voltages and harmonic
currents are significantly more pronounced on generators (esp. stand-alone generators
used a back-up or those on the ships or used in marine applications) due to their source
impedance being typically three to four times that of utility transformers. The major
impact of voltage and current harmonics is to increase the machine heating due to
increased iron losses, and copper losses, since both are frequency dependent and
increase with increased harmonics. To reduce this effect of harmonic heating, the
generators supplying nonlinear loads are required to be derated. In addition, the
presence of harmonic sequence components with nonlinear loading causes localized
heating and torque pulsations with torsional vibrations.

Transformers

The effect of harmonic currents at harmonic frequencies causes increase in core losses
due to increased iron losses (i.e., eddy currents and hysteresis) in transformers.
In addition, increased copper losses and stray flux losses result in additional heating, and
winding insulation stresses, especially if high levels of dv/dt (i.e., rate of rise of voltage)
are present. Temperature cycling and possible resonance between transformer winding
inductance and supply capacitance can also cause additional losses. The small
laminated core vibrations are increased due to the presence of harmonic frequencies,
which can appear as an additional audible noise. The increased rms current due to

74
harmonics will increase the I2 R (copper) losses. The distribution transformers used in
four-wire (i.e., three-phase and neutral) distribution systems have typically a delta-wye
configuration. Due to delta connected primary, the Triplen (i.e. 3rd, 9th, 15th…) harmonic
currents cannot propagate downstream but circulate in the primary delta winding of the
transformer causing localized overheating. With linear loading, the three-phase currents
will cancel out in the neutral conductor. However, when nonlinear loads are being
supplied, the triplen harmonics in the phase currents do not cancel out, but instead add
cumulatively in the neutral conductor at a frequency of predominately 180 Hz (3rd
harmonic), overheating the transformers and occasionally causing overheating and
burning of neutral conductors. Typically, the uses of appropriate “K factor” rated units are
recommended for non-linear loads.

Induction Motors

Harmonics distortion raises the losses in AC induction motors in a similar way as in

transformers and cause increased heating, due to additional copper losses and iron
losses (eddy current and hysteresis losses) in the stator winding, rotor circuit and rotor
laminations. These losses are further compounded by skin effect, especially at
frequencies above 300 Hz. Leakage magnetic fields caused by harmonic currents in the
stator and rotor end windings produce additional stray frequency eddy current dependent
losses. Substantial iron losses can also be produced in induction motors with skewed
rotors due to high-frequency-induced currents and rapid flux changes (i.e., due to
hysteresis) in the stator and rotor. Excessive heating can degrade the bearing lubrication
and result in bearing collapse. Harmonic currents also can result in bearing currents,
which can be however prevented by the use of an insulated bearing, a very common
practice used in AC variable frequency drive-fed AC motors. Overheating imposes
significant limits on the effective life of an induction motor. For every 10°C rise in
temperature above rated temperature, the life of motor insulation may be reduced by as
much as 50%. Squirrel cage rotors can normally withstand higher temperature levels
compared to wound rotors. The motor windings, especially if insulation is class B or
below, are also susceptible to damage due high levels of dv/dt (i.e., rate of rise of
voltage) such as those attributed to line notching and associated ringing due to the flow
of harmonic currents.
Harmonic sequence components also adversely affect induction motors. Positive
sequence components (i.e., 7th, 13th, 19th…) will assist torque production, whereas the
negative sequence components (5th, 11th, 17th…) will act against the direction of
rotation resulting in torque pulsations. Zero sequence components (i.e., triplen
harmonics) are stationary and do not rotate, therefore, any harmonic energy associated
with them is dissipated as heat. The magnitude of torque pulsations generated due to
these harmonic sequence components can be significant and cause shaft torsional
vibration problems.

Cables

Cable losses, dissipated as heat, are substantially increased when carrying harmonic
currents due to elevated I2 R losses, the cable resistance, R, determined by its DC value
plus skin and proximity effect. The resistance of a conductor is dependent on the
frequency of the current being carried. Skin effect is a phenomenon whereby current
tends to flow near the surface of a conductor where the impedance is least. An
analogous phenomenon, proximity effect, is due to the mutual inductance of conductors

75
arranged closely parallel to one another. Both of these effects are dependent upon
conductor size, frequency, resistivity and the permeability of the conductor material. At
fundamental frequencies, the skin effect and proximity effects are usually negligible, at
least for smaller conductors. The associated losses due to changes in resistance,
however, can increase significantly with frequency, adding to the overall I2 R losses.

Circuit Breakers and Fuses

The vast majority of low voltage thermal-magnetic type circuit breakers utilize bi-metallic
trip mechanisms which respond to the heating effect of the rms current. In the presence
of nonlinear loads, the rms value of current will be higher than for linear loads of same
power. Therefore, unless the current trip level is adjusted accordingly, the breaker may
trip prematurely while carrying nonlinear current. Circuit breakers are designed to
interrupt the current at a zero crossover. On highly distorted supplies which may contain
line notching and/or ringing, spurious “zero crossovers” may cause premature
interruption of circuit breakers before they can operate correctly in the event of an
overload or fault. However, in the case of a short circuit current, the magnitude of the
harmonic current will be very minor in comparison to the fault current. Fuse ruptures
under over current or short-circuit conditions is based on the heating effect of the rms
current according to the respective I2 t characteristic. The higher the rms current, the
faster the fuse will operate. On nonlinear loads, the rms current will be higher than for
similarly-rated linear loads, therefore fuse derating may be necessary to prevent
premature opening. In addition, fuses at harmonic frequencies, suffer from skin effect and
more importantly, proximity effect, resulting in non-uniform current distribution across the
fuse elements, placing additional thermal stress on the device.

Lighting

One noticeable effect on lighting is the phenomenon of “flicker” (i.e., repeated fluctuations
in light intensity). Lighting is highly sensitive to rms voltage changes; even a slight
deviation (of the order of 0.25%) is perceptible to the human eye in some types of lamps.
Superimposed inter harmonic voltages in the supply voltage are a significant cause of
light flicker in both incandescent and fluorescent lamps.

Other negative effects of harmonics

a) Power factor correction capacitors are generally installed in industrial plants and
commercial buildings. Fluorescent lighting used in these facilities also normally has
capacitors fitted internally to improve the individual light fitting’s own power factor. The
harmonic currents can interact with these capacitances and system inductances, and
occasionally excite parallel resonance which can over heat, disrupt and/or damage the
plant and equipment.

b) Power cables carrying harmonic loads act to introduce EMI (electromagnetic

interference) in adjacent signal or control cables via conducted and radiated emissions.
This “EMI noise” has a detrimental effect on telephones, televisions, radios, computers,
control systems and other types of equipment. Correct procedures with regard to
grounding and segregation within enclosures and in external wiring systems must be
adopted to minimize EMI.

76
c) Any telemetry, protection or other equipment which relies on conventional
measurement techniques or the heating effect of current will not operate correctly in the
presence of nonlinear loads. The consequences of under measure can be significant;
overloaded cables may go undetected with the risk of catching fire. Busbars and cables
may prematurely age. Fuses and circuit breakers will not offer the expected level of
protection. It is therefore important that only instruments based on true rms techniques
be used on power systems supplying nonlinear loads.

d) At the installations where power conductors carrying nonlinear loads and internal
telephone signal cable are run in parallel, it is likely that voltages will be induced in the
telephone cables. The frequency range, 540 Hz to 1200 Hz (9th harmonic to 20th
harmonic at 60 Hz fundamental) can be troublesome.

e) There is also the possibility of both conducted and radiated interference above normal
harmonic frequencies with telephone systems and other equipment due to variable speed
drives and other nonlinear loads, especially at high carrier frequencies. EMI filters at the
inputs may have to be installed on drives and other equipment to minimize the possibility
of inference.
f) Conventional meters are normally designed to read sinusoidal-based quantities.
Nonlinear voltages and currents impressed on these types of meters introduce errors into
the measurement circuits which result in false readings.

Control of harmonics
IEEE 519-1992 Guidelines

IEEE 519 was initially introduced in 1981 as an “IEEE Guide for Harmonic Control and
Reactive Compensation of Static Power Converters”. It originally established levels of
voltage distortion acceptable to the distribution system for individual non-linear loads.
With the rising increase usage of industrial non-linear loads, such as variable frequency
drives, it became necessary to revise the standard.

The IEEE working groups of the Power Engineering Society and the Industrial
Applications Society prepared recommended guidelines for power quality that the utility
must supply and the industrial user can inject back onto the power distribution system.
The revised standard was issued on April 12, 1993 and titled.

This revised 1992 version of IEEE 519 established recommended guidelines for
harmonic voltages on the utility distribution system as well as harmonic currents within
the industrial distribution system. According to the standard, the industrial system is
responsible for controlling the harmonic currents created in the industrial workplace.
Since harmonic currents reflected through distribution system impedances generate
harmonic voltages on the utility distribution systems, the standard proposes guidelines
based on industrial distribution system design. Table 10.3 from IEEE 519-1992 defines
levels of harmonic currents that an industrial user can inject onto the utility distribution
system (120V through 69kV).

77
Table 11.1 of IEEE 519-1992 defines the voltage distortion limits that can be reflected
back onto the utility distribution system. Usually if the industrial user controls the overall
combined current distortion according to Table 10.3, this will help meet the limitations set
forth in the guidelines.

Future revisions to IEEE 519-1992

In 2004, an IEEE working group named “519 Revision Task Force (PES/T&D Harmonics
WG)” was created to revise the 1992 version of IEEE 519 (Recommended Practices and
Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electric Power Systems) and develop an
application guide IEEE 519.1 (Guide for Applying Harmonic Limits on Power Systems).

A revision to IEEE 519 includes the changes based on the significant experience gained
in the last 20 years with regard to power system harmonics, their effects on power
equipment, and how they should be limited. In addition, this document contains certain
material dedicated to the harmonization of IEEE and other international standards where
possible.

Whereas, the application guide IEEE 519.1 contains significant rationale for and
numerous example scenarios of the limits recommended in IEEE 519 and provides
procedures for controlling harmonics on the power system along with recommended
limits for customer harmonic injection and overall power system harmonic levels.

Both these documents (i.e. revised IEEE 519 & the application guide IEEE 519.1) were
completed and sent out for review and ballot in the first half of 2012; and when finally
published, both of them will be considered complimentary in nature.

78
 Evaluation of System Harmonics
In order to prevent or correct harmonic problems that could occur within an industrial
facility, an evaluation of system harmonics should be performed if:

-A plant is expanded and significant non-linear loads are added

-A power factor correction capacitor banks or a line harmonic filters are added at the
service entrance or in the vicinity.

-A generator is added in the plant as an alternate stand-by power source.

-The utility company imposes more restrictive harmonic injection limits to the plant.

Often, the vendor or supplier of a non-linear load equipment, such as variable frequency
drives, evaluates the effects that the equipment may have on the distribution system.
This usually involves details related to the distribution system design and impedances,
similar to performing a short circuit study evaluation.

Methods for Harmonic Mitigation

Majority of large power (typically three-phase) electrical nonlinear equipments often
requires mitigation equipment in order to attenuate the harmonic currents and associated
voltage distortion to within necessary limits. Depending on the type of solution desired,
the mitigation may be supplied as an integral part of nonlinear equipment (e.g., an AC
line reactor or a line harmonic filter for AC PWM drive) or as a discrete item of mitigation
equipment (e.g., an active or passive filter connected to a switchboard). There are many
ways to reduce harmonics, ranging from variable frequency drive designs to the addition
of auxiliary equipment. Few of the most prevailing methods used today to reduce
harmonics are explained below.

a) Delta-Delta and Delta-Wye Transformers

This configuration uses two separate utility feed transformers with equal
non-linear loads. This shifts the phase relationship to various six-pulse
converters through cancellation techniques. Similar technique is also used
in 12-pulse front end of the drive, which is explained in the subsequent
section of this document

b) Isolation Transformers
An isolation transformer provides a good solution in many cases to mitigate
harmonics generated by nonlinear loads. The advantage is the potential to
“voltage match” by stepping up or stepping down the system voltage, and
by providing a neutral ground reference for nuisance ground faults. This is
the best solution when utilizing AC or DC drives that use SCRs as bridge
rectifiers.

c) Use of Reactors
Use of reactor is a simple and cost effective method to reduce the
harmonics produced by nonlinear loads and is a better solution for

79
 harmonic reduction than an isolation transformer. Reactors or inductors are
usually applied to individual loads such as variable speed drives and
available in standard impedance ranges such as 2%, 3%, 5% and 7.5%.
When the current through a reactor changes, a voltage is induced across its
terminals in the opposite direction of the applied voltage which
consequently opposes the rate of change of current. This induced voltage
across the reactor terminals is represented by equation below.

where:
e = Induced voltage across the reactor terminals
L = Inductance of the reactor, in Henrys
di/dt = Rate of change of current through reactor in Ampere/Second

This characteristic of a reactor is useful in limiting the harmonic currents

produced by electrical variable speed drives and other nonlinear loads. In
addition, the AC line reactor reduces the total harmonic voltage distortion
(THDv) on its line side as compared to that at the terminals of the drive or
other nonlinear load.

In electrical variable speed drives, the reactors are frequently used in

addition to the other harmonic mitigation methods. On AC drives, reactor
can be used either on the AC line side (called AC line reactors) or in the DC
link circuit (called DC link or DC bus reactor) or both, depending on the type
of the drive design and/or necessary performance of the supply.

AC line reactor is used more commonly in the drive than the DC bus
reactor, and in addition to reducing harmonic currents, it also provides
surge suppression for the drive input rectifier. The disadvantage of use of
reactor is a voltage drop at the terminals of the drive, approximately in
proportion to the percentage reactance at the terminals of the drive.

In large drives, both AC line and DC bus reactors may be used especially
when the short circuit capacity of a dedicated supply is relatively low
compared to the drive kVA or if the supply susceptible to disturbances.
Typical values of individual frequency and total harmonic distortion of the
current waveform of a 6-pulse front end without & with integral line reactor
are given in Table 5.1.

d) Passive Harmonic Filters (or Line Harmonic Filters)

Passive or Line harmonic filters (LHF) are also known as harmonic trap
filters and are used to eliminate or control more dominant lower order
harmonics specifically 5th, 7th, 11th and 13th. It can be either used as a
standalone part integral to a large nonlinear load (such as a 6-pulse drive)
or can be used for a multiple small single phase nonlinear loads by
connecting it to a switch board. LHF is comprised of a passive L-C circuit
(and also frequently resistor R for damping) which is tuned to a specific
harmonic frequency which needs to be mitigated (for example, 5th, 7th,
11th, 13th etc). Their operation relies on the “resonance phenomenon”
which occurs due to variations in frequency in inductors and capacitors.

80
 The resonant frequency for a series resonant circuit, and (in theory) for a
parallel resonant circuit, can be given as:

where:
fr = Resonant frequency, Hz
L = Filter inductance, Henrys,
C = Filter capacitance, Farads

The passive filters are usually connected in parallel with nonlinear load(s)
as shown in Figure 5.1, and are “tuned” to offer very low impedance to the
harmonic frequency to be mitigated. In practical application, above the 13th
harmonic, their performance is poor, and therefore, they are rarely applied
on higher-order harmonics.

Passive filters are susceptible to changes in source and load impedances.

They attract harmonics from other sources (i.e. from downstream of the
PCC), and therefore, this must be taken into account in their design.
Harmonic and power system studies are usually undertaken to calculate
their effectiveness and to explore possibility of resonance in a power
system due to their proposed use. Typical values of individual frequency
and total harmonic distortion of the current waveform of a 6-pulse front end
with integral LHF are given in Table 5.1.

e) 12-pulse converter front end

In this configuration, the front end of the bridge rectifier circuit uses twelve
diodes instead of six. The advantages are the reduction of the 5th and 7th
harmonics to a higher order where the 11th and 13th become the
predominant harmonics. This will minimize the magnitude of these
harmonics, but will not eliminate them.

81
 The disadvantages are higher cost and special construction, as it requires
either a Delta-Delta and Delta-Wye transformer, “Zig-Zag” transformer or an
autotransformer to accomplish the 30° phase shifting necessary for the
proper operation of 12-pulse configuration. This configuration also affects
the overall drive system efficiency rating because of the voltage drop
associated with the transformer/s. Figure 5.2 illustrates the typical
elementary diagram for a 12-pulse converter front end. The DC sides of
both 6-pulse bridge rectifiers are connected in parallel for higher current
(Figure 5.2) and connected in series for higher voltage. Typical values of
harmonic distortion of the current drawn by 12-pulse converter are given in
Table 5.1.

f) 18-pulse converter front end

An 18-pulse converter front end topology is comprised of either a three
phase to nine phase isolation transformer or a lower cost patented design
of three phase to nine phase autotransformer, to create a phase shift of
±20° necessary for the 18-pulse operation, and a nine phase diode rectifier
containing 18 diodes (two per leg) to convert nine phase AC to DC. Figure
5.3 shows the block diagram of 18-pulse system. Similar to 12-pulse
configuration, 18-pulse also has a disadvantages of higher cost & special
construction.

Nine-phase, 18-pulse converters not only have low harmonic distortion in

the ac input current, but they also provide a smoother, higher average value
of dc output. In addition, since the characteristic harmonics for 18-pulse
configuration are 18n ± 1 (where n is an integer 1, 2, 3,…), it virtually
eliminates the lower order non characteristic harmonics (5th, 7th, 11th and
13th). A typical harmonic performance of 18-pulse configuration is shown in
Table 5.1.

g) Active filters

82
 Active filters are now relatively common in industrial applications for both
harmonic mitigation and reactive power compensation (i.e., electronic
power factor correction). Unlike passive L-C filters, active filters do not
present potential resonance to the network and are unaffected to changes
in source impedance. Shunt-connected active filters (i.e. parallel with the
nonlinear load) as shown in Figure 5.4 below are the common configuration
of the active filter. The active filter is comprised of the IGBT bridge and DC
bus architecture similar to that seen in AC PWM drives. The DC bus is used
as an energy storage unit.

The active filter measures the “distortion current” wave shape by filtering
out the fundamental current from the nonlinear load current waveform,
which then fed to the controller to generate the corresponding IGBT firing
patterns to replicate and amplify the “distortion current” and generate the
“compensation current”, which is injected into the load in anti-phase (i.e.
180° displayed) to compensate for the harmonic current. When rated
correctly in terms of “harmonic compensation current”, the active filter
provides the nonlinear load with the harmonic current it needs to function
while the source provides only the fundamental current.

Active filters are complex and expensive products. Also, careful

commissioning of active filter is very important to obtain optimum
performance, although “self tuning” models are now available. However,
active filters do offer good performance in the reduction of harmonics and
the control of power factor. Their use should be examined on a project-by-
project basis, depending on the application criteria.

h) Active front end

“Active front ends” (AFE), also known as “sinusoidal input rectifiers”, are
offered by a number of AC drive and UPS system companies in order to
offer a low input harmonic footprint. A typical configuration of the AC PWM
drive with active front end is shown below in Figure 5.5.

As can be seen below, a normal 6-pulse diode front end is replaced by a

fully controlled IGBT bridge, an identical configuration to the output inverter
bridge. The DC bus and the IGBT output bridge architecture are similar to
that in standard 6-pulse AC PWM drives with diode input bridges.

