ORAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXT • Each system has its own patterns of

communication, language and vocabulary

use, and rules that depend on elements such
as the behavior and shared experiences of its
COMMUNICATION members.

Communication is Irreversible
Communication
• Since communication is a continuous
process, it is impossible for one to
“A tool that makes the societies possible and
actually take back what was said. Once
distinguishes human from other societies”
an utterance has left someone’s mouth,
the consequences of that statement
- Schramm
being uttered has already left an
impression of the listener.
“Transmission of information, ideas, and emotions,
skills through the use of symbols, words, pictures, Communication is Proactive
figures, and graph”
• When people receive information, they
- Berelson and Steiner actively EVALUATE THE CONTENT and
PURPOSE of the message and the
CREDIBILITY of the speaker, even when
“Planned or unplanned processes through which one they seem to be listening passively.
person influences the behavior of others.”
• MEANING rest not only in the person
- Kar who conveys the message. The
RECEIVER is also involved in the
ACTIVE CONSTRUCTION OF
MEANING.
Nature of Communication
Communication is Symbolic
• Communication is a process
Symbols are representation used to
• Communication occurs between two or more communicate and interpret one’s thoughts
people (the speaker and the receiver) and feelings.

• Communication can be expressed • Symbols are arbitrary, which means that any
through words (verbal), actions symbol can be used to represent a concept,
(nonverbal) or both at the same time. that is, as long as the meaning is shared by a
group of people.
• Communication is systematic
Arbitrary
• Communication is irreversible
- Not planned or chosen for a particular
• Communication is proactive reason

• Communication is symbolic

Communication is Systematic

• Communication happens within various

system.

System is an organization interdependent

elements or component parts that form a complex
whole and achieve certain purpose.

• In the same way, Society is comprised of

systems.

1
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION  Through reports, e-mails, records, sales
presentations, advertising and publicity of
organization, telephone, radio, television,
face to face communication, letter, public
Elements of Communication address system, and the like

• Speaker Decoding

• Message  The process of interpreting the encoded

message of the speaker by the receiver.
• Encoding
Listener/Receiver
• Channels
 Receives the message
• Decoding
 It is the listener who makes sense on what is
said and reacts to it.
• Receiver
Feedback
• Feedback
 Is a response from the receiver to the
• Context
source’s message, which the source may use
to modify his further message. From that
• Barrier perspective, feedback may be thought of as
message conveying “knowledge of
communication effectiveness.”

Speaker 2 Kinds of Feedback

 Sender/source • Positive Feedback

 Chooses his/her purpose, crafts the - Confirms the source that the intended
message, and decides how to deliver it. effect of the message was achieved and
tells the source that everything is going in
Message the desired way.

 This is what needs to be delivered or imparted • Negative Feedback

to somebody else.
- Informs the source that the intended
 The message to be sent is based on why the effect of the message was not realized.
speaker wants to say something, what the
speaker wants to say, and how the speaker Context
wants to say it
 Refers to the interrelated conditions of
Encoding communication which affect how people
understand the message.
 The process of converting the message into
words, actions or other forms that the speaker
understands. 5 Types of Context

Channels • Physical context – includes the setting

where the communication takes place, time of
 The medium utilized to transport a message; the day, the environmental condition, distance
it is the means by which a message travels between or among the communicator.
between the sender to the communicator Meeting places must be well-chosen to avoid
receiver. ay physical interferences.

 via the senses

• Social context – refers to the nature of
relationships existing between or among the

2
 communicators and it also sets the formality interpretations, and subject is too tough for
of the interaction. the receiver to comprehend. This results in
the wrong elucidation of message.
• Psychological context – involves the
communicators’ mood and feeling.

• Cultural context – is comprised of the

beliefs, values and norms shared by a large
group of people.

• Historical context – involves the background

provided by previous interactions between or
among communicators which affect
understanding of the current exchange.

Barrier

 The factors that affect the flow of

communication.

Noise

 Is any barrier to communication which results

to loss of meaning during the transmission.

Types of Noise

a. Physical Noise/ Channel Noise

 Such as loud music, irritating engine of a

motorcycle, a seatmate who talks to you while
you listen to your teacher.

b. Physiological Noise

 When the body becomes a hindrance to good

communication.

 For example, because of a headache or

toothache you may not be able to effectively
listen to a friend.

c. Psychological Noise

 Occurs when one is thinking deeply for

something or is suffering from an emotional
condition (sadness, depression, confusion),
which discourages participation in a
communication.

d. Semantic Noise

 Words are grim, words have multiple

meanings which could have different

3
COMMUNICATION PROCESS received in the form of hearing, seeing and
feeling.

Decoding
Communication process
 Receiver’s interpretation of the sender’s
 Refers to the steps through which message.
communication takes place between the
sender and the receiver. Feedback

 Receiver’s response to sender’s

message.

Developing Idea by the Sender

 Develops or conceptualizes an idea to be

sent.

Encoding

 Means are converting or translating the idea

into a perceivable form that can be
communicated to others.

Developing the Message

 The sender gets a message that can be

transmitted to the receiver. The message can
be oral, written, symbolic or nonverbal.

Selecting the Medium

 Medium is the channel or means of

transmitting the message to the receiver.

Transmission of Message

 The sender transmits the message through

chosen medium.

Receiving the Message

 Involves the reception of sender’s message

by the receiver. The message can be

4
MODELS OF COMMUNICATION • 3 settings in Aristotle time

 Legal

Communication Models  Deliberative

• Communication models describe what is  Ceremonial

necessary to take place to represent the
major features and eliminates the Legal Setting
unnecessary details of communication.
o Meant the courts where
ordinary people defended
themselves (there were no
 Linear Models of Communication lawyers then)
 Aristotelian Model
 Laswell Model Deliberative Setting
 Shannon Weaver Model
 Berlo’s Model o Meant the political assemblies,
the highest of which was the
 Interactive Models of Communication Roman Senate
 Schramm’s Model
 White’s Model Ceremonial Setting

 Transactional Models of Communication o Meant the celebrations held

 Woods Transactional Model when they won a war, when
they lost a leader or had a new
one, and when they welcomed
a visiting leader from another
LINEAR MODELS kingdom or country.

 The linear communication model illustrates

communication in a one-way activity where
message or information flows from the
speaker to the listener. This means that the
transmission of message starts from an active
sender and ends with the passive receiver.

• Like the aristotlelian model, laswell’s

representation of communication is a
process which involves transmission of
information from one person to another.

• An important component of Laswell’s

model is the inclusion of channel.
• Aristotle, who was a teacher of Rhetoric
and even put up an academy to produce
good speakers.

• Although Aristotle focused on the

speaker and the message, the most
important part in his model is the
SETTING where the listener is situated.

5
 • Important addition to this model is the • Wilbur Schramm (1954-55)
element of noise.
 consider the Father of Mass
• In this model, noise refers to any form of Communication. He came up with five
interference which affects the meaning, models
or disrupts the flow, of communication.
• Communication can take place if and only if
there is an overlap between the Field of
Experience of the speaker and the Field of
Experience of the Listener.

• Schramm asserts that communication can

take place if and only if there is an overlap
between the Field of Experience of the
speaker and the Field of Experiences of the
listener.

• Field of Experience – it is everything that

makes a person unique—it is everything a
person has ever experienced or not
experienced, done or undone.
Berlo’s Model

• While the Shannon and Weaver model

treats the channel as physical medium
(e.g. telephone), Berlo added a human
dimension by representing the channel
as a method of decoding the message
through the five senses.

• The source and the receiver of the

message are influenced by their
communication skills, attitudes,
knowledge, social system, and culture.

• The message component was also • Eugene White’s model (1960) who tells us
highlighted by being represented as that communication is circular and
something that could be designed continuous, without beginning or end.
through the choice of code or a set of
• He contributed the concept of FEEDBACK to
symbols. the field of communication.

INTERACTIVE MODEL

 Interactive model shows a two-way exchange

which features the element of feedback.

6
TRANSACTIONAL MODEL 3. Motivation

 Communication motivates or
encourages people to live
better.

4. Emotional Expression

 Communication facilitates
people’s expression of their
feelings and emotions.