83
 The operation of the input IGBT input bridge rectifier significantly reduces
lower order harmonics compared to conventional AC PWM drives with 6-
pulse diode bridges ( Less than 50th harmonics). However, as an inherent
nature it introduces significant higher order harmonics, above the 50th. In
addition, the action of IGBT switching introduces a pronounced “ripple” at
carrier frequencies (~2-3 kHz) into the voltage waveform which must be
attenuated by a combination of AC line reactors (which also serve as an
energy store that allows the input IGBT rectifier to act as a boost regulator
for the DC bus) and capacitors to form a passive (also known as clean
power) filter. As compared to conventional 6-pulse AC PWM drives of same
rating, AFE drives have significantly higher conducted and radiated EMI
emissions, and therefore, special precautions and installation techniques
may be necessary when applying them. AFE drives are inherently “four
quadrant” (i.e. they can drive and brake in both directions of rotation with
any excess kinetic energy during braking regenerated to the supply), offer
high dynamic response and are relatively immune to voltage dips. The true
power factor of AFE drive is high (approximately 0.98-1.0). The reactive
current is usually controllable via the drive interface keypad.

i) Power System Design

Harmonics can be reduced by limiting the non-linear load to 30% of the
maximum transformer’s capacity. However, with power factor correction
capacitors installed, resonating conditions can occur that could potentially
limit the percentage of nonlinear loads to 15% of the transformer’s capacity.
Use the following equation to determine if a resonant condition on the
distribution could occur:

where:
hr = Resonant frequency as a multiple of the fundamental frequency (= fr/f1)
kVAsc = Short circuit kVA at the point of study
kVARc = Capacitor kVAR rating at the system voltage

There is a possibility of a resonance condition, if hr is equal or close to a characteristic

harmonics (for example 5th or 7th).

84
 Conclusion
With increase in use of non-linear loads, the issues of power supply harmonics are more
noticeable than ever. Controlling and monitoring industrial system designs and their
effects on utility distribution systems are potential problems for the industrial consumer,
who is responsible for complying with the IEEE 519, recommended practices and
procedures. Industrial facilities should include a system evaluation, including a harmonic
distortion analysis, while planning facility construction or expansion. Vendors of non-

85
linear loads, such as variable frequency drives, can provide services and recommend
equipments that will reduce harmonics in order to comply with IEEE 519 guidelines.

Generally, at any point of common coupling (PCC), the measured value of total harmonic
voltage distortion should not exceed 5% and that of any individual harmonic voltage
distortion should not exceeding 3% of the fundamental value of the line voltage.
Normally, in typical applications, the harmonics are measured up to 25th order, but in
critical applications, those are measured up to 50th or 100th order.

Out of many harmonic mitigation methods available for both, individual application (e.g.,
per drive basis) and for “global mitigation” (i.e., a common harmonic mitigation solution
for a group of nonlinear equipment), a few popular were described in this document. A
particular type of harmonic mitigation solution can be used depending upon the
application and desired level of attenuation to meet the limits given in IEEE 519.

86
 CHAPTER 5
SAFETY DOCUMENTATION- PROCEDURS,
CONTROL AND POLICIES

87
Safety programmes
General
Before any permit-to-work or sanction-for-test is issued, a safety programme,
detailing the intended sequence of safety operations to be performed to make the
equipment safe for the execution of the work or test, is to be prepared.

Work on HV system needs following steps to be followed;

• Plan
• Risk Assessment
• Sequence of Isolation (switching Schedule)
• Isolate
• Prove dead
• Lockout for life
• Safety documents issued
• Table Talk
• RA reviewed
• Work
• Work completed.
• Cancel Safety documents
• De-isolate
• Sanction to test if needed
• Test and prove safe
• Cancel STT
• Put in service.

To complete the above task we have to fill up certain forms and they are;
- Work plan in the ships PMS system
- Risk Assessment for the work
- Switching Schedule preparation
- Electrical Permit to work form (HV)

88
 - Sanction to test form
Planned Maintenance System
• Planned Maintenance System is a software version used for planning of all
scheduled and unscheduled jobs onboard. Examples are WRAP, AMOS etc.
• This should be approved by class.
Risk Assessment for the work
In Risk Assessment we carry out following task and record it accordingly.

- Identify the hazard associated with the work. (Like: live equipment, faulty tools,
sea states etc).

- Area of damage. (Like: People, environment, assets and reputations)

- Consequences. (result if exposed to the hazards)

- Initial risk factor. (based on industrial data)

- Control measure to be taken. ( COSWP, Physical barriers, Isolations and Lock out
tag out)

- Final risk factor after implementation of control measure.

- Then decision taken about the acceptance of final risk factor for commencing the
safe work based on company policy and industry norm.

At any point if it felt that the final risk factor is beyond acceptable range, re-assessment is
required.

Switching Schedule preparation

• Every power line in the HV system has its own complexity.

• Isolation process needs a perfect thought.

• Thus manufacturer’s instructions and company policy must be followed.

• So a step by step isolation process must be drawn with the help of single line
sketch and steps written in the text.

• This should be approved by the authorised person or engineer superintendent as

per the company policy.

• The switching schedule shall incorporate a sketch or reference a single-line diagram that
clearly shows all points of supply, which functional devices will be used for isolation and,
when MV electrical equipment is involved, where circuit main earths will be applied. Each
time a switching schedule is applied a copy of the master switching schedule can be used

89
 to record each step of the procedure carried out by the Electrical Person and the Chief
Engineer when making the isolations.

• Note that two man isolation/switching is always safer than a single man isolation/
switching procedure.

In addition to the above drawing, all the points to to written in the safety programme in
chronological order starting from transferring load from the running equipment.

Sequence of Operations

• There switching schedule shall describe a step-by-step sequence of operations,

accurately describing each operation and the location at which it shall be
performed. A typical switching schedule might include descriptions of;

90
 • How electrical load will be transferred to standby electric generator sets.

• Which circuit breakers will be opened, withdrawn or removed, and an explanation

why.

• What tools and electrical test equipment will be used, for example to prove dead.

• What is suitable PPE for the various operations activities.

• Where circuit main earths will be applied.

• Where red and yellow safety locks will be applied.

• Where caution notices (and earthed notices when HV circuits are involved) will be
attached and where danger notices will be posted.

Example of the form is appended below:

91
92
93
Electrical Permit to work form

• It is an approved form to be completed for working on electrical high voltage

equipments.
• No work on high voltage to be carried without PTW issued.
• It has four sections:

Section 1: WORK DESCRIPTION AND LOCATION

Section 2: SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Section 3: AUTHORISATION
Section 4: PERMIT CANCELLATION

94
95
96
Sanction to test form

• It is a form of declaration signed by Authorised person and given to competent

person.
• It identifies the circuit under test and what test to be carried out.
• It also states any additional precaution is to be taken during test.
• Circuit main earth and additional earth is removed during test, so initial RA is
compromised.
Sample STT is appended below:

97
98
99
Limitation of Access

• It is a form of declaration signed by Authorised person and given to competent

person.
• This form is issued when certain limitation is imposed on competent person like
during IR test no maintenance job to be carried out.

Sample

100
101
102
ASSESSMENT OF SUITABLE PERSON FOR THE ASSIGNED WORK.

Relevant company directives can be referred in this regards.

ELECTRICAL ISOLATION
Introduction:

Isolation involves disconnecting the equipment from all sources of supply by an open
isolator or adequate physical gap and putting suitable measures in place to prevent
electrical equipment being made live in error.

Why lock out and tag out needed.

-the simple answer is to save life/ prevent accident.

Who Needs Training?

• Authorized person – People who lock or tag out machines or equipment to perform
servicing
• Competent person – People who use machines or equipment on which servicing
is performed under lockout/ tag out
• Other crew of the vessel. – People who work in the area of locked out machinery
or equipment
• In short whole ships company need training.

Planning

103
 • Electrical equipment cannot be properly isolated without thought as to how this
can be achieved
• It requires planning. The level of detail involved depends upon the complexity of
the power supply arrangements.
• Proper planning is the key factor for safe execution of work.
Example:
- A single motor can be isolated at single point isolation.
- But a Switch board breaker may need multipoint isolation.
- Where isolation involves more than a few simple steps a switching schedule is
recommended.
A switching schedule must be used when HV electrical equipment is involved.

A main switchboard might have any number of power supply sources. Isolation may
involve applying start inhibits to electric generator sets and racking out their circuit
breakers. It will also involve preventing back feeding through bus-tie and interconnector
circuit breakers, or through transformer feeder supply circuit breakers. Isolation of
auxiliary power supplies to control circuits may also be necessary.

Lock Out for Life

The Lock Out for Life System uses two types of safety lock to secure equipment in the
isolated position.

The red safety lock, which is retained by the individual during their time on board, is used
as a personal locking device. It identifies the individual concerned. The red personal
safety lock is used to secure single isolations on LV electrical equipment. The individual
retains the key.
The colour of the lock will depend on the company safety provider. So, it is not the hard
and fast rule. But these locks will not have any master keys.

The yellow standard safety lock is used when there is more than one point of isolation or
when MV isolations are involved. After securing the isolations using yellow standard
safety locks, the keys are placed in a group lockout box that is secured using the red
personal safety lock. Again, the individual retains the key.
For work on HV equipment both the Permit Issuer and Permit Holder secure the group
lockout box with red personal safety locks, and retain their keys.

104
All isolation points should have danger notices firmly attached. It contains the person
name involved with the job and permit number etc.

Sample:

This sample may vary by various companies, but the basic theme will remain same.

Proving Dead

• Before commencing work on isolated conducting parts they must be proved dead.
• In addition, for HV equipment the circuit main earth must be tested.
• Test equipments must be tested for its serviceability prior to test and after the test,
every time the test is carried out.

Single Point LV Isolation:

105
It is carried out when only one point is needed to isolate the source of energy. It can be
locked by the personal lock and key is retained by the competent person.

Plan - Isolate –Lockout- permit issue - work

Multipoint LV Isolation :

This process required when more than one points are involved for safe isolation.
Switching scheduled is needed in this case.

Plan – sequence of isolation- Isolate –Lockout- permit issue – work

Lock out station
106
This is a specialised type locker which is used to key safe the isolation keys.

Example:

107
 CHAPTER 6
SAFETY FEATURES ASSOCIATED WITH
HIGH VOLTAGE HAZARDS

108
INTRODUCTION
General information about electricity and the human body:

More than one thousand people are killed each year in the U.S. due to generated electric
current, and several thousand more are injured. Current flowing inside the body can
cause deep burns and cardiac arrest. Frequently, the individual cannot let go of the
power source due to involuntary muscle contraction. The brain and heart are the most
sensitive organs. For effects of current on the human body, see table 1. An alternating
current (ac) with a voltage potential greater than 550 V can puncture the skin and result
in immediate contact with the inner body resistance. A 110-V shock may or may not
result in a dangerous current, depending on the circuit path, which may include the skin
resistance. A shock greater than 600 V will always result in very dangerous current
levels. The most severe result of an electrical shock is death.

Conditions for a serious, yet still potentially lethal, shock across a critical path, such as
the heart, are

1. More than 30-V root mean square (rms), 42.4-V peak, or 60 V dc at a total impedance
of less than 5000 ohms.

2. 10 to 75 mA.

3.More than 10 J.

Conditions for a potentially, but more than likely, lethal shock across the heart are

1. More than 375 V at a total body impedance of less than 5000 ohms.

2. More than 75 mA.

3. More than 50 J.

The worst possible frequency for humans is 60 Hz, which is commonly used in utility
power systems. Humans are about five times more sensitive to 60-Hz alternating current
than to direct current. At 60 Hz, humans are more than six times more sensitive to
alternating current than at 5000 Hz--and the sensitivity appears to decrease still further
as the frequency increases. Above 100-200 kHz, sensations change from tingling to
warmth, although serious burns can occur from higher radio-frequency energy.

109
At much higher frequencies (e.g., above 1 MHz), the body again becomes sensitive to
the effects of an alternating electric current, and contact with a conductor is no longer
necessary; energy is transferred to the body by means of electromagnetic radiation.

EFFECT OF CURRENT ON HUMAN BODY

LIFE-THREATENING EFFECTS:
• Currents in excess of a human's "let-go" current (>16 mA at 60 Hz) passing through the
chest can produce collapse, unconsciousness, asphyxia, and even death.

• Currents (>30 mA at 60 Hz) flowing through the nerve centres that control breathing can
produce respiratory inhibition, which could last long after interruption of the current.

• Cardiac arrest can be caused by a current greater than or equal to 1 A at 60 Hz flowing

in the region of the heart.

• Relatively high currents (0.25-1 A) can produce fatal damage to the central nervous
system.

• Currents greater than 5 A can produce deep body and organ burns, substantially raise
body temperature, and cause immediate death.

• Serious burns or other complications can cause delayed reactions and even death.
The most dangerous current flow via the chest cavity is through the heart when the shock
occurs in the time relative to the normal heart rhythm. This current may cause ventricular
fibrillation, which is defined as repeated, rapid, uncoordinated contractions of the heart

110
ventricles. Ventricular fibrillation that alters the heart's normal rhythmic pumping action
can be initiated by a current flow of 75 mA or greater for 5 seconds (5-s) or more through
the chest cavity. The purpose of this set of guidelines is not to frighten you but rather to
make you aware of the appropriate precautions. The next section will discuss general
guidelines to follow when working with high voltage and, later, we will discuss more
specifically types of equipment used in this lab.

IEEE STD 510-1983 IEEE RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR SAFETY IN

HIGH VOLTAGE AND HIGH POWER TESTING

Considerations of safety in electrical testing apply not only to personnel bu t to

the test equipment and apparatus or system under test.

Below recommended practices deal generally with safety in connection with

testing in laboratories, in the field, and of systems incorporating high voltage
power supplies, etc.

For the purposes of these recommended practices, a voltage of approximately

1,000 volts has been assumed as a practical minimum for these types of tests.

Individual judgement is necessary to decide if the requirements of these

recommended practices are applicable in cases where lower voltages or
special risks are involved.

1. All ungrounded terminals of the test equipment or apparatus under test should be
considered as energized.
2. Common ground connections should be solidly connected to both the
test set and the test specimen. As a minimum, the current capacity of the
ground leads should exceed that necessary to carry the maximum
possible ground current. The effect of ground poten tial rise due to the
resistance and reactance of the earth connection should be considered .
3. Precautions should be taken to prevent accidental contact of live
terminals by personnel, either by
shielding the live terminals or by providing barriers around the area.
4. The circuit should include instrumentation for indicating the test
voltages.
5. Appropriate switching and, where appropriate, an observer should be
provided for the immediate de-energization of test circuits for safety
purposes. In the case of dc tests, provisions for discharging and
grounding charged terminals and supporting insulation sh ould also be
included.
6. High Voltage and high-power tests should be performed and supervised
by qualified personnel.

TEST AREA SAFETY PRACTICES

1. Appropriate warning signs, for example, DANGER – HIGH VOLTAGE,

should be posted on or near the entrance gates.
2. In so far as practical, automatic grounding devices should be provided to
apply a visible ground on the high-voltage circuits after they are de -
111
 energized. In some high-voltage circuits, particularly those in which
elements are hanged from one setup to the ne xt, this may not be
feasible. In these cases, the operator should attach a ground to the high -
voltage terminal using a suitably insulated handle. In the case of several
capacitors connected in series, it is not always sufficient to ground only
the high voltage terminal. The exposed intermediate terminals should
also be grounded. This applies in particular to impulse generators where
the capacitors should be short-circuited and grounded before and while
working on the generator.
3. Safe grounding of instrumentation should take precedence over proper
signal grounding unless other special precautions have been taken to
ensure personnel safety .

CONTROL & MEASUREMENT CIRCUITS

Leads should not be run from a test area unless they are contained in a grounded
metallic sheath and terminated in a grounded metallic enclosure, or unless other
precautions have been taken to ensure personnel safety. Control wiring, meter
connections, and cables running to oscilloscopes fall into this category. Meters and
other instruments with accessible terminals should normally be placed in a metal
compartment with a viewing window.

Temporary Circuits
1. Temporary measuring circuits should be located completely within the test
area and viewed through the fence. Alternatively, the meters may be
located outside the fence, provided the meters and leads, external to the
area, are enclosed in grounded metallic enclosures.
2. Temporary control circuits should be treated the same as measuring circuits
and housed in a grounded box with all controls accessible to the operator at
ground potential.

SAFETY RULES

A set of safety rules should be established and enforced for the laboratory or
testing facilities. A copy of these should be given to, and discussed with, each
person assigned to work in a test area. A procedure for periodic review of
these rules with the operators should be established and carried out.

SAFETY INSPECTION

A procedure for periodic inspection of the test areas should be established and
carried out. The recommendations from these inspections should be followed
by corrective actions for unsafe equipment or for practices that are not in
keeping with the required regulations.

NOTE: A safety committee composed of several operators appointed on a

rotating basis has proven to be effective, not only from the inspection
standpoint but also in making all personnel aware of safety.

112
GROUNDING & SHORTING]

1. The routing and connections of temporary wiring should be such that

they are secure against accidental interruptions that may create hazard
to personnel or equipments.
2. Devices which rely on a solid or solid/liquid dielectric for insulation
should preferably be grounded and short-circuited when not in use.
3. Good safety practice requires that capacitive objects be short -circuited in
the following situations:
4. Any capacitive object which is not in use but may be in the influence of a
dc electric field should have its exposed high-voltage terminal grounded.
Failure to observe this precaution may result in a voltage included in the
capacitive object by the field.
5. Capacitive objects having a solid dielectric should be short -circuited
after dc proof testing. Failure to observe this precaution may result in a
build up of voltage on the object due to dielectric absorption has
dissipated or until the object has been reconnected to a circuit.

NOTE: It is good practice for all capacitive devices to remain short -circuited
when not in use.

1. Any open circuited capacitive device should be short -circuited and

grounded before being contacted by personnel.

SPACING

1. All objects at ground potential must be placed away from all exposed
high voltage points at a minimum distance of 1 inch (25.4 mm) for every
7,500 Volts, e.g. 50 kV requires a spacing of at least
6.7 inches (171 mm)
2. Allow a creepage distance of 1 inch (25.4 mm) for every 7,500 Volts for
insulators placed in contact with high voltage points.

HIGH-POWER TESTING

1. High-power testing involves a special type of high -voltage measurement

in that the level of current is very high. Careful consideration should be
given to safety precautions for high -power testing due to this fact. The
explosive nature of the test specimen also brings about special concern
relating to safety in the laboratory.
2. Protective eye and face equipment should be worn by all personnel
conducting or observing a high power test where there is a reasonable
probability that eye or face injury can be prevented by such equipment.

NOTE: Typical eye and face hazards present in high -power test areas included
intense light (including ultraviolet), sparks, and molten metal.

113
 1. Safety glasses containing absorptive lenses should be worn by all
personnel observing a high-power test even when electric arcing is not
expected. Lenses should be impact-resistant and have shade
numbers consistent with the ambient illumination level of the work area
but yet capable of providing protection against hazardous radiation due
to any inadvertent electric arcing.

GENERAL

1. All high-voltage generating equipment should have a single obvious

control to switch the equipment off under emergency conditions.
2. All high-voltage generating equipment should have an indicator which
signals that the high-voltage output is enabled.
3. All high-voltage generating equipment should have provisions for
external connections (interlock) which, when open, cause the high-
voltage source to be switched off. These connections may be
used for external safety interlocks in barriers or for a foot or hand
operated safety switch.
4. The design of any piece of high-voltage test equipment should include a
failure analysis to determine if the failure of any part of the circuit or the
specimen to which it is connected will crea te a hazardous situation for
the operator. The major failure shall be construed to include the
probability of failure of items that would be overstressed as the result of
the major failure. The analysis may be limited to
the effect of one major failure at a time, provided that the major failure is
obvious to the operator.

114
 CHAPTER 7
ARRANGEMENT AND REQUIREMENT OF
HIGH VOLTAGE SWITCHBOARD ROOMS

115
Unified requirements for systems with voltages above 1 kV up to 15 kV

1. General

1.1 Field of application

The following requirements apply to a.c. three-phase systems with nominal voltage
exceeding 1kV; the nominal voltage is the voltage between phases. If not otherwise
stated herein, construction and installation applicable to low voltage equipment generally
apply to high voltage equipment.