5. Information Dissemination

 Communication functions to
convey information.

Wood’s Transactional Model of Communication

 The transactional model is considered the

most accurate representation of the
communication process. Although the
interactive models recognize feedback and
the cyclical process of communication, these
do not illustrate the dynamic and
simultaneous nature of communication.
Interactive models fail to take into account the
fact that both communicators can send and
receive information at the same time.

Functions of Communication

1. Control

2. Social Interaction

3. Motivation

4. Emotional Expression

5. Information Dissemination

1. Control

 Communication functions to control

behavior.

2. Social Interaction

 Communication allows individuals to

interact with others.

7
FEATURES OF AN EFFECTIVE Clearness
COMMUNICATION
 Use of simple and specific
words to express ideas.

Features of an Effective Communication  Achieved when the

speaker focuses only on a
• Completeness single objective in his/her
speech so as not to
• Conciseness confuse the audience.

• Consideration Correctness

• Concreteness  In grammar, it eliminates

negative impact on the
• Courtesy audience and increases
the credibility and
• Clearness effectiveness of the
message
• Correctness

Completeness

 Essential to the quality of the

communication process in general.

 Communication should include

everything that the receiver needs to
hear for him/her to respond, react or
evaluate properly

Conciseness

 Does not mean keeping the

message short, but making it direct
or straight to the point.

 Insignificant or redundant
information should be eliminated
from the communication that will be
sent to the recipient.

Consideration

 Consider relevant information about

his/her receiver such as mood,
background, race, preference,
education, status, needs, among
others.

Concreteness

 Supported by facts, figures and real-

life examples and situations.

Courtesy

 Shows by respecting the culture,

values, and beliefs of his/her
receivers.

8
Barriers to Effective Communication Listening Skills

1. Stress and out-of-control emotion • You can make use of active listening to
improve your communication skills.
2. Lack of Focus
• Active listening involves giving your full
3. Inconsistent body language attention to whatever the speaker is saying
without interrupting or making judgments.
4. Negative body language

Tips for Active Listening

Basic Communication Skills
• Make direct eye contact.
 Being an effective communicator means that
you correctly interpret the messages you • Use body language and signals, which show
receive and respond appropriately. you are listening.

Three basic skills are needed for effective • Don’t interrupt the speaker.
communication:
• Put away prejudices, images, or assumptions.
1. Speaking

2. Listening
Techniques for Active Listening
3. Body language
• Reflective listening: Rephrase or
summarize what the other person has said.

Speaking Skills • Clarifying: Ask questions to help understand

more fully what is being said.
• You demonstrate good speaking skills when
you clearly say what you mean. • Encouraging: Encourage the speaker to
signal that you are interested and involved.
• Changes in the tone, pitch, or loudness of
your voice can affect communication. • Empathizing: Imagine and understand how
someone else feels.
• Using “I” messages can help you
communicate your feelings positively, without
blame or name-calling.
The Art of Listening

“If we were supposed to talk more than listen, we would

Stating Your Feelings Effectively have been given two mouths and one ear.”

- Mark Twain

Nonverbal Communication

• You use body language when you nod or

shake your head to show that you agree or
disagree with something that is said.

• When you hold yourself in a tense posture,

you silently communicate that you’re feeling
nervous or worried.

• Nonverbal communication can be subtle,

taking place at an unconscious level.

9
 • If your words and your body language seem  Know the needs and wants.
to contradict each other, the person you are
speaking to may be confused or unsure of  Express negative thoughts in a positive way.
what to believe.
 Receive feedback positively.

 Learn to say “No”

Improving Communication Skills

1. Pay attention to nonverbal signals

 To enhance effective communication,

use open body language– arms
uncrossed, standing with an open
stance, or sitting on the edge of a seat,
and maintaining eye contact with the
person

 Use body language to emphasize or

enhance the verbal message– patting a
friend on the back while complimenting
him on his success.

Tips for improving how you read nonverbal

communication:

a. Be aware of individual differences.

b. Look at nonverbal communication

signals as a group.