1.2 Nominal system voltage

The nominal system voltage is not to exceed 15 kV.

Note: Where necessary for special application, higher voltages may be accepted by the
Society.

116
1.3 High-voltage, low-voltage segregation

Equipment with voltage above about 1 kV is not to be installed in the same enclosure as
low voltage equipment, unless segregation or other suitable measures are taken to
ensure that access to low voltage equipment is obtained without danger.

2. System Design

2.1 Distribution

2.1.1 Network configuration for continuity of ship services

It is to be possible to split the main switchboard into at least two independent sections, by
means of at least one circuit breaker or other suitable disconnecting devices, each
supplied by at least one generator. If two separate switchboards are provided and
interconnected with cables, a circuit breaker is to be provided at each end of the cable.

Services which are duplicated are to be divided between the sections.

2.1.2 Earthed neutral systems

In case of earth fault, the current is not to be greater than full load current of the largest
generator on the switchboard or relevant switchboard section and not less than three
times the minimum current required to operate any device against earth fault.

It is to be assured that at least one source neutral to ground connection is available

whenever the system is in the energised mode. Electrical equipment in directly earthed
neutral or other neutral earthed systems is to withstand the current due to a single phase
fault against earth for the time necessary to trip the protection device.

2.1.3 Neutral disconnection

Means of disconnection are to be fitted in the neutral earthing connection of each

generator so that the generator may be disconnected for maintenance and for insulation
resistance measurement.

2.1.4 Hull connection of earthing impedance

All earthing impedances are to be connected to the hull. The connection to the hull is to
be so arranged that any circulating currents in the earth connections do not interfere with
radio, radar, communication and control equipment circuits.

2.1.5 Divided systems

In the systems with neutral earthed, connection of the neutral to the hull is to be provided
for each section.

2.2 Degrees of protection

2.2.1 General

117
Each part of the electrical installation is to be provided with a degree of protection
appropriate to the location, as a minimum the requirements of IEC Publication 60092-
201.

2.2.2 Rotating machines

The degree of protection of enclosures of rotating electrical machines is to be at least IP

23. The degree of protection of terminals is to be at least IP44. For motors installed in
spaces accessible to unqualified personnel, a degree of protection against approaching
or contact with live or moving parts of at least IP4X is required.

2.2.3 Transformers

The degree of protection of enclosures of transformers is to be at least IP23. For

transformers installed in spaces accessible to unqualified personnel a degree of
protection of at least IP4X is required. For transformers not contained in enclosures, see
para 7.1.

2.2.4 Switchgear, control gear assemblies and converters

The degree of protection of metal enclosed switchgear, control gear assemblies and
static convertors is to be at least IP32. For switchgear, control gear assemblies and static
converters installed in spaces accessible to unqualified personnel, a degree of protection
of at least IP4X is required.

2.3 Insulation

2.3.1 Air clearance

In general, for Non Type Tested equipment phase-to-phase air clearances and phase-to
earth air clearances between non-insulated parts are to be not less than those specified
in Table 2.3.1.

Intermediate values may be accepted for nominal voltages provided that the next higher
air clearance is observed. In the case of smaller distances, appropriate voltage impulse
test must be applied.

2.3.2 Creepage distances

Creepage distances between live parts and between live parts and earthed metal parts
are to be in accordance with IEC 60092-503 for the nominal voltage of the system, the

118
nature of the insulation material and the transient overvoltage developed by switch and
fault conditions.

2.4 Protection

2.4.1 Faults on the generator side of circuit breaker

Protective devices are to be provided against phase-to-phase faults in the cables

connecting the generators to the main switchboard and against inter-winding faults within
the generators. The protective devices are to trip the generator circuit breaker and to
automatically de-excite the generator.

In distribution systems with a neutral earthed, phase to earth faults are also to be treated
as above.

2.4.2 Faults to earth

Any earth fault in the system is to be indicated by means of a visual and audible alarm. In
low impedance or direct earthed systems provision is to be made to automatic disconnect
the faulty circuits. In high impedance earthed systems, where outgoing feeders will not be
isolated in case of an earth fault, the insulation of the equipment is to be designed for the
phase to phase voltage.

Note:
Earthing factor is defined as the ratio between the phase to earth voltage of the health
phase and the phase to phase voltage.

This factor may vary between (1/√ 3) and 1.

A system is defined effectively earthed (low impedance) when this factor is lower than
0.8.

A system is defined non-effectively earthed (high impedance) when this factor is higher
than 0.8.

2.4.3 Power transformers

Power transformers are to be provided with overload and short circuit protection. When
transformers are connected in parallel, tripping of the protective devices at the primary
side has to automatically trip the switch connected at the secondary side.

2.4.4 Voltage transformers for control and instrumentation

Voltage transformers are to be provided with overload and short circuit protection on the
secondary side.

2.4.5 Fuses

Fuses are not to be used for overload protection.

119
2.4.6 Low voltage systems

Lower voltage systems supplied through transformers from high voltage systems are to
be protected against over voltages. This may be achieved by:

j) direct earthing of the lower voltage system.

k) appropriate neutral voltage limiters.
l) earthed screen between the primary and secondary windings of
transformers.

3. Rotating machinery

3.1 Stator windings of generators

Generator stator windings are to have all phase ends brought out for the installation of
the differential protection.

3.2 Temperature detectors

Rotating machinery is to be provided with temperature detectors in their stator windings

to actuate a visual and audible alarm in a normally attended position whenever the
temperature exceeds the permissible limit. If embedded temperature detectors are used,
means are to be provided to protect the circuit against overvoltage.

3.3 Tests

In addition to the tests normally required for rotating machinery, a high frequency high
voltage test in accordance with IEC Publication 60034-15 is to be carried out on the
individual coils in order to demonstrate a satisfactory withstand level of the inter-turn
insulation to steep fronted switching surges.

4. Power Transformers

4.1 General

Dry type transformers have to comply with IEC Publication 60076-11.

Liquid cooled transformers have to comply with IEC Publication 60076.

Oil immersed transformers are to be provided with the following alarms and protections:
- liquid level (Low) - alarm
- liquid temperature (High) - alarm
- liquid level (Low) - trip or load reduction
- liquid temperature (High) - trip or load reduction
- gas pressure relay (High) – trip

5. Cables

5.1 General

120
Cables are to be constructed in accordance with the IEC Publication 60092-353 and
60092- 354 or other equivalent Standard.

6. Switchgear and control gear assemblies

6.1 General

Switchgear and control gear assemblies are to be constructed according to the IEC
Publication 62271-200 and the following additional requirements.

6.2 Construction

6.2.1 Mechanical construction

Switchgear is to be of metal – enclosed type in accordance with IEC Publication 62271-

200 or of the insulation – enclosed type in accordance with the IEC Publication 62271-
201.

6.2.2 Locking facilities

Withdraw able circuit breakers and switches are to be provided with mechanical locking
facilities in both service and disconnected positions. For maintenance purposes, key
locking of withdraw able circuit breakers and switches and fixed disconnectors is to be
possible.

Withdraw able circuit breakers are to be located in the service position so that there is no
relative motion between fixed and moving portions.

6.2.3 Shutters

The fixed contacts of withdraw able circuit breakers and switches are to be so arranged
that in the withdraw able position the live contacts are automatically covered.

Shutters are to be clearly marked for incoming and outgoing circuits. This may be
achieved with the use of colours or labels.

6.2.4 Earthing and short-circuiting

For maintenance purposes an adequate number of earthing and short-circuiting devices

is to be provided to enable circuits to be worked upon with safety.

6.2.5 Internal arc Classification (IAC)

Switchgear and control gear assemblies shall be internal arc classified (IAC).

Where switchgear and control gear is accessible by authorized personnel only

Accessibility Type A is sufficient (IEC 62271-200; Annex AA; AA 2.2). Accessibility Type
B is required if accessible by non-authorised personnel.

121
Installation and location of the switchgear and control gear shall correspond with its
internal arc classification and classified sides (F, L and R).

6.3 Auxiliary systems

6.3.1 Source and capacity of supply

If electrical energy and/or physical energy is required for the operation of circuit breakers
and switches, a stored supply of such energy is to be provided for at least two operations
of all the components. However, the tripping due to overload or short-circuit, and under-
voltage is to be independent of any stored electrical energy sources. This does not
preclude shunt tripping provided that alarms are activated upon lack of continuity in the
release circuits and power supply failures.

6.3.2 Number of external supply sources When external source of supply is necessary for
auxiliary circuits, at least two external sources of supply are to be provided and so
arranged that a failure or loss of one source will not cause the loss of more than one
generator set and/or set of essential services. Where necessary one source of supply is
to be from the emergency source of electrical power for the start up from dead ship
condition.

6.4 High voltage test A power-frequency voltage test is to be carried out on any
switchgear and control gear assemblies. The test procedure and voltages are to be
according to the IEC Publication 62271-200 section 7/ routine test.

7. Installation

7.1 Electrical equipment

Where equipment is not contained in an enclosure but a room forms the enclosure of the
equipment, the access doors are to be so interlocked that they cannot be opened until
the supply is isolated and the equipment earthed down.

At the entrance of the spaces where high-voltage electrical equipment is installed, a

suitable marking is to be placed which indicates danger of high-voltage.

As regard the high-voltage electrical equipment installed out-side a.m. spaces, the similar
marking is to be provided.

An adequate, unobstructed working space is to be left in the vicinity of high voltage

equipment for preventing potential severe injuries to personnel performing maintenance
activities.

In addition, the clearance between the switchboard and the ceiling/deck

head above is to meet the requirements of the Internal Arc Classification according to
IEC 62271-200 (see 6.2.5).
7.2 Cables

7.2.1 Runs of cables

122
In accommodation spaces, high voltage cables are to be run in enclosed cable transit
systems.

7.2.2 Segregation

High voltage cables are to be segregated from cables operating at different voltage
ratings each other; in particular, they are not to be run in the same cable bunch, nor in
the same ducts or pipes, or, in the same box.

Where high voltage cables of different voltage ratings are installed on the same cable
tray, the air clearance between cables is not to be less than the minimum air clearance
for the higher voltage side in 2.3.1. However, high voltage cables are not to be installed
on the same cable tray for the cables operating at the nominal system voltage of 1 kV
and less.

7.2.3 Installation arrangements

High voltage cables, in general, are to be installed on cable trays when they are provided
with a continuous metallic sheath or armour which is effectively bonded to earth;
otherwise they are to be installed for their entire length in metallic castings effectively
bonded to earth.

7.2.4 Terminations

Terminations in all conductors of high voltage cables are to be, as far as practicable,
effectively covered with suitable insulating material. In terminal boxes, if conductors are
not insulated, phases are to be separated from earth and from each other by substantial
barriers of suitable insulating materials.

High voltage cables of the radial field type, i.e. having a conductive layer to control the
electric field within the insulation, are to have terminations which provide electric stress
control. Terminations are to be of a type compatible with the insulation and jacket
material of the cable and are to be provided with means to ground all metallic shielding
components (i.e. tapes, wires etc).

7.2.5 Marking
High voltage cables are to be readily identifiable by suitable marking.

7.2.6 Test after installation

123
Before a new high voltage cable installation, or an addition to an existing installation, is
put into service a voltage withstand test is to be satisfactorily carried out on each
completed cable and its accessories.

The test is to be carried out after an insulation resistance test.

For cables with rated voltage (U0/U) above 1.8/3 kV (Um=3.6 kV) an a.c. voltage
withstand test may be carried out upon advice from high voltage cable manufacturer.
One of the following test methods to be used:

a) test for 5 min with the phase-to-phase voltage of the system applied between the
conductor and the metallic screen/sheath.

b) test for 24 h with the normal operating voltage of the system.

Alternatively, a d.c. test voltage equal to 4 Uo may be applied for 15 minutes.

For cables with rated voltage (U0/U) up to 1.8/3 kV (Um=3.6 kV) a d.c. voltage equal to 4
Uo shall be applied for 15 minutes.

After completion of the test, the conductors are to be connected to earth for a sufficient
period in order to remove any trapped electric charge. An insulation resistance test is
then repeated.

124
 CHAPTER 8
CONCEPT OF PROTECTION SYSTEMS IN
HIGH VOLTAGE.

125
Protection System in Power System:

The objective of power system protection is to isolate a faulty section of electrical

power system from rest of the live system so that the rest portion can function
satisfactorily without any severer damage due to fault current.

Circuit breaker receives a trip signal from Protection Relay in case of fault condition and
isolates faulty equipment by interrupting the power supply to it.

It is true about protection, that no protection of power system can prevent the flow of fault
current through the system, it only can prevent the continuation of flowing of fault current
by quickly disconnect the short circuit path from the system.

Let’s have a discussion on basic concept of protection system in power system and
co-ordination of protection relays.

In the picture the basic connection of protection relay has been shown.

The secondary of current transformer is connected to the current coil of relay.

And secondary of voltage transformer is connected to the voltage coil of the relay.

Whenever any fault occurs in the feeder circuit, proportionate secondary current of the
CT will flow through the current coil of the relay due to which mmf of that coil is
increased.

This increased mmf is sufficient to mechanically close the normally open contact of the
relay.

This relay contact actually closes and completes the DC trip coil circuit and hence the trip
coil is energized.

126
The mmf of the trip coil initiates the mechanical movement of the tripping mechanism of
the circuit breaker and ultimately the circuit breaker is tripped to isolate the fault.

Same theory is applied for PT, but here the voltage coil will operate the trip.

Switchgear:

Marine industry power system consists of mainly SF6 circuit breaker, air blast circuit
breaker and vacuum circuit breaker etc.

Circuit breaker is the main part of protection system in power system, it automatically
isolate the faulty portion of the system by opening its contacts.

Protective Gear;

Current relays: - It is a protective device which takes current as input to its current coil
for the purpose of interrupting the faulty equipments.

Voltage relays: - It is a protective device which takes voltage as input to its voltage coil
for the purpose of interrupting the faulty equipments.

Power relays: Combination of voltage and current components are used in this type of
relay to sense the power in the circuit.

Frequency relay: Frequency of supply is measured by this relay using trigger

generators.

Inverse time relays:-

Inverse time is a natural character of any induction type rotating device. This means that,
of operation inversely varies with input current.

This Characteristic of electromechanical induction is very suitable for over current

protection.

In this relay, if fault is more severe, it would clear faster.

Definite time relays:-

127
Operates instantaneously when the current reaches a pre-determined value.

Operates after a definite time when the current reaches a pre-determined value.

Definition of Protective Relay

A relay is automatic device which senses an abnormal condition of electrical

circuit and closes its contacts.

These contacts in turns close and complete the circuit breaker trip coil circuit
hence make the circuit breaker tripped for disconnecting the faulty portion of the
electrical circuit from rest of the healthy circuit.

During fault the protection relay gives trip signal to the associated circuit breaker
for opening its contacts.

Role and purpose of protective system

Action of trip is executed by Circuit breaker who receives command from

protection system.

Please NOTE that; No protection of power system can prevent the flow of fault
current through the system.

It only can prevent the continuation of flowing of fault current by quickly

disconnect the short circuit path from the system.

Surge protectors
A surge arrester is a device to protect electrical equipment from over-voltage transients
caused by external (lightning) or internal (switching) events.

128
Also called a surge protection device (SPD) or transient voltage surge
suppressor (TVSS), this class of device is used to protect equipment in
power transmission and distribution systems.

The energy criterion for various insulation materials can be compared by impulse ratio,
the surge arrester should have a low impulse ratio, so that a surge incident on the surge
arrester may be bypassed, to the ground instead of passing through the apparatus.
To protect a unit of equipment from transients occurring on an attached conductor, a
surge arrester is connected to the conductor just before it enters the equipment. The
surge arrester is also connected to ground and functions by routing energy from an over-
voltage transient to ground if one occurs, while isolating the conductor from ground at
normal operating voltages.
This is usually achieved through use of a varistor, which has substantially different
resistances at different voltages.
Surge arresters are not generally designed to protect against a direct lightning to a
conductor, but rather against electrical transients resulting from lightning strikes occurring
in the vicinity of the conductor.
Lightening which strikes the earth results in ground currents which can pass over buried
conductors and induce a transient that propagates outward towards the ends of the
conductor. The same kind of induction happens in overhead and above ground
conductors which experience the passing energy of an atmospheric EMP caused by the
lightning flash. Surge arresters only protect against induced transients characteristic of a
lightning discharge's rapid rise-time and will not protect against electrification caused by a
direct strike to the conductor. Transients similar to lightning-induced, such as from a high
voltage system's fault switching, may also be safely diverted to ground; however,
continuous over currents are not protected against by these devices. The energy in a
handled transient is substantially less than that of a lightning discharge; however it is still
of sufficient quantity to cause equipment damage and often requires protection.
Without very thick insulation, which is generally cost prohibitive, most conductors running
more than a minimal distance, say greater than about 50 feet, will experience lightning-
induced transients at some time during use. Because the transient is usually initiated at
some point between the two ends of the conductor, most applications install a surge
arrester just before the conductor lands in each piece of equipment to be protected. Each
conductor must be protected, as each will have its own transient induced, and each SPD
must provide a pathway to earth to safely divert the transient away from the protected
129
component. The one notable exception where they are not installed at both ends is in
high voltage distribution systems. In general, the induced voltage is not sufficient to do
damage at the electric generation end of the lines; however, installation at the service
entrance to a building is key to protecting downstream products that are not as robust.

Distribution arrester: Apply in 3KV, 6KV, 10KV AC power distribution system to protect
distribution transformers, cables and power station equipment

130
Discrimination and Fuses

What is discrimination?

Discrimination, also called selectivity, is the coordination of automatic protection devices

in such a manner that a fault appearing at a given point in a network is cleared by the
protection device installed immediately upstream of the fault, and by that device alone.
- Total discrimination: Discrimination is said to be total if, for all fault current values,
from overloads up to the non-resistive short-circuit current, circuit breaker D2
opens and D1 remains closed.
- Partial discrimination: Discrimination is partial if the above condition is not
respected up to the full shortcircuit current, but only to a lesser value termed the
selectivity limit current (Is).
- No discrimination In the event of a fault, both circuit breakers D1 and D2 open.

Fuses:

A fuse is a sacrificial protective device which is there to prevent overloading.

If too heavy a fuse or if the fuse is overridden then there is a possibility of overheating,
deterioration of insulation and failure.

Materials used are; Tin, Lead, or silver having low melting points. Use of copper or iron
is dangerous, though tinned copper may be used.

Requirements of a fuse;
• Have a high cut off speed on short circuit

131
 • Operate on a sustained overload
• Make a complete break after operation with high insulation resistance between
terminals
• Have a maximum temperature rise on continuous full load rating such that it will
not be injurious to cables connected to its terminals
• Be mechanically robust and capable of withstanding the large magnetic and
gaseous forces exerted during operation under short circuit conditions.

A fuse must not;

• Operate on continuous full load
• operate on momentary overload
• Deteriorate under continuous operation at full load
• Burst or emit flame or otherwise damage the fuse carrier and base when it
operates

Fuses on shipboard must be made to approved standards.

GENERATOR PROTECTION

Over current relays:

132
IEC definition states that over current relay is a measuring relay which operates when the
value of the current exceeds the setting (operating value) of the relay.

There are generally 3 types of these relays:

- (a) Instantaneous,
- (b) Inverse and
- (c) Induction.

Over current relays – instantaneous (Define Current):

Definite current relay operate instantaneously when the current reaches a predetermined value.

Over current relays are electromagnetic relays.

They are based on electro-dynamic force produced on a moving part by the current
flowing through a coil.

 Operates in a definite time when current exceeds its Pick-up value.

 Its operation criterion is only current magnitude (without time delay).
 Operating time is constant.
 There is no intentional time delay.
 Coordination of definite-current relays is based on the fact that the fault current
varies with the position of the fault because of the difference in the impedance
between the fault and the source
 The relay located furthest from the source operate for a low current value
 The operating currents are progressively increased for the other relays when
moving towards the source.
 It operates in 0.1s or less
 Typical setting ranges are: In ≥ 2-10 x In and t = 0.1 to 1 second. ( Ref DT Hall)

Application: This type is applied to the outgoing feeders.

133
Definite Time Over current Relays:

In this type, two conditions must be satisfied for operation (tripping), current must
exceed the setting value and the fault must be continuous at least a time equal to time
setting of the relay.

Modern relays may contain more than one stage of protection each stage includes each
own current and time setting.

1. For Operation of Definite Time Over current Relay operating time is constant
2. Its operation is independent of the magnitude of current above the pick-up value.
3. It has pick-up and time dial settings, desired time delay can be set with the help of an
intentional time delay mechanism.
4. Easy to coordinate.
5. Constant tripping time independent of in feed variation and fault location.

Drawback of Relay:

1. The continuity in the supply cannot be maintained at the load end in the event of
fault.
2. Time lag is provided which is not desirable in on short circuits.
3. It is difficult to co-ordinate and requires changes with the addition of load.
4. It is not suitable for long distance transmission lines where rapid fault clearance is
necessary for stability.
5. Relay have difficulties in distinguishing between Fault currents at one point or
another when fault impedances between these points are small, thus poor
discrimination.

Application:
Definite time overcurrent relay is used as:

1. Back up protection of distance relay of transmission line with time delay.

2. Back up protection to differential relay of power transformer with time delay.
3. Main protection to outgoing feeders and bus couplers with adjustable time delay
setting.

134
Inverse Time Over current Relays (IDMT Relay):

In this type of relays, operating time is inversely changed with current. So, high current
will operate over current relay faster than lower ones. There are standard inverse, very
inverse and extremely inverse types.

Inverse Time relays are also referred to as Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) relay.

Discrimination by both ‘Time’ and ‘Current’. The relay operation time is inversely
proportional to the fault current.

The operating time of an over current relay can be moved up (made slower) by adjusting
the ‘time dial setting’. The lowest time dial setting (fastest operating time) is generally
0.5 and the slowest is 10.

 Operates when current exceeds its pick-up value.

 Operating time depends on the magnitude of current.
 It gives inverse time current characteristics at lower values of fault current and
definite time characteristics at higher values
 An inverse characteristic is obtained if the value of plug setting multiplier is below
10, for values between 10 and 20 characteristics tend towards definite time
characteristics.
 Widely used for the protection of distribution lines.

Based on the inverseness it has three different types:

Normal Inverse Time Over current Relay

The accuracy of the operating time may range from 5 to 7.5% of the nominal operating
time as specified in the relevant norms. The uncertainty of the operating time and the
necessary operating time may require a grading margin of 0.4 to 0.5 seconds.

Normal inverse time Over current Relay is relatively small change in time per unit of
change of current.

135
Application:
Most frequently used in utility and industrial circuits. especially applicable where the fault
magnitude is mainly dependent on the system generating capacity at the time of fault.

Very Inverse Time Over current Relay

 Gives more inverse characteristics than that of IDMT.

 Used where there is a reduction in fault current, as the distance from source
increases.
 Particularly effective with ground faults because of their steep characteristics.
 Suitable if there is a substantial reduction of fault current as the fault distance from
the power source increases.
 Very inverse over current relays are particularly suitable if the short-circuit current
drops rapidly with the distance from the substation.
 The grading margin may be reduced to a value in the range from 0.3 to 0.4
seconds when over current relays with very inverse characteristics are used.
 Used when Fault Current is dependent on fault location.
 Used when Fault Current independent of normal changes in generating capacity.

Extremely Inverse Time Over current Relay

 It has more inverse characteristics than that of IDMT and very inverse over current
relay.
 Suitable for the protection of machines against overheating.

136
  The operating time of a time over current relay with an extremely inverse time-
current characteristic is approximately inversely proportional to the square of the
current.
 The use of extremely inverse over current relays makes it possible to use a short
time delay in spite of high switching-in currents.
 Used when Fault current is dependent on fault location
 Used when Fault current independent of normal changes in generating capacity.

Application:
 Suitable for protection of distribution feeders with peak currents on switching in
(refrigerators, pumps, water heaters and so on).
 Particular suitable for grading and coordinates with fuses and re closes
 For the protection of alternators, transformers. Expensive cables, etc.

Long Time Inverse Over current Relay

The main application of long time over current relays is as backup earth fault protection.

Over current relays – induction disk:

• The inverse time response can be provided by an induction disk unit.

• In the induction disk unit, a metal disk is mounted on a shaft that can freely rotate.
• The current coils are fixed and create magnetic field that induces eddy currents in
the metal disk.
• The magnetic field of the eddy currents interacts with the magnetic field of the
stationary coils and produce torque on the disk.
• The disk and its shaft rotate and bring the moving contact towards the fixed
contact into a closed position.
• The motion of the shaft is opposed by a spring that returns the disk and the
moving contact into the open position when the current drops below a preset
value.
• The time to close the contact depends on the contact travel distance which is set
by a time dial.
• The pick-up current is adjustable by selecting current taps on the current coil.
• The relays are normally available with three ranges of current taps: 0.5 to 2.0 A,
1.5 to 6.0 A, and 4 to 16 A.

137
 • The time dial has usually positions marked from 0 to 10, where for 0 setting the
contact is permanently closed.

Negative Sequence Relays:

The negative relays are also called phase unbalance relays because these relays
provide protection against negative sequence component of unbalanced currents existing
due to unbalanced loads or phase-phase faults. The unbalanced currents are dangerous
from generators and motors point of view as these currents can cause overheating.
Negative sequence relays are generally used to give protection to generators and motors
against unbalanced currents.

A negative sequence relay has a filter circuit which is operative only for negative
sequence components. Low order of over current also can cause dangerous situations
hence a negative sequence relay has low current settings. The earth relay provides
protection for phase to earth fault but not for phase to phase fault. A negative sequence
relay provides protection against phase to phase faults which are responsible to produce
negative sequence components.

The Fig. 1 shows the schematic arrangement of negative phase sequence relay.

Basically it consists of a resistance bridge network.

The magnitudes of the impedances of all the branches of the network are equal.
The impedances Z1 and Z3 are purely resistive while the impedances Z2 and Z4 are the
combinations of resistance and reactance.
The currents in the branches Z2 and Z4 lag by 60o from the currents in the branches
Z1 and Z3.
The vertical branch B-D consists of inverse time characteristics relay.
The relay has negligible impedance.
138
The current IR gets divided into two equal parts I1 and I2. And I2 lags I1 by 60o.
The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 2.
Ī1 + Ī2= Īrs
Let I1 = I 2 = I

The perpendicular is drawn from point A on the diagonal meeting it at point B, as shown
in the Fig.2 This bisects the diagonal.
.. . OB = IR /2
Now in triangle OAB,
Cos 30 = OB/OA
.. . √3/2 = (IR/2)/I
.. . I = IR/√3 = I1 = I2 ............(1)
o o
Now I1 leads IR by 30 while I2 lags IR by 30 .

Similarly the current IB gets divided into two equal parts I3 and I4. The current I3lags I4 by
60o. From equation (1) we can write,
IB /√3 = I3 = I4 ...............(2)

The current I4 leads by IB while current I3 lags IB by 30o.

The current entering the relay at the junction point B in the Fig. 1 is the vector sum of,
and.
Irelay = Ī1 + Ī3 + ĪY
= IY + (IR/√3) (leads IR by 30o) + IB/√3(lags IB by 30o)

The vector sum is shown in the Fig. 3 when the load is balanced and no negative
sequence currents exist.

139
 It can be seen from the Fig. 3 that,
Ī1 + Ī3 = -ĪY
.
.. Ī1 + Ī 3 + Ī Y = 0

Thus the current entering the relay at point B is zero. Similarly the resultant current at
junction D is also zero. Thus the relay is inoperative for a balanced system.

Now consider that there is unbalanced load on generator or motor due to which negative
sequence currents exist. The phase sequence of C.T. secondary currents is as shown in
the Fig. 4(a). The vector diagram of I1, I3 and IY is shown in the Fig. 4(b) under this
condition.

The component I1 and I3 are equal and opposite to each other at the junction point B.
Hence I1 and I3 cancel each other. Now the relay coil carries the current IY
and when this current is more than a predetermined value, the relay trips closing the
contacts of trip circuit which opens the circuit breaker.

140
Zero Sequence Currents: The zero sequence components of secondary currents are
shown in the Fig. 5(a). We know that,

ĪR = Ī 1 + Ī 2
ĪB = Ī 3 + Ī 4

These sums are shown in the Fig. 5(b) and (c). It can be seen from the Fig. 5(d) that,

Ī1 + Ī3 = ĪY in phase with IY

The total current through relay is Ī1 + Ī3 +ĪY.

Thus under zero sequence currents the total current of twice the zero sequence current
flows through the relay. Hence the relay operates to open the circuit breaker.

To make the relay sensitive to only negative sequence currents by making it inoperative
under the influence of zero sequence currents is possible by connecting the current
transformers in delta as shown in the Fig. 6. Under delta connection of current
transformers, no zero sequence current can flow in the network.

141
Induction Type Negative Sequence Relay

Another commonly used negative sequence relay is induction type. Its construction is
similar to that of induction type over current relay. The schematic diagram of this type of
relay is shown in the Fig. 7.

The central limb of upper magnet carries the primary which has a centre tap. Due to this,
the primary winding has three terminal 1, 2 and 3. The section 1-2 is energized from the
secondary of an auxiliary transformer to R-phase. The section 2-3 is directly energized
from the Y-phase current.

The auxiliary transformer is a special device having an air gap in its magnetic circuit. With
the help of this, the phase angle between its primary and secondary can be easily
adjusted. In practice it is adjusted such that output current lags by 120orather than usual
180ofrom the input.

So, Ix = Input current of auxiliary transformer

IR1 = Output current of auxiliary transformer
and IR1 lags IR by 120o

Hence the relay primary carries the current which is phase difference of IR1 and IR.

Positive Sequence Current : The C.T. secondary currents are shown in the Fig. 8(a).

The Fig. 8(b) shows the position of vector IR1 lagging IR by120o.

The Fig. 8(c) shows the vector sum of IR1 and - IY.

The phase difference of IR1 and IY is the vector sum of IR1 and - IY. It can be seen from the
Fig. 8(c), that the resultant is zero. Thus the relay primary current is zero and relay is
inoperative for positive sequence currents.

142
Negative Sequence Currents : The C.T. secondary currents are shown in the Fig.. 9(a).
The Fig. 9(b) shows the position of IR1 lagging IR by 120o. The Fig. 9(c) shows the vector
difference of IR1 and IY which is the relay current.

Under negative sequence currents, the vector difference of IR1 and IY results into a current
I as shown in the Fig. 9(c). This current flows through the primary coil of the relay.

143
Under the influence of current I, the relay operates. The disc rotates to close the trip
contacts and opens the circuit breaker.

This relay is inoperative for zero sequence currents. But the relay can be made operative
for the flow of zero sequence currents also by providing an additional winding on the
central limb of the upper magnet of the relay. This winding is connected in the residual
circuit of three lines C.T. This relay is called induction type negative and zero sequence
relay.

Differential relay:

What is Differential Relays?

The relay which is used to checks the difference between the output and input currents
for power system current in known as differential relay.

The difference amongst the currents may also be in phase angle or in magnitude or in
each. For hale and energetic operation, angle and magnitude variations must be zero.

In case there's a difference which difference go beyond some value, the relay can work
and interconnected electrical circuit breaker can disconnect.

Principle operation of differential relay:

Assigning the previous one the power transformer with an external fault F is shown in
figure.

During this case the 2 currents I1, and I2 can increase to terribly high magnitudes values
however there's no modification in phase angle. Hence, net current within the differential
coil continues to be zero and therefore the relay won't operate.

Internal fault condition in differential relay:

144
An internal fault F is shown in this figure. Now, there are 2 anticipated conditions:

There’s other supply to feed the fault thus I2P includes a nonzero value I diff = I1S + I2S
which can be terribly high and sufficient to function the differential relay.

Radial system, I2P = 0. So, Idiff = I1S and additionally the relay can work and disconnect
the breaker.

Differential relay for Generator

• Diff Relay Measures current at each end of the phase winding of the protected
equipment.

• Resultant current activates the trip of alternator breaker and stop of prime mover.

• It provides protection against phase to phase and phase to ground faults.

• Currents at two ends of the protected sections are compared.

• Under normal operating condition, these currents are equal, hence no currents
flows through the relay.

• When a fault occurs in the protected zone, currents of the CTs at two ends of the
protected element becomes unequal.

145
 • Differential current flowing through the relay isolates the protected section from the
system.

• When fault is outside of the protection zone then current at both CT will be same,
so relay will not activate.

• Current setting for this very serious fault are very low; e.g. About 0.1xIn. (ref. DT
Hall)

• This relay activates the following action depending upon the design of the system.

• Trip of ACB/VCB

• Cuts off excitation voltage

• Stops the prime mover via PMS

OVERVOLTAGE/ UNDER VOLTAGE RELAY:

• The relay generally measures the three phase-to-phase voltages of the system.
• On operating, the relay trips the circuit breaker and/or provides an alarm signal, in
accordance with the configuration of the relay
• When one or several of the phase-to-phase voltages exceed the set start value U>
of the overvoltage stage, the overvoltage stage starts and generates a start signal
SS1.

146
 • When, at definite time mode of operation, the set operate time t> or, at inverse
time mode of operation, the calculated operate time t>, has expired, the
overvoltage stage delivers a trip signal TS1.
• In the same way the under voltage stage starts and generates a start signal SS2,
when the value measured goes below the start value U< has expired, the
undervoltage stage operates by generating a trip signal TS2.
• The overvoltage and under voltage relay is generally used as a three-phase relay.
• But by means of a selector switch the relay can be configured as a single phase
relay.
• Tripping of the under voltage stage can be blocked by applying a control signal BS
to the external opto-isolated control input of the relay.
• The overvoltage and under voltage relay is provided with two output relays for
tripping and three output relays for signalling. One of the signalling relays is
dedicated for the self supervision system of the relay.
• Settings of UV/OV is around 0.8 x Un and 1.2 x Un respectively with a time delay
of about 2 s. (ref DT Hall)

OVER FREQUENCY/ UNDER FREQUENCY RELAY:

• When the start frequency of a stage is set below the rated frequency, the stage
operates as an under frequency stage.
• Correspondingly, the stage has the function of an over frequency stage, when the
start frequency is set above the rated frequency.
• The frequency setting cannot be the same as the rated frequency.
• It initiates
- Under frequency alarm and/ or Trip
- Over frequency alarm and/ or Trip
- Typical setting for under/ over frequency are 58 Hz and 62 Hz for 60 Hz system.
(ref DT Hall)

REVERSE POWER RELAY:

147
 • A non magnetic metal disc can rotate in a magnetic field between two electro
magnets. The disc is restrained by a coil spring. The flux produces a torque on the
side which rotates the trip lever away from the trip contacts.
• In reverse power conditions the flux from the voltage coil and current coil interact
to rotate the disc in the reverse direction.
• The amount of torque/current (and hence power) is set on the current coil tapping.
• A permanent magnet is provided on the disc to provide damping.
• A 3 to 5 second delay is incorporated into the trip circuit to allow for transients
when paralleling.
• Reverse Power pick up setting;
- For turbine: 2-3% of rated power.
- For DG: 5-15% of rated power
- for 0.5-3 s. (ref. DT Hall)
- It is used to protect alternator from motoring effect.

The Isolated and Earthed Neutral System

The function of an electrical system is to safely convey the power from the source to the
various consumer equipment connected to it. A ship's electrical system can take any of
the two forms:
 Neutral Insulated system, or
 Neutral Earthed system.
The electrical system consists of a source and different consumer equipment. The source
may either be a single phase or three phase. In a single phase system, there happens to
be two leads emanating from source(Generator/Alternator), The line and The neutral. In a
three phase system, 3 or 4 leads may emanate from the source depending upon the type
of system used.

For single phase system:

148
In neutral insulated system, the neutral of the source is insulated. In other words, the
neutral is not connected to the earth. In neutral earthed system, the neutral of the source
is connected to the earth.

Insulated and Earthed Systems

For three phase system:

In neutral insulated system, the star point of the source is not connected to earth. Hence
there happens to be only 3 leads (3 phase wires R,Y,B) emanating from the source.
In neutral earthed system, the star point is earthed to ground. So 4 wires emanating from
source (3 phase and 1 neutral).

In an electrical system, 3 different types of fault may occur:

- Open circuit fault (A): due to break in the conductor so that current cannot flow.
- Short circuit fault (C): due to break in insulation so that two conductor touches
each other giving a short path to current and allowing a very large current to
bypass the load.
- Earth Fault (B): This is also due to break in insulation, but the conductor touches
the metal enclosure or the hull indirectly.

The discussion of the two types of electrical system(Insulated or earthed neutral)

depends on a large extent to the earth fault occurring in the circuit.

If a single earth fault occurs in the line of an earthed neutral system, then it would be
equivalent to a short circuit fault. The reason being, the earthed neutral creates a closed
path for the earth current to flow through the hull of the vessel. Since this path has a
minimal resistance; the earth current can increase to a very large extent.

149
Onboard ship, if the earth current increases beyond the current rating of the generator,
the entire system may collapse causing irreparable damage. To limit this earth current, a
Neutral Earthing Resistor is connected to the earthed neutral of the source. This resistor
is of sufficient ohmic value to limit the earth current within rating of the generator.
However, the magnitude of earth current is sufficiently large to operate the tripping
mechanism of the faulted equipment immediately isolating it from supply and rendering it
safe.

In a neutral insulated system, a single earth fault occurring in a system would not cause
any earth current to flow in the ship's hull. This is because a single earth fault current
does not provide a complete circuit for earth current to flow. So no protective trip will
operate and system will continue to function normally.

150
However, if a second earth fault occurs on another line in the insulated system, the two
earth faults together will be equivalent to a short circuit and the resulting earth fault
current will operate protection devices and cause disconnection of services.

Onboard a ship, the priority requirement is to maintain continuity of the electrical supply
to essential equipment in event of a single earth fault occurring. The priority requirement
ashore is the immediate isolation of earth-faulted equipment which is automatically
achieved by an earthed system.

To understand this better, a case study is used; If the earth fault occurs in an essential
system like that of steering gear, then in case of:
Insulated neutral system, no earth fault current will flow and the steering gear will
continue to operate until there is a second earth fault in any equipment present onboard.
Hence, even with a single earth fault, the essential service will continue to operate.
If the system would have been an earthed neutral, then a single earth fault would have
caused heavy earth current to flow and operate the tripping mechanism causing shutting
down of steering gear. This will seriously compromise with the safety of navigation.

Keeping this in mind, it is well understood that onboard a ship, a neutral insulated system
is to be used. And, in shore installations neutral earthed system is used.

Shipboard main LV systems at 440 V are normally provided with neutral insulated
system.

151
On the other hand HV system (1000 V to 3.3 KV) are usually provided with neutral
earthed system via a neutral earthing resistor. NER limits the current to safe level to
earth and E/F relay will operate isolating the system.

In a HV system, certain essential loads can be supplied by a transformer with its

secondary insulated to ensure no earth fault current flows in the equipment. This
maintains the continuity of service.

Both the Insulated neutral and Earthed neutral system have got their own advantages
and disadvantages. Where it is easier in the earthed neutral system to detect any earth
faults in system, it is easier in isolated neutral system to maintain the continuity of
service.