Tips for improving how you deliver nonverbal

communication:

a. Use nonverbal signals that match up

with your words.

b. Adjust nonverbal signals according

to the context.

c. Use body language to convey

positive feelings when it is not being
experienced.

2. Keep stress in check

3. Stay calm under pressure

To deal with stress during communication…

a. Recognized the idea of becoming

stressed.

b. Look for humor in the situation

c. Be willing to compromise

4. Assert yourself

To Improve Assertive:

 Value yourself and your opinions.

10
VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Verbal Communication

– Involves the use of language as a symbol to

represent what we mean. This may be oral or
written.

Forms of Verbal Communication

1. Oral communication

- Talking to oneself, dialogue, discussion

among people, telephone calls

2. Visual communication

- maps, graphics, traffic signals,

advertisement
 The triangle of Meaning is also called as the
3. Written Communication semantic meaning, where it explains the
relationship among three elements– thought,
- Such as memos, letters, reports, symbol, and referent.
Papers
Thought
4. Electronic communication – Refers to the concept or the object or
phenomenon the symbol is referring to.
- Facilitated by an interface with a computer,
modem, Symbols
fax, e-mail
– May be a word, a picture, or a sign that
represents a thought.
Features of Language
Referent
Language is Symbolic – Is the object being referred to by the
symbol.
• We use symbols to represent how we
experience the world.

• Language just like pictures, signs,

gesture or even music, is an example of
a set of symbols used to represent a
concept or a phenomenon.

• Meaning does not reside with symbols, or

in the case of verbal communication, in
words, meaning rest on people.

11
 – The relationship between symbols and Language is Abstract
referents is indirect.
– Thought in the other hand, is directly related  Language is abstract, which means that
to both the symbol and the referent. Because words do not always have to correspond to a
people use symbols in different ways and tangible or concrete object in the physical
different meanings or words, communication world.
often results in misunderstanding.
 Abstract language allows us to subjectively
describe an objective phenomenon, which
Language is Ambiguous although easier, often results in
miscommunication.
 Language ambiguity occurs when words
or statements have more than one  For example, the word “beverage” is an
meaning and are interpreted in different abstract term referring to any liquid intended
ways. for drinking. Milk is less abstract. Powdered
milk is even less abstract while a certain type
 Another type of ambiguity that affects and brand of milk is more specific.
communication is relationship. This
involves determining what one  Abstract language is not always negative; it
communicator feels about the other. can be used to avoid conflict.

 For instance, the sentence “Flying planes  Consider how judges give their comments to
can be dangerous” kids or seemingly sensitive contestants in a
competition. Note how they use abstract
 I saw a man on a hill with a telescope. language in expressing their negative
language.
 He fed her cat food.

 Look at the dog with one eye. Language is rule-governed

 The professor said on Monday he would  Each language system has its own set of
give an exam. rules. Learning and speaking a language
requires knowledge of these rules.
 The chicken is ready to eat.

Phonological Rules
Language is Arbitrary
– Dictate how sounds should pronounced,
 Although some words are not arbitrary, most which sounds and corresponding letters can
are randomly decided upon by people. be combined, and even which sound may be
 The arbitrariness of the language is also produced in the initial, medial or final position
illustrated by the different terms people use to of words.
refer to the same objects.
– 40 phonetic alphabets for English
 There’s no reason we call a cat ,”cat”, save for pronunciation
the fact that a group of people (English
speakers) agree to use that word to refer to a Syntactic Rules
particular animal.
– deal with the structure of language or the
 A cat is also pusa in Filipino, gato (spanish), grammatical arrangement of words in a
or neko (Japanese) sentence.

12
Semantic Rules Metalinguistic

– refer to the assignment of meaning of words – It occurs when communication need to

or symbols. “check-up whether they use the same code”
or in other words when they want to know if
Pragmatic Rules they are on the same page.

– govern language use within context.

Functions of Language

– Roman Jakobson 1960

– This function related on how language is used

in communication

Referential

– The referential function is illustrated by

communicative acts of describing things,
situations, and conditions.

Poetic

– We also use language to express ourselves

creatively. This illustrated by how poets or
writers choose their words and the structures
or organization of these words to create
literary pieces.