• In HV system human safety is preferred upon service continuity.

• In LV ships, essential service continuity is given more priority.

Earth Fault Relay:

• Medium Voltage alternators (for marine regarded as HV)are not designed to

withstand the dangerously high fault currents during a single phase to ground
fault.
• So, they are connected to a system with either low or high impedance devices.
• The reasons to limit the ground fault current by resistance grounding are;
• To reduce the burning and melting effects in the faulted equipments e.g. Switch
gear, transformers, cables and rotating machines.
• To reduce electrical shock hazards to the personnel caused by a stray ground
fault.
• To reduce arc flash hazards.
• To improve the detection of the earth fault in a power system
• Grounding resisters are generally connected between ground and neutral of
transformers, generators, and grounding transformers in order to limit the
maximum fault current to a value that will not damage the equipment in the power
system.

152
 • It also allows sufficient flow of fault current that can be detected by CT of earth
fault relay to activate the trip circuit.
• Although it is possible to limit the fault current with high resistance neutral earthing
resistance (NER) , the earth short circuit current can be extremely reduced.
• In this case protection device may not sense the fault current.
• Therefore, it is common to limit single phase fault currents with low impedance
NER to approximately the rated current of transformer and / or the generator.

Balance Earth Fault Protection:

In practice for small rating alternators, the neutral ends of the three phases are
connected to a single point. Hence it is not possible to introduce C.T. in each phase on
neutral side as required in Merz-Price Protection. In such cases, the balanced earth fault
protection can be used.

The balanced earth fault protection is shown in the below

153
At the outgoing side, the three C.T.s are connected in parallel as are connected in
unrestricted earth fault protection. A single C.T. is connected on the neutral side in the
pilot wire connecting neutral of alternator to earth. The neutral earthing is achieved
through the earthing resistance. A relay is connected across the C.T. secondaries.

Under normal conditions, the alternator line currents add to zero. Hence the vector sum
of the currents through the secondaries of C.T. is also zero. Thus no currents flows
through the relay and as neutral carries zero current hence no current is supplied to relay
from neutral side. So relay is inoperative.

If the fault appears at F2, at a position outside the protected zone then the sum of the
alternator line currents is exactly equal to the current in the neutral. Thus zero currents
flows through the relay is inoperative.

But if the fault occurs F1 at which is the protected zone then vector sum of alternator line
currents is different than the current through neutral side current transformer. Hence a
residual current flows through the relay. If this is greater than the pickup value of the
relay, the relay operates. This trips the tripping circuit, opening the circuit breaker.

By this scheme, the protection against earth faults is restricted to the region between the
neutral and the position where line current transformers are installed.

154
 PROTECTION OF FEEDERS

• In marine industry the employment of feeder protection is on the basis of

discrimination theory.
• In shore industry it is more important because power is transferred to a long
distance.
• In shore industry following feeder protections are utilised;
-Over current and earth fault protection
-Pilot wire protection
-Carrier current protection
Here we are not going to discuss all.
We will discuss which is applicable to marine industry only.

Purpose of feeder protection;

• During fault, the only circuit breaker closest to the fault point should be tripped.
• If the circuit breaker closest to the faulty point fails to trip the circuit breaker, then
just next to this breaker will trip as back up protection.
• The operating time of relay associated with protection of line should be as
minimum as possible in order to prevent unnecessary tripping of circuit breakers
associated with other healthy parts of power system.
• This can be achieved by:-

Line Protection by Definite Time Relay

155
 • In the figure, overall time setting of relay at point D is minimum and successively
this time setting is increased for the relays associated with the points towards the
point A.
• In case of any fault at point F will obviously trip CB-3 at point D.
• In failure of opening CB-3, CB-2 will be operated as overall time setting is higher in
relay at point C.

In General:

• All connection of torque tightened.

• Sealing lock material applied on the nuts.
• All nuts positions are marked, during inspection check for any dis-positioning.
• Check for condition of feeder line, like bus bar inspection during dry dock and
cable condition by insulation resistance test.

TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
Protection by balance earth fault relay;
• Most of the transformers in use are connected in the Delta / Star modes, the Delta
connection being the primary winding.
• Other connections such as Star / Star, Delta / Star are also in use.
• Invariably the primary winding is at a High Voltage.
• Although the secondary winding is often at a Low / Medium Voltage,
• In some cases it may be a High Voltage winding, both H.V. and L.V.
• Restricted Earth Fault Relays are instantaneous in operation.
• At any instant the vector sum of the line currents is Zero and the circuit will be
balanced under normal load conditions (Ia + Ib + Ic = 0).
• Under these balanced conditions there will be Zero current flowing in the
Restricted Earth Fault Relay and hence its alternative name is “Balanced Earth
Fault Relay”.
• When an earth faults occurs in the primary winding, current If flows to the earth; Ia,
Ib, and Ic are no longer balanced and sum is no longer equal to zero.
• Hence current now flows through the relay and CB trip activates.
• Considering the star winding, it can be seen that a 4th CT has been added on to
the transformer’s neutral.

156
• So, if an earth fault external to the transformer secondary occurs, the neutral
current and the sum of the three line currents Ia
• Ib, and Ic, will be equal to zero and therefore no current flows in the relay.
• If an earth fault occurs within the Transformer secondary winding, current If flows
and returns through the transformer neutral.
• Thus the sum of Ia, Ib, and Ic, and the neutral current is no longer equal to zero.
• And so current flows in the relay thereby causing it to operate;
• This opens the circuit breaker.
• A single current transformer (CT) is also installed on the neutral to earth conductor
in order to drive an inverse definite minimum time earth fault relay.
• This CT monitors all earth fault currents and if it exceeds a pre-set value and is
sustained for a pre-set time, it operates the relay which in turn trips the circuit
breaker.

157
NUMERIC (DIGITAL) PROGRAMMABLE RELAY

• Following functions are available:

- Remote Computer/ HMI capablity
- Sequence Quantity ( +ve, -Ve, Zero)
- Power ( active, reactive, power factor)
- Average, RMS, Peak Values.
- Harmonics quantities.
- Frequency
- Temperature (RTD)
- Motor start Protection
• Features of a Numeric (Digital) Relay for Motor Protection:
• Conventional electro-mechanical and static relays are hard-wired relays. Their
wiring is fixed and only their setting can be manually changed.
• Numeric or digital relays are programmable relays. The characteristics and
behavior of these relays can be programmed.
• Numeric protection devices offer several advantages in terms of protection,
reliability, and troubleshooting and fault information.
• They also have communication capabilities that facilitate remote control,
monitoring and data transfer.
• The input analog signals from various sensors like CTs and PTs are converted
into a digital representation and are processed according to the appropriate
mathematical algorithm.
• Processing is carried out using a specialized microprocessor that is optimized for
signal processing applications, known as a digital signal processor (DSP).
• A current signal from a CT is converted into a proportional voltage signal using a
current to voltage converter.
• The AC voltage proportional to the load current is converted into DC using a
precision rectifier and is given to a multiplexer which accepts more than one input
and gives only one output at a given time.

158
• The microprocessor sends a command signal to the multiplexer to switch on
a desired channel in order to accept a rectified voltage proportional to the
current in a desired circuit.
• The output of the multiplexer is fed to an analog to digital converter (ADC) in order
to obtain the signal in a digital form.
• The microprocessor then sends a signal to the ADC for the start of
conversion (SOC), examines whether the conversion is completed and on
receipt of the end of conversion (EOC) signal from the ADC, receives the
data in digital form.
• The microprocessor then compares the data with the pre-set value.
• If the input is greater than the pre-set value, the microprocessor then sends a trip
signal to the circuit breaker of the desired circuit.
• In the case of an instantaneous over current trip relay, there is no intentional time
delay and the circuit breaker trips instantly.
• In the case of a normal inverse, very inverse, extremely inverse and long
inverse over current relay, the inverse current-time characteristics are
stored in the memory of the microprocessor in a tabular tomb known as a
look-up table.
• It has special in-built features for self-check operations as mentioned below:
• Self-check feature — ability to detect and correct a failure before the protection
system operates.
• Data Acquisition System
• Memory Testing
• Set Point Testing
• Watch Dog Timer

159
Motor Protection General:
• Dead front starter panel design.
• Front cover cannot be opened when system is energised.
• Bonding cable essential between panel and panel door.
• Approved insulating mat for the starter panel.

160
 EMERGENCY GENERATOR PROTECTION

• Under normal operating conditions, the emergency switchboard is fed from the
main switchboard through a tie-breaker, with the emergency generator start
mode selector switch in the auto condition at the starter panel, and remote
condition in the engine control room.
• Under these conditions, a loss of voltage in the bus bars, a signal will be sent
which will start the emergency generator.
• Switchboard has selector switch as manual, semi-auto and auto.
• - Semi-auto: Synchronizing and short parallel connection before
disconnect on power restore.
• - Auto: Direct disconnect (no synchronizing), stop after five minutes.
• Feedback mode is possible.
• Phase sequence check protection for shore supply.

STATION BATTERY AS CONTROL POWER

BACKUP
• Some time it is referred as the heart of the electrical substation.
• An electrical substation battery or simply a station battery containing a number of
cells accumulate energy during the period of availability of A.C supply and
discharge at the time when relays operate so that relevant circuit breaker is
tripped.
• For this purpose 2 set of UPS system are fitted on vessels.

161
VCB Control Voltage Example

162
 CHAPTER 9
HIGH VOLTAGE INTERLOCK SYSTEM

163
 GENERAL PRECAUTIONS

1. Controlled access to HV switch gear compartments and enclosure is strictly

maintained.
2. Keys control of such compartments to be under chief engineer.

164
 3. No person other than an Authorised Person (HV) or Competent Person
(HV) may enter room containing high voltage equipment unless they are
accompanied by an Authorised Person (HV) or have receipt of a permit-to-
work, sanction-for-test or limitation-of-access issued by an Authorised
Person (HV).
4. These compartments should not be kept locked due to fire hazards on
board. Notices outside the door clearly mentions the below sign:

Or,

KEY SAFE
An approved device for the secure retention of all keys used to lock means of isolation,
earthing or other safety devices in accordance with the Safety Rules.
An APPROVED device for the secure retention of all keys used to lock off means of
isolation, earthing or other safety devices for the issue of an Electrical Permit to Work.

Use of Key Safes:

The issue of a Permit to Work is a declaration that the equipment detailed therein is safe
to Work on by virtue of isolation and earthing. The receipt is acceptance of those safety
precautions.

Most Safety Rules agree that all means of isolation, earthing and other safety devices
should be adequately secured prior to the issue of an Electrical Permit to Work (or as
applicable, to a Sanction for Test).

The purpose of this is to ensure that the safety pre-cautions taken and declared on the
Permit to Work or Sanction for Test cannot be altered whilst the Working Party are
operating.

The unique keys for padlocks used for the above purpose should preferably be
themselves secured in a KEY SAFE which can itself be locked with more than one lock
i.e. Authorised person and Competent person.

165
To ensure that neither the issuer, recipient or any other party can alter those Safety
Precautions until the Permit to Work is cleared it is suggested that the Key Safe be
locked with a unique lock as well as a lock openable by the issuer, and the key to that
lock given to the recipient with the signed and receipted Permit to Work. To be returned
only on clearance of that Permit to Work.

In some cases the ISO-LOK system is used to the same effect in that it requires the
release of a unique padlock before the suite key can be released, the key for that unique
padlock being in the possession of the recipient until the Permit to Work is cleared.

Application

1. To issue a permit to work or sanction for test on a high voltage circuit, all
isolation points will be locked off using an auxiliary set of padlocks controlled
by one mast er ke y.
2. When using a permit to work all circuit main earths nominated on the permit to
work will be locked off using an auxiliary set of padlocks controlled by one
master key and shall be from the same isolok as used in 1 above.
3. The isolok with the master key controlling the auxiliary padlock set will be
secured to a bar fitted in the substation.
4. A unique lock will be fitted to the isolok, the key of which will be issued to the
recipient of the permit to work or sanction for test at the time of issue for the
duration of the work and returned when the permit to work or sanction for test
is to be cancelled.
5. A high voltage padlock will be fitted to the isolok, the key of which will be under the
control of an authorised person.
6. When issuing a permit to work or sanction for test to an authorised person
holding a key to, the high voltage lock a second unique padlock should be used,
the key of which will be held by the issuer of the permit to work or sanction
to test.
The serial number of the unique l6cks used shall be recorded on the permit to work or
sanction for test.

166
Equipment
- Isolok with Master key attached
- Auxiliary padlocks to pass Master key
- Unique padlock with key
- existing High Voltage padlock

167
168
EXAMPLE: issue a permit to work a competent person on a transformer showing
use of isolock system.

169
170
 TRAPPED KEY AND KEY SAFE SYSTEM
This is an approved device for the secured retention of all keys use as a means of
isolation , earthing of other safety devices in accordance with the safety rules.

Use of key safes

The issue of a permit to work is a declaration that the equipment detailed therein is safe
to work on by virtue of isolation and earthing. The receipt is an acceptance of those
safety precautions. The purpose of this is to ensure that the safety precautions taken and
declared on the permit to work or sanction for test cannot be altered whilst the competent
personnel are operating.

The unique keys for padlocks use for the above purpose should preferably be
themselves secured in a key safe which can itself be locked with more than one lock.

In order to ensure that neither the issuer, recipient or any other party can alter those
safety precautions until the permit to work is cleared, it is suggested that the keys safe be
locked with a unique lock as well as a lock by the issuer, and key to that lock is given to
the recipient with the signed copy of the permit to work. It is to be returned only on
clearance of that permit to work.

In some cases the where Iso-lock system is used; it is required to release the unique
padlock before the suite key can be released. The key for that unique padlock must be in
the possession of the recipient until the permit to work is cleared.

Once a permit a permit is issued the keys to the system should be locked away so that
no isolations can be removed until the work as been completed. In some system the
permit issuer has sole control of the safe as in the key safe.

Where Iso-lock or multi key safes are used, then more than one person has a key but the
system cannot be unlocked until the work has been completed.

171
Key Interlock for a Generator cable compartment:

The generator breaker [GM 1] AND generator de-excitation switch is to be opened and the earthing
switch is to be closed before the compartment door can be opened.

Proceed as follows to open the compartment door.

1. Open generator breaker circuit breaker [GM1]and draw out the breaker to the "Disconnect" position,
then turn keys [GM11] to lock the circuit breaker in the "Open position." The key is now removable.

2. Turn key [GH12] to the "De-excite" position [on the de-excitation -DES.] The key is now removable.

3. Insert both keys [GH11] AND [GM12] into the door interlock of the earthing switch and turn them to
unlock the door. The keys are now held in place and the door can be opened; the earthing switch can now
be closed.

4. When the earthing switch has been closed, turn the key [GM13] to lock the earthing switch in the
"Closed" Position. The key is now removable. Insert the key [GM13] into the door interlock of the cable
compartment and turn it to unlock the door. The key is now trapped in place and the door can be opened.
5. Reverse the process to restore service.

172
KEY EXCHANGE SYSTEM

These systems work on the principle that the master key is designed to allow an
operation to be carried out and it cannot be released until all the necessary isolations
have taken place.

In the case of switchgear, this could be transformer isolation switch where parallel feeds
are used.

173
Key Interlock for Transformer Feeder Circuits:

This interlock is applied to the 6.6kV transformer feeder circuit's cable compartment. The earthing switch
is to be closed before the compartment door can be opened.

Proceed as follows to open the compartment door:

a] Open the 6.6kV feeder circuit breaker and draw-out the breaker to the "Disconnect" position, then turn
key [TM11] to lock the circuit breaker in the Open position. The key is now removable.

b] Insert key [TM11] into the door interlock of the earthing switch and turn it to unlock the door. The key
are now held in position and the door can be opened the earthing switch can now be closed.

c] When the earthing switch has been closed, turn key [TM12] to lock the earthing switch in the Closed
position. The key is now removable. Insert the key [TM12] into the door interlock of the cable
compartment and the turn it to unlock the door. The key is now trapped and the door can be opened.

d] Reverse the process to restore service.

Key Interlock for a motor starter

This interlock is applied to the motor starter cable compartment and component
compartment.

Motor starter breaker [52] is to be opened and the earthing switch is to be closed, before
the compartment door can be opened.

174
Proceed as follows to open the compartment door:

1. Open circuit breaker [52] and draw-out the breaker to the "Disconnect" position then
turn key [BT11] to lock the circuit breaker in the Open position. The key is now
removable.

2. Insert key [B11] into the door interlock of the earthing switch and turn them to unlock
the door of the earthing switch. The key is now trapped and the door of the earthing
switch can be opened.

3. When the earthing switch is to be be closed, turn key [B T12] to lock the earthing
switch in the "Closed" position.

4. The key is now removable.

5. Insert key [BT12] into the key exchange interlock [EI] When the key has been turned it
will held in position.

6. Key [BT13] is now removable [Interlock EI is mounted behind the rare panel].

7. Insert the key [BT13] into the door interlock of the cable compartment and turn in to
unlock the door. The key is now held in position and the door can be opened.

8. Reverse the process to restore service.

175
 CHAPTER 10
POWER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

176
Introduction:

Power Management System PMS is designed for marine switchboards and generators
control system for

 Automatic Synchronizing
 Automatic Loading Sharing
 Automatic Start/Stop/St by Generators according to Load Demands
 Large Motors Automatic Blocking
 PMS Functions and Monitoring with Load Analysis Illustration
 3 Phase Management, Voltage Matching
 Redundant Power Distribution
 Frequency Control

Functionality of power management system

PMS functionality The Power Management System (PMS) is a crucial part of the
automation and power systems on marine vessels, and in particular for ships with electric
propulsion and station keeping thrusters. The PMS controls the power system in order to
maximize the blackout prevention capabilities and minimize the fuel consumption. It also
serves to decrease the maintenance costs through protecting the equipment against
faults and malfunctions. Through interaction between the PMS and other control
systems, the performance of the vessel can be maximized. In order to give an overview
of the functionality of existing PMS, as well as to propose new challenges and ideas, the
main topics of the design and operation of the marine power plant have been described.

OVERALL FAULT VULNERABILITY AND REDUNDANCY

Power system fault vulnerability

The minimum power generating capacity and the number of the generating sets are
dependent upon the required thruster power to maintain position and heading of the
vessel under the most severe environmental conditions, services load and the auxiliary
systems.

Depending on class notation, some vessel must be resistant to single faults. In such
vessels, the actual total installed capacity is governed by the available power after a
single fault according to the following equation.

Where Prg is the installed generating power capacity, Prsg is the required power
generating capacity, and Ncomp is the number of separated sub-systems. The generating
sets, thrusters and their auxiliaries are housed in separate compartments. Eq. (2.1) is

177
based on equal capacity in each of the sub-systems, which is commonly applied in ship
designs.

According to (2.1), the amount of installed power decreases with the number of split
subsystems or number of the engine compartments. The highest P rg is obtained with two
subsystems, Ncomp=2, where Prg = 2 Prsg. As the Ncomp increases, Prg becomes closer to
the Prsg , Prg ≈ Prsg.

The design optimum lies in the point where the reduction in the installed power capacity
Prg fully compensates for the increase in the cost of additional compartments, each with
auxiliaries and services.
The following conflicting objectives and constraints are part of the optimization trade-offs:

− Constraint: vulnerability to single faults with the possibility to extend to multiple faults;

− Constraint: mission accomplishment (operational and weather conditions); − Objective:

minimize the installed power;

− Objective: minimize the complexity of the power system and costs of additional
auxiliaries;

− Objective: minimize the operating costs, among the highest is the fuel consumption.

The mission accomplishment is specified as the most severe environmental conditions

for the vessel to perform operations, e.g. 10 years winter storm conditions

In order to obtain more flexibility in satisfying these objectives, the component-based

optimization can be used, as shown in Fig. 2.1. Several levels of power system
redundancy for one or two engine rooms have been defined:

− Power generation level: defines the number of generating sets;

− Power distribution level: defines the number of switchboards, bus-ties, etc.;

− Electric part of propulsion system: number of frequency converters, electric motors,

etc.;

− Mechanical part of propulsion system: number of shafts, gears, propellers, etc.

For each of these levels, the objectives and constraints, defined above, can be included
in the optimization. The design constraints are influencing the power availability in the
vessel operations. The design constraints also influence the reliability of machinery
systems.

Thus, the PMS operation will depend to a large extent on a number of fixed parameters,
such as: the power system configuration, DP class, the installed power, number of
generating sets, and similar.

178
PMS fault vulnerability

In conventional machinery space with lower automation level, the control system is
centralized in one control processing unit (CPU), and a number of local control units
(LCU) which are distributed in the machinery space. The main operator station is located
at the same place as the CPU – machinery control room or bridge.

On highly automated systems found today, more common concept is to distribute PMS
functions in several units. Fig. 2.2 shows a concept of system integration with network
between operating stations, programmable logic controllers (PLCs) and thruster drives.
Process Control Stations (PCS, PCU) or Remote Processor Units (RPU) are PLCs. All
PMS substations or PCS that take part in the PMS are performing calculations based on
the information received from its own bus segment. They also share information from the
other PMS substations. In cases when the vessel must continue to operate with opened
bus-tie (power system is divided on two or more subsystems which are isolated), each
power system will have its own PMS substation, and each PMS substation can act as
autonomous unit. The system is not dependant on central computer, and a high
redundancy of the control system is achieved.

For smaller vessels, another concept is typically used. There each controller takes care
of the whole plant, with a duty/stand-by functionality.

179
 GENERATOR ALLOCATION CONTROL
Single point failure and maximum transient load:

The PMS monitors the total power demand and compares it to the available supply. The
PMS can automatically start and stop generator sets to coincide with the load changes in
accordance with the pre-calculated load dependent start/stop tables.
In case of sudden failure of the generating set, the power system loading will be
transferred to the remaining generators online. Then, the remaining generators on-line
must take the rest of the system load. The transient frequency deviation is limited to
±10% according to the class society rules. Activating the under frequency limit will initiate
opening of the circuit breaker(s) for the remaining generator(s) online.
This will have a blackout as a consequence. In order to prevent the blackout, the FLR
(Fast load reduction) system must reduce the load before the frequency reaches the
under-frequency limit. The transient load step in the system when Nf units are tripped
(fail) with k units online is defined:

Where, Pgf is the load for the generators that are tripped. The main requirement from the
class societies is the resistance to single failure. In that respect, the limits are usually
calculated for the situation in which the unit with the highest loading fails:

180
Where, Pgi is the current load of the generator. Each generator contributes an amount of
power proportional to its inertia, i.e. its inertial time constant Hi and power rating Pr,gi.
Assuming that the generators remain in the synchronism, the following equation to
calculate the load step per generator can be used:

Where Hi is the inertial time constant for each generating-set in seconds, and Pr,gi is the
generator power rating. When the fault occurs, the Nf faulty generators will be
disconnected and k–Nf generating-sets will remain on-line. The transient load per
generator is determined as the sum of the generator load and transient load step:

Load depended start of generating sets:

For the power system equipped with FLR system, as well as for those without FLR, the
blackout can be prevented as long as the maximum transient load step is lower or equal
to the permitted norm.

Standby generators come on load when ever power requirement is increased to the set
value.

Load sharing:

The load per unit depends on the load sharing constant, determined by the PMS.
Symmetric and asymmetric load sharing can be performed by the PMS system.

Load depended start/stop of generating sets:

The load dependent start table has to be optimized in order to obtain the lowest possible
fuel consumption, considering the blackout as an important constraint.
In the load increasing operations, when the load per generator becomes higher than
allowed the next generator in the start sequence must be started, synchronized and
connected to the network.

When the load per generator becomes lower than recommended by the engine
manufacturers, the number of units on-line can be disconnected and stopped. This is
usually done in order to save fuel and decrease the wear and resulting maintenance
costs due to low load running of the engines.

Available power:

181
In order to prevent a blackout, the system must always have a sufficient power reserve or
available power to its full online capacity.

Load limiting control

Consumer groups and limiting priority With respect to the priority of load limiting, it is
important to distinguish between the following types of loads:

− Sheddable loads: loads that may be used for system (network) load limiting. All
nonessential consumers can be regarded as sheddable. However, on plants with
electrical propulsion, these loads are typically electrical thrusters with frequency
converters and drilling loads. Due to slow responses of the vessel with respect to position
and heading, thrusters can operate with reduced load in DP for some period of time. This
period is typically sufficient to get the next unit on-line and increase the power generating
capacity;

− Non-sheddable loads: consumers that have high importance of supplying the energy.
These are typically loads of navigational equipment, control network load, hotel loads,
auxiliary machinery loads, and similar. This depends on the vessel type and may depend
on operations as well. Hotel loads will normally have higher priority in cruise vessels
(passenger comfort) than it will be for other vessel types.

Load shedding can also be used for other consumers than thrusters. Traditional load
shedding is based on switching off the groups of non-essential consumers when there is
a deficit of generated power. When the power is available, these sheddable consumers
can be switched on again. The main drawback when working with high number of
sheddable consumers is difficulties in the prediction of their behavior with respect to
active and reactive power during, in particular immediately after switching. Moreover, the
time to restore the sheddable consumers will increase with their number, as consumers
can not all be started at once. Preferable load shedding solution will include a low
number of consumers. With low number of consumers, the system behavior can also be
predicted up to some point.

With respect to controllability, i.e. precise control of the load, consumers can be divided
into the following groups:

− Controllable consumers: They are capable to precisely set the load within the machine
electrical/mechanical limits. These are typically consumers with frequency converters
(drives). Thrusters usually belong to this group together with other controllable loads,
such as the drilling loads and compressors;

− Non-controllable consumers: consumers that do not have the flexibility of different

power settings. These are all consumers capable only for the simple switching control:
ON/OFF. A great number of such consumers may be found on any vessel: various
heaters and direct on-line (DOL) asynchronous motors.

With respect to the nature of the operations, the consumers can also be divided to:

− Consumers that rely on the energy: The best for load limiting are the consumers that
rely on energy rather than power. This means that the operations will not be much

182
affected while operating with reduced power for the limited period of time.
Appliances/machines which rely on energy rather than power are: heaters, refrigerators,
air conditioners (HVAC) and similar. In general, the heating processes are slower than
mechanicals and electric. Thrusters also belong into this group due to the similar
reasons;

− Consumers that rely on the power: These are consumers that require full power all the
time, e.g. controllers and control equipment, navigational equipment, and similar. In
general, a limited number of consumers in the vessel really belong to this group. The
reason why only some consumers can be used for load limiting is explained in Fig. 2.3.

Fig. 2.3 shows all divisions of loads with respect to load priority, energy dependence, and
controllability. In order to reduce the load, the load must be sheddable and, if possible,
also controllable. Then such a load can be used for temporary network power reductions
when is needed from the overall blackout prevention control. Hence, the best suitable
load will rely on energy rather than power.

183
184
 CHAPTER 11
ELECTRIC PROPULSION

185
1. Introduction
The predominant type of prime movers for DP propulsion plants is the electric drive.
Practically every DP propulsion device installed in newly constructed vessels as well as
in most of the conversions is driven by an electric motor.

In the beginning of DP technology (which coincided with the advent of the DC/SCR
technology), either AC motors were utilized driving CP propellers at constant RPM or
SCR controlled DC motors were utilized driving fixed-pitch propellers at variable RPM.

In recent years, variable speed AC drives have become available and have been used in
some applications for DP propulsion.

The most commonly used motor drives are:

• DC converters, or SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier) for DC motors

• Cycloconverters (Cyclo) for AC motors, normally for synchronous motors

• Current source inverter type (CSI) converters for AC motors (synchronous motors)

• Voltage source inverter (VSI) type converters for AC motors, i.e. asynchronous,
synchronous and permanent magnet synchronous motors.

2. AC Systems with Controllable Pitch Propeller

• Several generators which feed AC of constant frequency and voltage (4160 - 6000
VAC) into a common bus.

186
• Constant-speed motor drive motors drive the propeller
• Usually cage-type induction motors and may be designed with pole-changing switches
to allow for two operating speeds
• Electrical simplicity
• Highest efficiency at design point (maximum load) of the electric drive systems
• CP propeller is less efficient than a fixed pitch propeller in partial load conditions -
power drawn by a CPP at zero thrust is approx. 20% of the rated power
• Electrical part of an AC-CP system is a simple and reliable arrangement,
• But CP propeller is considerably more complex than a fixed pitch propeller (FPP) – also
un- accessible for routine maintenance and requires dry-docking of the vessel to gain
access to or removal of the thrusters.

When started direct-on-line (DOL), the induction motor has a large starting current
transient, typically 5-7 times the nominal current, with significant shaft torque transients
and voltage drops in the network→ minimum running generator capacity often must be
defined to be able to start a large motor.

Star delta switching is often used to provide higher starting torque with reduced
transients, but is not the best solution. Soft-starting devices such as auto-transformers
have been shown to give better results. Solid-state soft starters are not commonly used
for high power levels.

187
3. SCR Controlled DC Drive and Fixed Pitch Propeller
• AC current produced by Diesel generators at constant voltage (600 VDC max.) and
frequency.
• A fixed pitch propeller is driven by the DC propulsion motors. Varying the propeller RPM
and reversing the rotation direction of the propeller shaft allow the thrust to be controlled
in magnitude and direction.
• AC/DC propulsion combines the highly efficient and reliable generation of AC current
with the DC motor capability of producing high torque at low speed, the feasibility of
varying the characteristic by adjusting the excitation, and easy reversing of the direction
of rotation.
• Full-bridge thyristor rectifier (Silicon Controlled Rectifier = SCR) feeds the DC motor
with a controlled armature (rotor winding) current. The field winding (stator) is excited
with a regulated field current.

• Speed of the DC motor is proportional to the DC armature voltage.

• The DC voltage on the motor armature windings (rotor) is controlled by phase shifting
the thyristors’ conduction interval by the gate firing angle α. The gate firing angle α can
be controlled from 0 to 180 degrees, and the voltage on the armature windings can
hence be regulated from +1.35 to –1.35 Vs (line voltage).

188
• The torque is controlled accurately and with low ripple (if the armature inductance is
high, L), but this, on the other hand, reduces the dynamic performance since the time
constant of the armature increases.
• In practice, α > 15 degrees, in order to ensure controllability of the motor drive also with
voltage drops in the network, and α < 150 degrees to have a commutation margin.
• Power factor Since the armature current is controlled by use of the firing angle of the
thyristor devices, the AC currents will be phase-shifted with respect to fundamental
voltage (vs). In a DC motor drive, where the speed is varying from 0 to 100%, the power
factor (PF) will also vary from 0 to 0.96. Theoretically, power factor can be calculated by
following equation [2]:

PF = (3 / π) · cos α ≈ 0.955 · cos α.

From equation follows that highest value of power factor is obtained for zero speed (α =
180 deg or full speed α = 0 deg ). Taking into consideration that α > 15 degrees we
cannot even theoretically obtain PF higher than 0.92, i.e. PF < 0.92.

189
Disadvantages:

• The limitation of voltage (maximum voltages are 600 VAC/750 VDC) → leads to heavy,
expensive motors and cable runs

• Commutator wear → higher maintenance requirements of the DC motors

• Practical limit for DC motor drives is 2-3 MW

• The power factor will vary from 0 to 0.92 (α=15degrees) – corespondant to 0 to 100%
propeller RPM.

• Power electronic equipment requiring a clean and cool environment (important for
smaller vessels)

• The presence of electromagnetic interference (EMI)

Applications:

190
• Introduction of the high current SCR in the late 1960s, the AC/DC electric propulsion
drive has become quite popular.

• Vessels with this type of propulsion system include fishing trawlers and factory vessels,
research vessels, icebreakers, offshore supply vessels, conventionally moored and
dynamically positioned drill vessels, and semisubmersibles.

• Undesirable response in electronic equipment (such as engine and generator controls,

instrumentation, navigation equipment, engine room automation, computers, etc.).

Efficiency:
AC generators 97% x SCRs 98% x Propulsion DC motors 94% (x reduction gear 98%)
Total system efficiency 89% (87%)

4. SHIP ELECTRICAL PROPULSION

PODDED PROPULSION

• Freely rotatable (azimuthing through 360°) and may produce thrust in any direction.
• Incorporates an electrical AC motor mounted directly on the short propeller shaft, inside
a sealed pod unit that is submerged under the vessel hull.
• The motor drives a fixed-pitch propeller (FPP).
• Controlled by a frequency converter that converts a three-phase AC voltage of constant
frequency into a variable three-phase AC voltage with variable frequency.
• Torque is available in either direction over the entire speed range (typically from 0 to
300 RPM).

System description:

• Variable speed drives has been in industrial use since in many decades, but first at the
end of the 1960’s by use of power semiconductors. At the beginning, DC motors where
the most feasible alternative for propulsion control.
• During the 1980’s, AC motor drives became industrially available, and commercially
competitive.
• Since then, almost all new deliveries of electric propulsion are based on one of the AC
drive topologies.
• AC system generates medium voltage AC (3.3 kVAC, 6.6 or 11 kVAC) at constant
frequency and voltage.
• Controls the RPM of the drive motor (induction or synchronous motors) by varying the
frequency of the system.

191
192
AZIMUTH THRUSTERS

• Azimuthing thruster, is powered from an in-board, typically a horizontal electro motor,

and the mechanical power is transferred to the propeller via a Z-shaped gear. The
underwater shape is optimized for low hydrodynamic resistance at higher ship velocity,
for higher propulsion efficiency. ƒ

Z-type gear transmission → vessels with limitation of in-board height of the thruster room,
the electric motor will normally be horizontal. ƒ

L-type gear transmition – will normally be selected when the height in the thruster room
allows for it simpler construction with less power transmission losses, vertically mounted
motors.

• Thrusters that can be rotated in order to produce thrust in any direction.

• The thrust is controlled either by constant speed and CPP design, variable speed FPP
design, or in rare cases with a combination of speed and pitch control. Variable -speed
FPP designs has a significantly simpler mechanical underwater construction with
reduced lowthrust losses compared to constant speed, CPP propellers.

• Conventional azimuth thrusters are at present (2002) in use with power ratings up to 6-7
MW.

193
194
5. FREQUENCY CONVERTERS:
Three basic system configurations are available for the variable frequency control:

Fig. 16. AC motor drives used in marine applications

Fig. 17. AC motor drive technology review

Fig. 18. Power flow and efficiency of electric installation

195
5.1. CYCLOCONVERTER VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES

• The cycloconverter is an SCR Converter System which converts a fixed frequency,

fixed voltage input into a variable frequency, variable voltage output in a single stage
without the need for a DC link and may be used to power either synchronous or
asynchronous motor.

• In marine applications, only synchronous motors (AC motor with DC excitation) have
been used with cycloconvertors. Synchronous machines are preferred to cage induction
motors (asynchronous machines) due to their large air gap giving them a higher degree
of robustness.

• Motor nominal voltage 1500V or 1800V

• The Cycloconverter and Current Source drives (Synchro, CSI, LSI) are direct
descendants of DC drive technology and use the same basic naturally commutated
thyristor converters (same 6 arm Graetz bridges)

• Its major advantage is high torque at low speeds with low torque pulsations and
excellent dynamic response performance:
→applied as direct propeller drives on modern icebreakers (possible to free a propeller
frozen in ice or to cut a block of ice without stalling the motor)
→in dynamic positioning and passenger vessel applications (not necessary) where low
speed / manoeuvring performance is essential

• Can inherently reverse and regenerate

• Can easily provide large overloads (e.g. 250% and field weakening)

• Multiple bridges give high power ratings

• Ratings typically up to 30MW pre drive motor, 500 RPM

Limitations:

• Output frequency is limited to 30 to 40% of AC supply frequency (aprox. 20 Hz)

• Complex AC supply effects
• Because of the phase control modulation, the cycloconverter will always draw lagging
reactive current, even if the motor operates at unity power factor.

196
• The supply power factor (PF) is motor voltage-dependent and is about 0.76

→ The installed kVA capacity would be approximately 25 to 30% more than that required
for AC/DC alternative.

• Direct AC to AC converter
• SCR Thyristor
• Synchronous motor (AC motor with DC excitation)
• High power at low speed

197
• Cycloconverter bridge configuration is constructed of two 6 arm Graetz bridges
connected in anti-parallel and supplying each phase of a three phase machine

• The cycloconvertor “constructs” the output voltage wave-form from sampled portions of
the supply wave-form, in effect the process is one of modulated phase control in which
the supply side current harmonics (Ish) depend upon the supply to load frequency ratio (f s
/ fd).

198
 Fig. 24. Cycloconverter drive applied on icebreaker

Cycloconverter drive technology was ideally suited to the extreme requirements (large
powers at low speeds and high dynamic performance) of the Icebreaker.
Icebreaker example:
• twin shafts each rated at 11.2 MW,
• each shaft being powered by two 5.6 MW Cycloconverters capable of providing 175%
full load torque (FLT) for 30 seconds at zero speed.

5.2. SYNCHRO CONVERTER - CURRENT SOURCE VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES

(Load Commutated Inverter – LCI, Current Source Inverter - CSI)

• The line side converter (naturally commutated AC/DC thyristor input converter) takes
power from a constant frequency (60 Hz) bus and produces a controlled DC voltage on
so called DC link, on the same way as SCR - DC drive converter.
• Current flow in the line side converter is controlled by adjusting the firing angle of the
input bridge thyristors (line side converter) and by natural commutation of the AC supply
line.
• The DC link inductor L is used to smooth the DC current Id, see figure bellow. It
effectively turns the line side converter into a current source converter (with I d ≈ const.,
constant output current of line-side converter), as seen by the machine side converter. As

199
a result of the action of the link inductor L, such an inverter is frequently termed a
naturally commutated current source inverter (CSI).
• The machine side converter (output side converter) normally operates in the inversion
mode. Inverter thyristors are commutated by the synchronous motor induced voltage
(emf).
• Pulse width modulation is not possible to apply in this type of converter (because
thyristors are only on-controllable), so the inverter output current is composed by quasi
square wave, generating a large amount of low frequency current harmonics into the
motor (5th and 7th), increasing the losses and the heating inside the machine.
• The motor speed is controlled by changing the inverter output current frequency, fo,
while the motor flux and torque are adjusted by controlling the amplitude of the DC link
current Idc
• At low motor speed a minimum level of machine emf is required to ensure correct
commutation of the thyristors. Hence, for operating speed lower than 10 % of the rated
value, the method of “dc link pulsing” is used to commutate inverter thyristors. This
method consists of reducing the dc link current to zero by temporarily operating the
rectifier in the inversion mode. During this zero-current interval, the previously conducting
thyristors regain their blocking capability and the motor current can be transfered from
one inverter leg to the other.
• In order to assure the appropriate induced voltage at the motor terminals, which is
necessary to turn off the inverter thyristors, the synchronous motor must operate in the
capacitive mode that is with leading power factor.
• Regeneration
The drive power circuit is inherently regenerative to the main supply system thus
enabling the vessel or the thruster to be stopped and reversed quickly. A dynamic
braking resistors may be required to execute dynamic braking and they will convert the
regenerated energy into the heat. The dynamic braking resistors are water cooled.

• The thyristors of the input bridge (line converter) are fired using natural commutation
and are controlled to keep the current at the required level in the DC link reactor.