Emotive

– The emotive of affective function deals with

expressing emotions. This function extends
the denotative meaning of a statement adding
information about how speaker feels and what
her attitudes is on the subject.

Conative

– The conative function attempts to evoke a

particular reaction in a listener. This is
illustrated in utterances that are commanding,
requesting and persuading.

Phatic

– We communicate for the sake of interaction.

13
NONVERBAL COMMUNİCATİON  Substituting

- Nonverbal symbols may replace a verbal

message especially when one refuses to
communicate verbally.
Nonverbal Communication
 Complementing
 Nonverbal communication is all types of
communication that do not involve the - Nonverbal behavior adds up the meaning
exchange of words of a statement if it is consistent with verbal
message.
 It is a fundamental human interaction where
speech alone is unable to deal with it.  Contradicting

- Verbal communication may be contradicted

if one nonverbal behavior is inconsistent with
CHARACTERISTICS OF NONVERBAL what is being portrayed.
COMMUNICATION
 Regulating
 It is culturally determined
- Nonverbal cues can regulate the flow of
 It may conflict with verbal messages conversation.

 Nonverbal messages are largely  Accenting

unconscious
- Paralinguistic features such as rising of
 It shows your feelings and attitude intonation, word stress, or loudness help
emphasize our verbal message.
 cannot easily separate into units
 Deceiving
 immediately perceived
- Nonverbal behavior may be intentionally
used to hide how we truly feel.
 crosses languages

 all senses
CATEGORIES OF NONVERBAL
 conveys emotion preted in many different
COMMUNICATION
ways

 kinesics
KINESICS
 can be interpreted in many ways
 The study of human movements and
gestures.

Functions of Nonverbal Communication Language of Gestures

 Repeating  Visible bodily actions communicate particular

messages, either in place of, or in
- The message conveyed by verbal conjunction with speech.
communication may be repeated by
nonverbal  Gestures include movement of hand, face, or
other part of the body.

14
HEAD GESTURES EYE CONTACT

The head gestures are a great way to understand the  Our eyes are a very significant aspect of the
mood of someone and his/her points of interests non-verbal signals we send to others.

HEAD THRUST- it's an aggressive but more engaged

and perhaps emphatic reaction. Direct eye contact Honesty - or faked
(when speaking) honesty
HEAD RETREAT- we do that when we're afraid or it
show disbelief and incredulity. Direct eye contact Attentiveness, interest,
(when listening) attraction
HEAD TILT- in general it's a positive sign because it
Widening eyes Interest, appeal,
means our listener is in tune with us and we have invitation
his/her attention.
Rubbing eye or eyes Disbelief, upset, or
HEAD NOD- universally means- “yes, I agree” or “I tiredness
understand”.
Eye shrug Frustration
DIFFERENT TYPES OF NOD:

1. Slow and lengthy nods usually show agreement

and understanding, MOUTH GESTURES

2. Small nods combined with a smile is an  The mouth is associated with very many body
encouraging and bonding signal. language signals, which is not surprising
given its functions - obviously speech.
3. A fast rapid nod show impatience and urge you to
move on or let them do the talking.
Tight-lipped smile Secrecy or withheld
HEAD BECKONING- it’s a quick dip of the head feelings
downwards or a little toss of the head backwards,
usually to signal recognition. It's a nonverbal way of Smile - head tilted, Playfulness, teasing,
looking up coy
greetings when shaking hands seems inappropriate
or uncomfortable or a prelude to such physical
Laughter Relaxation
contact.
Forced laughter Nervousness,
HEAD SHAKING- about the rotation of the head from cooperation
side to side to mean (almost) universally – NO.
Biting lip Tension
DIFFERENT TYPES OF HEAD SHAKE:

1. A fast and rhythmic head shaking definitely says

- “no, I disagree, this is not true.” ARM GESTURES

2. A slow and irregular turning of the head usually  Arms act as defensive barriers when across
signals misunderstanding. Something didn't get the body, and conversely indicate feelings of
through quite right. openness and security when in open
positions, especially combined with open
3. Slow and rhythmic head shaking can also signal palms.
disbelief. We cannot accept what we just heard.