200
• The thyristors of the output bridge (load converter) are fired in step with the rotation of
the motor and act as an electronic commutator. This works by using the back emf of the
motor to also give natural load commutation of these thyristors.
• CSIs, also called current-fed inverters, behave like a constant current generator,
producing an almost square-wave of current. This gives 6 steps of stator current per
motor cycle, see figure for six-step waveform.

Limitations

• High torque pulsations There is high torque pulsations on lower speed (quasi-square
wave frequency inverter). However, since the propeller produce significant thrust only for
speeds higher then about 30% to 40% of rated speed that limitation has no important
consequence in marine applications.
• The LCI synchronous motor drive now is capable of developing 100% full load torque
over the entire speed range and can develop considerably higher torques during the start
mode when inverter commutation is by pulsing the DC link current and not by natural
commutation.
• Power Factor and harmonics The supply convertor functions as does the conventional
AC/DC convertor in providing a source of controllable voltage, whilst the machine
convertor and synchronous machine functions as a DC motor with a six segment
commutator.
The power factor and frequency at which power is drawn from the supply is independent
of the operating power factor and frequency of the machine convertor (synchronous
motor operates at high leading power factor - about 0.9), in fact the kW and kVA taken by
the drive are the same as that required by a thyristor fed DC motor (from 0 to 0.96 = 3/π ·
cos α and depend on speed i.e. fiering angle α is proportional to PF), so also are the
harmonic currents and resulting waveform distortion. Sometimes very stringent, THD
(Total Harmonic Distortion) Class Society/Owner requirements would require installing of
passive, damped filters.

201
Application

• Historicaly, LCI drives (onshore industry) were used over a limited speed range i.e. 60%
to 100% of nominal speed and required to operate at very high torque at zero speed
(170% of nominal torque) and to be able to accelarate from 30% to 100% in 1 to 2
seconds.

• For marine application these requirements are not desirable for two main reasons:
- Propeller acceleration is limitied by cavitation of propeller. Basically, cavitation is
water evaporation on propeller suction side which produces noise, vibration, stress
and errosion on propeller blades and on surounding hull surfaces. Hence,
propeller should accelerate slowly.
- Due to power plant limitations – There is no available power on network in such
short time. Power management system (PMS) ussualy takes up to 5 to 10
seconds to allocate necessary power. Diesel engine driven generators need about
10 to 20 seconds to take the full load from 0 to 100%. Moreover, if PMS should
start new generator, due to low available power on network, it will take more than
20 seconds until next generator start to share the load and more 10 to 20 seconds
until be fully loaded.
• The greater simplicity of the control system is its main advantage.
• Simple and reliable • Output frequency can exceed AC supply Frequency, eg 80Hz
• Ratings typically up to 100 MW (in marine applications < 30 MW per unit), 5000 rpm,
10000 VAC
• Suited to normal high power ship propulsion applications such as the cruise liner
market.
• Provide quiet propulsion for passenger vessels
• Sometimes the required range of control of thrust can be accomplished by controlling
the pitch of a controllable pitch propeller (CPP) in conjunction with the (limited) speed
control of the synchronous propulsion motors (Queen Elizabeth II repowering).

202
5.3. VOLTAGE SOURCE DRIVES (VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTERS –
VSI)

The Voltage Source drives use forced commutated power switches. A wide range of
forced commutated power switches are used with 3 types being the most popular:
1. Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors – IGBTs
2. Gate Turn Off Thyristors – GTOs
3. Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristors – IGCTs
•The PWM (Pulse Width Modulated) drive, often also referred to as VSI (Voltage Source
Inverter) is characterized by its DC voltage link which is fed from the power system by a
diode rectifier. A capacitor bank C is used to smooth the DC link voltage and to minimize
the effect of harmonic distortion from the output (inverter) stage on the supply.
• Power factor Since a diode bridge is used to produce DC voltage, the PWM drive draws
almost unity power factor current from the supply (PF = 3/π = 0.955), and is maintained
at a constant level at all motor speeds
• Hence, the generators may have constant power factors approaching 0.9 as against
speed dependent PF = 0 to 0.85 for LCI and PF = 0 to 0.75 for Cyclos.

203
Low voltage source inverter drives

• These converters use a simple input rectifier to give a fixed voltage DC link via an LC
filter. This fixed DC voltage (VDC) is switched on/off very rapidly in the output inverter.
• The output line voltage has 3 possible states (+VDC, 0, -VDC) and the timing is varied
by Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) to give sinusoidal motor currents, with very low levels
of motor torque pulsations.

Features

• Output frequencies to more than 300Hz

• Constant performance at all speeds/loads with low torque
• Very dynamic responses possible
• Reduced impact on AC supply (i.e. dips and harmonics)
• Ratings typically up to 3.5 MW, 2000 RPM, 6900 VAC

204
MEDIUM VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER DRIVES
• The low voltage, Voltage Source Inverter PWM drives have proved so successful that a
challenge has existed to apply this technology at medium voltages up to 6.6 kV. This
increase is desirable to further increase power ratings and reduce cable sizes and costs.
• Multi-level PWM circuits are also available to further improve motor waveforms. For
high power PWM drives a much more complex three level pulse width modulation
increases complexity that might lower reliability.

LIMITATIONS
• Extra equipment required for regeneration (regenerative breaking is not necessary for
applications where crash manoeuvre is not performed is i.e. for dynamic positioning)
• Output filtering required for some standard induction motors

Applications

205
• Output frequencies to more than 300 Hz, hence PWM drives are best suited to high
speed motor drive (900-1200 rpm) applications, requiring a step-down gearbox to drive
the propeller (azimuth thrusters with Z-type gear transmission) thus offering the cost- and
weight-effective solutions.
• Constant performance at all speeds/loads with low torque pulsations
• PWM drive has excellent dynamic performance. The torque is smoothly controlled at all
speeds, including zero speed, with speed feedback in a vector-controlled scheme.
• Harmonic distortion will often be below the limits defined by rules and guidelines without
additional filtering.
• Ratings typically up to 20 MW (Commercially up to 8 MW), 2000 RPM, 6600 VAC.

6. Comparison of all drives

All converters will impose some harmonic distortion on to the supply network which, if left
untreated, could affect the operation and life of any other equipment connected to that
supply.

The best way to lower harmonics in terms of cost and space is to design the power
system such that the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) does not exceed pre-defined levels
without the need for additional filters.

Using PWM drive and 12-pulse configurations, the resulting harmonic distortion will often
be below the limits defined by rules and guidelines without additional filtering.

The dominant harmonic currents are of the 5th, 7th, 11th, and 13th harmonic order.
Using 12-pulse configuration will cancel the 5th and 7th harmonics.

Furthermore, using 24 pulse systems offer the lowest harmonic distortion levels.

206
OPERATION RELIABILITY OF ELECTRIC PROPULSION SYSTEM

For improved operation reliability and availability different design measures are
provided depending on the actual requirements:
- Each propulsion motor with 2 independent stator windings as double winding
system for 1 winding supply with 50% propulsion torque in case of a failure of the
other one (redundancy: 50% per drive)
- Each frequency converter with 2 independent converter parts for supply with 1
converter part with 50% propulsion torque in case of a failure of the other One
(redundancy: 50% per drive)
- Each frequency converter with 2 power supplies from the main switchboard for
power supply operation with 50% propulsion torque in case of failure of the other
One (redundancy: 50% per drive)
- Each frequency converter with two independent excitation converters with
excitation transformers and power supply as active/ standby system for 100%
propulsion torque (Redundancy 100%)
- Each frequency converter with two independent control system as active/ stand by
system for 100% propulsion torque (Redundancy 100%).

207
Harmonics:

Mains Quality:
• All kind of frequency converters generate harmonics in the mains and therefore
influence the mains quality. On the other hand the maximum harmonic content to
admissible levels following measures can be provided depending upon the
propulsion configuration:
• Each frequency converter operates to the ship’s mains as active front end system
or with 12-, 24- or 48-pulses system with supply via transformers with 2 secondary
windings and corresponding phase deviations.
• The main alternators are designed with reduced sub transient reactance xd to
achieve low commutation reactance.
• The propulsion transformers and DC reactors (if provided) are designed with
improved reactance.
• The propulsion transformers (if provided) and mains transformers are designed
with earthed screen winding between primary and secondary windings
• System simulation prior project start, taking into account the whole mains
configuration including cable network results in a safe system design of all related
components.

208
 CHAPTER 12
HIGH VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKERS

209
Generally two types of HV Circuit breakes are utilised in the marine industry:
1. Vacuum Circuit breakers and,
2. SF6 gas circuit breakers.
for indoor and outdoor applications.

VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKERS

What is a circuit breaker?

• General definition by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC):

• “Circuit breakers are mechanical switching devices, capable of making, carrying

and breaking currents under normal circuit conditions and also making, carrying
for a specified time and breaking currents under specified abnormal circuit
conditions such as those of a short circuit.

• A circuit breaker is usually intended to operate infrequently, although some types

are suitable for frequent operation."

• Current flows through contacts

• Plug is mechanically separated from fingers

• Arc forms between the separated contacts

• Arc is extinguished at a current zero (CZ) crossing using a combination of flow and
turbulence

210
 • Vacuum medium voltage circuit-breakers consist of an insulating monobloc in
which three vacuum interrupters are housed.

• The monobloc and operating mechanism are fixed to a frame.

• The vacuum interrupter houses the contacts and makes up the interrupting
chamber.

Current interruption in vacuum

• The vacuum circuit-breaker does not require an interrupting and insulating

medium.

• The interrupter does not contain ionisable material.

• During separation of the contacts, an electric arc is generated made up exclusively

of melted and vaporised contact material.

• Electric arc only remains supported by the external energy until the current is
cancelled by passing through natural zero.

• At that instant, the rapid reduction in the load density carried and the fast
condensation of the metallic vapor, leads to extremely rapid recovery of the
dielectric properties.

211
Arc-quenching system

• As the contacts open, the current that is to be interrupted initiates a metal-vapor

arc discharge.

• Current continues flowing through the metal vapor plasma until the next current
zero.

• The arc extinguishes at approximately current zero.

• The metal vapor loses its conductivity within a few microseconds, which very
quickly re-establishes the dielectric strength of the contact gap.

212
 • With radial magnetic field contacts, the arc burns diffusely while the current is up
to approx. 10 kA (instantaneous value).

• At higher current values the arc is contracted, so that local overheating of the
contact pieces must be avoided

• An additional radial magnetic field produces a force which causes the arc to run
around the arcing rings of the contact pieces.

• This allows the contact erosion that occurs at the root of the arc to be distributed
over the whole circumference of the rings.

Interlocks/protection against mal-operation

• To prevent dangerous situations and mal-operation, a series of interlocks exist to

protect both personnel and equipment.:

213
 • The withdrawable part can only be moved from the test/disconnected position (and
back) when the circuit-breaker and earthing switch are off (i.e., the switch must be
off beforehand.)

• In the in-between position, the switch is mechanically interlocked, in the case of

circuit-breakers with electrical release, the interlock is also electrical.

MAINTENANCE OF MEDIUM-VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKERS

FREQUENCY OF MAINTENANCE:-

• Medium-voltage circuit breakers which operate in the range of 600 to 15,000 volts
should be inspected and maintained annually or after every 2,000 operations,
whichever comes first.

• The above maintenance schedule is recommended by the applicable standards to

achieve required performance from the breakers.

SAFETY PRACTICES.-

• Maintenance procedures include the standard safety practices.

• Be sure the circuit breaker and its mechanism are disconnected from all electric
power, both high voltage and control voltage, before it is inspected or repaired.

214
 • After the circuit breaker has been disconnected from the electrical power, attach
the grounding leads properly before touching any of the circuit breaker parts.

MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES FOR MEDIUM-VOLTAGE VACUUM CIRCUIT

BREAKERS:

• Direct inspection of the primary contacts is not possible as they are enclosed in
vacuum containers.

• The operating mechanisms are similar to the breakers discussed earlier and may
be maintained in the same manner

• The following two maintenance checks are suggested for the primary contacts:

• Measuring the change in external shaft position after a period of use can indicate
extent of contact erosion.

• Consult the manufacturer's instruction book.

• Condition of the vacuum can be checked by a hi-pot test.

• Consult the manufacturer's instruction book.

215
ABB Vacuum breaker Operating Mechanism

216
 SF6 GAS CIRCUIT BREAKERS

It contains an arc interruption chamber containing SF6 gas.

In closed position the contacts remain surrounded by SF6 gas at a pressure of 2.8
kg/cm2 .

During opening high pressure SF6 gas at 14 kg/cm2 from its reservoir flows towards the
chamber by valve mechanism.

217
SF6 rapidly absorbs the free electrons in the arc path to form immobile negative ions to
build up high dielectric strength.

It also cools the arc and extinguishes it.

After operation the valve is closed by the action of a set of springs.

Absorbent materials are used to absorb the bi-products and moisture.

Advantages:
Very short arcing period due to superior arc quenching property of SF6 .

Can interrupt much larger currents as compared to other breakers.

No risk of fire.

Low maintenance, light foundation.

No over voltage problem.

There are no carbon deposits.

Disadvantages:
SF6 breakers are costly due to high cost of SF6.

SF6 gas has to be reconditioned after every operation of the breaker, additional
equipment is required for this purpose.

In SF6 CB, the arc quenching media is SF6 Gas.

PROPERTIES OF SF6 (SULFURHEXAFLUORIDE) GAS:

• Toxicity.- SF6 is odorless, colorless, tasteless, and nontoxic in its pure state.

• It can, however, exclude oxygen and cause suffocation.

• If the normal oxygen content of air is reduced from 21 percent to less than 13
percent, suffocation can occur without warning.

• Therefore, circuit breaker tanks should be purged out after opening.

Toxicity of arc products:

• Toxic decomposition products are formed when SF6 gas is subjected to an electric
arc.

• The decomposition products are metal fluorides and form a white or tan powder.

• Toxic gases are also formed which have the characteristic odor of rotten eggs.

218
 • Do not breathe the vapors remaining in a circuit breaker where arcing or corona
discharges have occurred in the gas.

• Evacuate the faulted SF6 gas from the circuit breaker and flush with fresh air
before working on the circuit breaker.

Physical properties:

• SF6 is one of the heaviest known gases with a density about five times the density
of air under similar conditions.

• SF6 shows little change in vapor pressure over a wide temperature range and is a
soft gas in that it is more compressible dynamically than air.

• The heat transfer coefficient of SF6 is greater than air and its cooling
characteristics by convection are about 1.6 times air.

Dielectric strength.-

• SF6 has a dielectric strength about three times that of air at one atmosphere
pressure for a given electrode spacing.

• The dielectric strength increases with increasing pressure; and at three

atmospheres, the dielectric strength is roughly equivalent to transformer oil.

• The heaters for SF6 in circuit breakers are required to keep the gas from
liquefying because, as the gas liquefies, the pressure drops, lowering the dielectric
strength.

• The exact dielectric strength, as compared to air, varies with electrical

configuration, electrode spacing, and electrode configuration.

Arc quenching.-

• SF6 is approximately 100 times more effective than air in quenching spurious
arcing.

• SF6 also has a high thermal heat capacity that can absorb the energy of the arc
without much of a temperature rise.

HANDLING FAULTED SF6:

• Toxicity.- Faulted SF6 gas smells like rotten eggs and can cause nausea and
minor irritation of the eyes and upper respiratory tract.

• Normally, faulted SF6 gas so foul smells no one can stand exposure long enough
at a concentration high enough to cause permanent damage.

Solid arc products

219
 • Solid arc products are toxic and are a white or off-white, ash like powder.

• Contact with the skin may cause an irritation or possible painful fluoride burn.

• If solid arc products come in contact with the skin, wash immediately with a large
amount of water. If water is not available, vacuum off arc products with a
vacuum cleaner.

Clothing and safety equipment requirements

• When handling and removing solid arc products from faulted SF6, the following
clothing and safety equipment should be worn.

Coveralls

• Coveralls must be worn when removing solid arc products.

• Coveralls are not required after all solid arc products are cleaned up.

Disposable coveralls are recommended for use when removing solid arc products;
however, regular coveralls can be worn if disposable ones are not available, provided
they are washed at the end of each day.

Hoods

• Hoods must be worn when removing solid arc products from inside a faulted dead-
tank circuit breaker.

Gloves

• Gloves must be worn

• Inexpensive, disposable gloves are recommended.

• Non-disposable gloves must be washed in water and allowed to drip-dry after use.

Safety glasses.-

• Safety glasses are recommended when handling solid arc products if a full face
respirator is not worn.

Respirator.-

• A cartridge, dust respirator is required when entering an internally faulted dead-

tank circuit breaker.

The respirator will remove solid arc products from air breathed, but it does not supply
oxygen so it must only be used when there is sufficient oxygen to support life.

220
• The operating mechanisms of all types of circuit-breakers require servicing, some
more frequently than others depending mainly on the amount of energy they have
to provide.

• For the vacuum-circuit breaker the service interval lies between 10,000 and
20,000 operations.

• For the SF6 designs the value varies between 5,000 and 20,000.

• Based on the number of operations SF6 and vacuum circuit-breakers used in

industrial distribution systems will, under normal circumstances, never reach the
limits of their summated breaking current value.

• The need for the repair or replacement of an interrupter will be a rare in these
circuit-breakers and can be considered maintenance-free.

• Service or maintenance requirements are restricted to routine cleaning of external

surfaces and the checking and lubrication of the mechanism, including the trip-
linkages and auxiliary switches.

221
 CHAPTER 13
SAFE ISOLATION PROCESS

222
Introduction:

Every High Voltage is different from each other. So a through planning and reliable
execution is needed to perform the safe isolation of the equipment on which work is
suppose to commence.

To achieve this, following steps in chronological order is required to be performed for

making safe isolation and de-isolation:

- Open from live conductor

- Isolate (by means of withdrawal of VCB to disconnect position)
- Secure (By Iso-lock and LOTO)
- Prove dead (if design permits then by portable test equipment else by in built
meters).
- Apply CME
- Secure CME (LOTO)
- Key Safe
- Prove dead at the point of work
- Apply Additional earth
- Issue Safety document ( Permit to work or sanction to test)
- Review RA and commence work.
- Work completed and clearance by competent person
- Cancel Safety document
- Retrieve the key
- Remove Additional Earth and CME
- Remove Isolation
- Close CB.

223
 EXERCISE 1 – BOW THRUSTER MOTOR ISOLATION- Training with the
help of simulator.

INITIAL CONDITION

224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
 CHAPTER 14
ELECTRIC SOCK TREATMENT

233
When a ship is in port, or near to port where hospital and other expert medical attention
are available, the first aid treatment necessary aboard ship is similar to that practiced
ashore.

At sea, in the absence of these facilities, trained ships officer accepted as normal first
aider.

The content of this chapter covers the knowledge of first aid necessary for the safe and
efficient immediate treatment before the arrival of shore assistance.

234
However, anyone aboard ship may find a casualty and every seaman should know three
basic life-saving actions to be given immediately while waiting for trained help to arrive.
These are:

To give artificial respiration by the mouth to nose/mouth method:

To place an unconscious casualty in the unconscious position:

To stop severe bleeding

Priorities

On finding a casualty:

Ensure your own safety;

If necessary, remove the casualty from danger or danger from the casualty

Give immediate treatment to the casualty who is not breathing and/or whose heart has
stopped, is bleeding severely or unconscious-others can be treated later;

Send for help.

If there is more than one unconscious or bleeding casualty:

Treat the most serious injury first in the order of:

 Not breathing and/or heart stopped;

 Unconsciousness
 Serious bleeding

If the casualty is an ENCLOSED SPACE:

 DO NOT enter the enclosed space unless you are a trained member of a rescue
team acting under instructions:
 Send for help and inform the master.
It must be assumed that the atmosphere in the space is hostile. The rescue team
MUST NOT enter unless wearing breathing apparatus which must also be fitted to
the casualty as soon as possible. The casualty must be removed quickly to the
nearest safe adjacent area outside the enclosed space unless his injuries and the
likely time of evacuation makes some treatment essential before movement.

THE SHIP CAPTAIN’S MEDICAL GIODE

General principles of first aid on board ship

The general principles are:

 Make a rapid examination of the patient to assess responsiveness and the extent
of the injury:

235
  Check breathing, heart and look for serious bleeding;
If breathing has stopped, give artificial respiration;
If the heart has stopped, give heart compression and artificial respiration
Arrest serious bleeding;
 Handle the patient as little and as gently as possible so as to:
Prevent further injuries; and
Prevent further shock;
 See that the patient is put in the most comfortable position possible and loosen
tight clothing so that he can breathe easily;
 Do not remove more clothing than is necessary and, when you do, remove it
gently, with an injured limb, get the sound limb out of the clothing first and then
peel the clothes off the injured limb, which should be supported by another person
during the process. If cutting clothes is indicated to expose the injured part, do so.
In removing a boot or shoe remove the lace and, if necessary, cut the upper down
towards the toecap; keep onlookers away.
 Always remember that shock can be a great danger to life and one of the main
objects of first aid is to prevent this;
 You may have to improvise splints, bandages etc
 Do not give alcohol in any form;
 Do not move the patient until he is fit to be moved. Bleeding should be arrested,
fractures immobilized and shock treated. See that the necessary personnel and
equipment for smooth and efficient transport are available;
 Never consider anyone to be dead until you and others agree that:
Breathing has stopped;
No pulse is felt and no sounds are heard when the examiner’s ear is put to the
chest;
The eyes are glazed and pupils are dilated;
There is a progressive cooling of the body
General assessment of the situation

Once it has been established that there is no immediate threat to life there will be time to
take stock of the situation. Reassurance and quick and effective attention to injuries and
compassionate treatment of the injured person will alleviate his condition. Remember:

Unconsciousness

Suspected internal bleeding

Stab or punctuate wounds

Wounds near joints (see fractures);

Possible fractures

Eye injuries

Electric shock and electrical burns are serious injuries and should receive immediate
medical attention. Contact the first aid attendant, if available, or get other medical help.
236
Arrange for transport to hospital immediately. Make sure you keep yourself and the
injured worker out of further danger:
¥With low voltage, carefully remove the source of contact from the injured worker without
endangering yourself. Turn off the power or use insulated material to remove the source
of contact (low-voltage only).
¥With high voltage, stay back at least 10 metres (33 ft.) until the owner of the power
system says it is safe to approach. Do not become a second victim. If the voltage is over
60 kV (60,000 V), you may need to keep as far away as 32 metres (105 ft.). See page 31
for more information on rescue work around power lines.
First aid for electrical injuries includes the following:
1. Remove the worker from the heat and put out the fire on any clothing by smothering
the flames with a blanket or dousing the worker with water. Make sure that fabric is no
longer smouldering. Cooling more than 20% of the body at one time can cause
hypothermia. Wet dressings and any clean source of water may be used for cooling.
Never apply ice.
2. Initiate priority action following the ABC approach:
A. Airway: Establish and maintain an open airway.
B. Breathing: Check and maintain breathing. If the injured worker is not breathing, start
assisted ventilation (using mouth-to-mouth or a pocket mask).
C. Circulation: Monitor the worker Õs circulation constantly. Initiate cardiopulmonary
resuscitation (CPR) if necessary, and carry on until more advanced life support is
obtained. Electrical workers should be familiar with CPR.
3. Keep the injured worker warm and at rest.
4. If the injured worker is conscious, offer reassurance.
5. If the injured worker vomits, turn the worker onto one side to keep the airway clear.
6. Transport the injured worker to medical aid. While waiting for transport or en route to
medical aid, administer first aid for burns (see box below).
7. Do not leave injured workers unattended. Maintain a constant watch on their airway,
breathing, and circulation while they are transported to medical aid.

First aid for burns

237
First aid for burns can be administered while the injured worker is waiting for transport or
being transported to medical aid:

-Remove rings, wrist watches, and footwear, if possible.

-Elevate burned extremities, if possible, to decrease fluid loss. Do not splint burned limbs
unless there is an obvious fracture or dislocation. Avoid handling the affected body parts
unnecessarily.

-Apply wet dressings on burns to less than 20% of the body surface. Any burns in excess
of 20% can be covered with dry dressings or clean sheets. Do not apply tight, encircling
dressings.

-Do not break blisters.

-Do not apply creams, ointments, or other medications to the burned area.

-Do not examine burned eyelids. Cover them with sterile dressings until they can receive
specialized treatment

FIRST AID FOR ELECTRICAL SHOCK

The person has been injured by an electrical shock.
Electrical shocks always need emergency medical attention -- even if the person seems
to be fine afterward.
The 911 emergency personnel may instruct you on the following:
1. Separate the Person From Current's Source To turn off power:

238
 Unplug an appliance if plug is undamaged or shut off power via circuit breaker, fuse box,
or outside switch.
If you can't turn off power:
Stand on something dry and non-conductive, such as dry newspapers, telephone book,
or wooden board.
Try to separate the person from current using non-conductive object such as wooden or plastic
broom handle, chair, or rubber doormat.
If high voltage lines are involved:

The local power company must shut them off.

Do not try to separate the person from current if you feel a tingling sensation in your legs and
lower body. Hop on one foot to a safe place where you can wait for lines to be disconnected.

If a power line falls on a car, instruct the passengers to stay inside unless explosion or fire threatens.

2. Do CPR, if Necessary
When you can safely touch the person, do CPR if the person is not breathing or does not
have a pulse.
How to Do CPR on an Adult

Our Methods: Taking Vitals Administering CPR Continuing the Process until Help
Arrives Using an AED
Knowing how to perform both methods of CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation) on an
adult could save a life. However, the recommended method for performing CPR has
changed relatively recently, and it is important to know the difference. In 2010, the
American Heart Association made a radical change to the recommended CPR process
for victims of cardiac arrest after studies showed that compression-only CPR (no mouth-
to-mouth breathing) is as effective as the traditional approach.
Method 1 of 4: Taking Vitals

239
1. Check the scene for immediate danger. Make sure you're not putting yourself in
harm's way by administering CPR to someone unconscious. Is there a fire? Is the person
lying on a roadway? Do whatever is necessary to move yourself and the other person to
safety.
If there is anything that could endanger you or the victim, see if there is something you
can do to counteract it. Open a window, turn off the stove, or put out the fire if possible.
However, if there is nothing you can do to counteract the danger, move the victim. The
best way to move the victim is by placing a blanket or coat underneath their back and
dragging it.

2. Assess the victim's consciousness. Gently tap his or her shoulder and ask "Are you
OK?" in a loud, clear voice. If he or she responds, CPR is not required. Instead,
undertake basic first aid and take measures to prevent or treat shock[1], and assess
whether you need to contact emergency services.
If the victim does not respond, continue with the following steps.
3. Send for help.
The more people available for this step are the better. However, it can be done alone.
Send someone to call for emergency medical services (EMS).
•To contact emergency services, call

• 911 in North America

• 000 in Australia

• 112 by cell phone in the EU (including the UK)

• 999 in the UK.

• 102 in India

•1122 in Pakistan

• 111 in New Zealand

240
 Give the dispatcher your location, and notify him or her that you're going to perform CPR.
If you're alone, get off the phone and start compressions after that. If you have someone
else with you, have him or her stay on the line while you do CPR on the victim.

4. Do not check for a pulse. Unless you're a trained medical professional, odds are you'll
spend too much valuable time looking for a pulse when you should be doing compressions.

5. Check for breathing. Put your ear close to the victim's nose and mouth, and listen for
slight breathing. If the victim is coughing or breathing normally, do not perform CPR. Doing
so could cause the heart to stop beating.

Method 2 of 4: Administering CPR

241
1. Place the victim on his or her back. Make sure he or she is lying as flat as possible -
this will prevent injury while you're doing chest compressions.

2. Place the heel of one hand on the victim's breastbone, exactly between the nipples.

3. Place your second hand on top of the first hand, palm-down.

242
4. Position your body directly over your hands, so that your arms are straight and
somewhat rigid

5. Perform 30 chest compressions. Press down with both hands directly over the
breastbone to perform a compression, which helps the heart beat. Chest
compressions are more critical for correcting abnormal heart rhythms (ventricular
fibrillation or pulse less ventricular tachycardia).
You should press down by about 2 inches (5 cm).
Do the compressions in a relatively fast rhythm. Some agencies recommend doing
compressions to the beat of the chorus of "Stayin' Alive," a 1970s disco hit, or at
roughly 103 beats per minute.

243
Method 3 of 4:
Continuing the Process until Help Arrives1 Minimize pauses in chest compression
that occurs when changing providers or preparing for a shock. Attempt to limit
interruptions to less than 10 seconds.

2. Make sure the airway is open. Place your hand on the victim's forehead and two
fingers on their chin and tilt the head back to open the airway.

3. Give two rescue breaths (optional). The American Heart Association no longer
considers rescue breaths necessary for CPR, as the chest compressions are more
important. If you are trained in CPR and totally confident, give two rescue breaths
after your 30 chest compressions. If you've never done CPR before, or you're trained
but rusty, stick with only chest compressions.
Keeping the airway open, take the fingers that were on the forehead and pinch the
victim's nose closed. Make a seal with your mouth over the victim's mouth and
breathe out for about one second. Make sure you breathe slowly; as this will make
sure the air goes in the lungs and not the stomach. If the
breath goes in, you should see the chest slightly rise and also feel it go in. Give a
second rescue breath.
If the breath does not go in, re-position the head and try again. If it does not go in
again, the victim may be choking.

244
Do abdominal thrusts (the Heimlich manoeuvre) to remove the obstruction.

4. Repeat the cycle of 30 chest compressions. If you're also doing rescue breaths,
keep doing a cycle of 30 chest compressions and 2 rescue breaths.
You should do CPR for 2 minutes (5 cycles of compressions to breaths) before
checking for signs of life.

5 Continue CPR until someone takes over for you, emergency personnel arrive, you
are too exhausted to continue, an AED is available for immediate use, or signs of life
return.

3. Check for Other Injuries

 If the person is bleeding, apply pressure and elevate the wound if it's in an arm or leg.
 There may be a fracture if the shock caused the person to fall.
 For burns, see Burn Treatment.
 A doctor will check the person for burns, fractures, dislocations, and other injuries.

245
 An ECG, blood tests, CT scan, or MRI may be necessary.
 The person may be admitted to the hospital or a burn centre.
A victim may require Cardio-Pulmonary Resuscitation (CPR).
If the victim is breathing and has a heartbeat, give first aid for injuries and
treat for shock. Ensure the victim gets medical care as soon as possible.
Provide medical personnel with information on voltage level, shock duration &
entry/exit points. The treating/attending physician must have detailed specific
information to properly diagnose and care for the victim. The physician must
determine whether the victim should be sent to a “Trauma or Burn Centre.”

246
 CHAPTER 15
TESTS IN HV SYSTEM

247
Checking of circuit breaker for correct operation:

Test of VCB should be done on test bench or at disconnect position.

Following steps are recommended:

- Check tightness of the power connections at the circuit- breaker terminals.

- Check that the value of the power supply voltage of the auxiliary circuits is within limits
stated by IEEE C37.06.

- Check that no foreign bodies, such as bits of packing, have got into the moving parts.

- Check that there is a sufficient exchange of air in the installation place to avoid over
temperatures.

- Supply the auxiliary circuits with power.

- Check the functionality and efficiency of the mechanical and electrical locks.

- Carry out a few circuit breaker opening and closing operations by means of the
pushbuttons on the front of the circuit- breaker.

- Carry out the checks indicated in table below.

- Do not attempt to insert the circuit breaker into any compartment prior to inspection.

- Compare the circuit breaker name plate rating with the switchgear rating.

- Do not attempt to insert a closed circuit breaker.

- Always inspect the circuit breaker compartment to insure that it is free of obstructions,
tools, or other equipment.

248
Always use manufactures instruction manual before inspection and operation test of circuit
breakers.

Inspection and function tests ( ABB VCB for example):

INTERRUPTION DEVICES IN GENERAL

– Carry out regular inspections to check that the interruption devices are in good
condition.

– Inspection at fixed intervals can be waived when the apparatus is permanently

monitored by qualified personnel.

– Above all, the checks must include a visual inspection to check for any contamination,
traces of corrosion and electrical discharge phenomena.

– Carry out more frequent inspections when there are unusual operating conditions
(including adverse climatic conditions) and in the case of environmental pollution (e.g.
heavy contamination or an atmosphere with aggressive agents).

– Visual examination of the isolating contacts:

Turning the system of contacts alternately is recommended, in order to keep the internal
surface of the contact areas clean. The contact areas must be cleaned if there are signs
of overheating (discoloured surface).

– If any conditions are found, appropriate servicing measures must be taken as per
manufactures guideline.

249
 FUNCTIONAL TEST
– With the circuit breaker in the test position or in a withdrawn position with power
supplied through a breaker test cabinet, carry out 3 closing and 3 opening operations by
means of the opening and closing coils and 3 closing and 3 opening operations by
means of the manual pushbuttons.

– Verify that the CLOSE/OPEN indicator changes positions with each operation.

– Further tightening operations during the operating life of the circuit breaker are not
foreseen. However, if it should be necessary to tighten the nuts or screws again following
any trips, refer to the values indicated in figures 13 and 14.

Stored energy operating mechanism Carry out the functional test of the operating
mechanism every 5,000 operations or every 4 years.

Note: Insulate the working area and make it safe, following the safety regulations specified in
IEEE C37.04 – C37.54 – C37.09 – C37.55 standards.

PRESSURE TEST OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Vacuum bottle test

The vacuum bottle in the vacuum circuit breaker is tested with high voltage AC or DC to
check that the integrity of the vacuum is intact.
The electrical resistance of the vacuum in a breaker is identical in behaviour for AC and DC.
The main difference in using DC vs. AC is that AC also is sensitive to the capacitance of the
breaker. The DC (resistive) current component is 100 to 1000 times lower in magnitude than
the AC (capacitive) current component, depending on the individual bottle capacitance and
therefore difficult to distinguish when testing using AC.
As a result AC requires much heavier equipment for testing compared to DC test
instruments.

SF6 leakage

SF6 Leakage is one of the most common problems with circuit breakers. The leakage can
occur in any part of the breaker where two parts are joined together such as valve fittings,
bushings and flanges but in rare cases it can leak straight through the aluminium as a result

250
of poor casting. These leaks can be found by using gas leak detectors (sniffers) or thermal
imaging.

Humidity test

As humidity can cause corrosion and flashovers inside a breaker, it is important to verify that
the moisture content inside a SF6 breaker is kept to a minimum. This can be done by
venting a small amount of SF6 gas from the breaker through a moisture analyzer which will
tell you the moisture of the gas.

Air pressure test

Air pressure testing is carried out on air-blast breakers. Pressure level, pressure drop rate
and air flow are measured during various operations. The blocking pressure that will block
the breaker in the event of very low pressure can also be measured.

TESTING OF HV POTENTIAL (LIVE LINE TESTER)

The Live Line Tester Kits (LLT) have been specifically designed to perform measurements
for both live voltage testing and phasing on overhead lines, in substations and within
switchgear compartments. The kit includes all necessary components to effectively carry out
these tests. All components are housed within a heavy duty carry case with secure
compartments. Individual kits are available for system voltages of 3.3kV, 6.6kV, 11kv,
13.8kV and 33kV (50/60Hz). Made from high quality fibreglass rods and polycarbonate
mouldings the equipment is suitable for both indoor and outdoor use – including wet
conditions. The equipment has been designed to operate within the temperature range: -
25˚C to + 50˚C.

Designed to comply with the requirements of IEC1243 part 2, the LLT uses long established
techniques for high voltage measurement. All readings are displayed on an analogue meter
– the housing of which can be rotated through 240 degrees to ensure a perfect viewing

251
position. A battery operated proving unit allows the equipment to be tested before and after
measurements have been made and can also be used to check full scale deflection on the
meter. Adaptors are available to allow Bowthorpe Rods to be connected for testing of raised
conductors and a Repeater Station can be supplied to replicate meter readings at ground
level. Space is reserved in the carry case for such accessories.

INSULATION RESISTANCE TEST:

252
 • IR test is conducted on HV machine to determine the service condition of the
insulation.
• In IR test a high DC voltage is applied across the conductor and ground more
specifically.
• That means the voltage is applied across the insulator.
• Due to this applied High DC voltage there will be a flow of current through the
electrical insulator.
• IR test is conducted on HV machine to determine the service condition of the
insulation.
• In IR test a high DC voltage is applied across the conductor and ground more
specifically.
• That means the voltage is applied across the insulator.
• Due to this applied High DC voltage there will be a flow of current through the
electrical insulator.
• By using simple ohms law, we get the actual restive value of the insulator.
• The test is generally done by means of a megger with suitable reading- generally
rated at 5 kV.
• This megger gives the required DC voltage across the insulator and it also
indicates the resistive value of the insulator directly in GΩ.
• Safety Issue:- Read the user manual of test equipment before use.

POLARISATION INDEX TEST:

• The P.I. test is used as a guide to the dryness, cleanliness and safety of the
winding insulation system.
• A special motorized insulation tester is required, which can maintain a test voltage
of 1 - 2.5kV, (medium voltages), or 5kV, (high voltage), for a period of 10 minutes.
• Readings are taken (in Mega ohms) following a 1 minute and 10 minute time
interval: -
• The P.I. index is obtained by the formula:
• PI= R10/R1
• R1 = IR Reading after 1 minutes
• R10 = = IR Reading after 10 minutes
• The resultant ratio is called the P.I. index, and should be a minimum of 2 at 20°C.
• A P.I. index below 1.5 suggests the windings are wet, dirty or faulty, and should be
cleaned, dried, and refurbished as necessary.

253
HI-POT TEST (DIELECTRIC WITHSTANDING VOLTAGE (DWV) TEST):

• "Hi-pot" means high potential (high voltage).

• A hipot test checks for "good isolation."
• In Hi-pot, high potential is applied between two conductor of the cables and
leakage current is measured.
• Since DC voltage is applied in this test, so 1.5 times the rated voltage is applied in
the test and leakage current is measured.
• The test duration must be in accordance with the safety standard being used. The
test time for most standards, including products covered under IEC 60950, is 1
minute.
• A typical rule of thumb is 110 to 120% of 2U + 1000 V for 1–2 seconds.

254
 3 KV AC Hipot Tester

DIELECTRIC BREAKDOWN TEST:

• "How much voltage can be applied between the wires before the insulation fails?"
• You increase the voltage until the current suddenly increases.
• You are finding the highest voltage the cable can stand before it fails.
• Once the cable fails it is usually damaged or destroyed.

THERMOGRAPHY INSPECTION:

• It identifies the possible electrical trouble in the electrical system.

• IR thermography or imaging is a powerful tool to identify problems before they
occur.
• It is also especially helpful for trouble shooting potential electrical overload.

255
 CHAPTER 16
PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION OF
EQUIPMENTS USED IN HV SYSTEM

256
Electric Hand Gloves

257
Flame-Resistant Balaclava Head, Face and Neck ATPV Rating12.2 cal./cm2

Flame-Resistant Coverall Kit ATPV Rating 25 cal./cm2

258
Arc Flash Protection Clothing Kit

259
Salisbury Hot sticks

Discharge rode

260
Additional/working earth arrangement tool

HV Tool box

261
Ladder, gloves and portable mats.
END

262