Crossed arms (folded arms) Defensiveness, reluctance

15
 Foot direction
indicates direction of
Crossed arms with clenched fists Hostile defensiveness Feet or foot
interest
direction or
pointing
Directed towards
dominant group
Foot forward,
member
Gripping own upper arms Insecurity standing

Language of Facial Expression

HAND GESTURES  The configuration of eyes, eyebrows, lips,

cheeks, nose and forehead to show how the
 Body language involving hands is extensive. person feels.
 This is because hands are such expressive  It is about one or more or positions of the
parts of the body, and because hands interact facial muscle used to convey specific
with other parts of the body. meanings.

Palm(s) up or open Submissive, truthful, honesty, appealing

POSTURE
Palm(s) up, fingers Defensive, instruction to stop
pointing up
 The position or bearing of the body
characteristics or assumed for a special
Palm(s) down Authority, strength, dominance purpose.

 This can be used to determine a participant’s

Clenched fist(s) Resistance, aggression, determination
degree of involvement, the difference in
status between communicators and the level
Steepling Thoughtfulness, looking for or explaining of fondness a person has for the other
connections or engagement communicator.

LEGS & FEET GESTURES

PERSONAL PRESENTATION
 Legs and feet body language is more difficult
to control consciously or fake than some body  BODY SHAPE
language of arms and hands and face. Legs
and feet can therefore provide good clues to  CLOTHING
feelings and moods, if you know the sign.
 GROOMING
Leg direction, Interest, attentiveness
sitting - general (according to
direction)
 ARTIFACTS
Properness
Parallel legs Artifacts – physical object that has meaning
together,
sitting (mainly
female)
Caution, disinterest
Crossed legs, PARALANGUAGE
sitting - general

 It is the “how” of saying something.

16
  It is the area that emphasizes body of
language such as its pitch, volume, 3. Personal 45-120 cm Family and close
18 in-4 ft friends
intonation, stress, junction, accent, etc.

 Also known as vocalics. 4. Social- 1.2-3.6 m Non-touch

consultative 4-12 ft interaction, social,
business

CHRONEMICS
5. Public 3.6 m+ No interaction,
12 ft+ ignoring
 It is the “language of time”.

 The use of time based on position or power.  Intimate distance is used for closed
encounters.
 the study of time usage in communication
 Personal distance is for interaction with
 How we regulate interactions close friends and family members.

 How we treat others – “wait time”  Social distance is for interactions among
acquiantances. Mostly used in workplace or
 How we prioritize school settings where there is no physical
contact.
– Circular time
 Public distance is for strangers or public
– Linear time speaking.

– Technical time

– Formal time HAPTICS

– Informal time  It is the “language of touch”.

 The use of touch to express what cannot be

said.

PROXEMICS
COLOR
 It is the “language of space.”
 The use of color based on the meaning of
 The use of space to show importance. each color

ODOR
ZONE DISTANCE FOR

 Have a profound ability to recall memories out

of one’s past.
1. Close intimate 0-15 cm Lovers, and physical
0-6 in touching
relationships FLOWERS

 The use of flowers based on the meaning of

2. Intimate 15-45 cm Physical touching
6-18in relationships
each type of flower

17
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION Culture

Historically, the word derives from the Latin word

‘colere’, which could be translated as ‘to build’, ‘to care
Culture for’, ‘to plant’ or ‘to cultivate’.

• Cultures are learned Spencer-Oatey (2000) proposed the following

definition:
• Cultures are shared
“Culture is a fuzzy set of attitudes, beliefs, behavioural
• Cultures are multifaceted norms, and basic assumptions and values that are
shared by a group of people, and that influence each
• Cultures are dynamic member's behaviour and his/her interpretations of the
"meaning" of other people's behaviour.”
• Cultural identities are overlapping
Hall (1983) views culture as often subconscious.

“Culture has always dictated where to draw the line

• Culture is learned. It is not biological; we do separating one thing from another. “
not inherit it. Much of learning culture is
unconscious. We learn culture from families,
peers, institutions, and media. The process of
learning culture is known as enculturation. Types of culture
While all humans have basic biological needs
such as food, sleep, and sex, the way we fulfill ● CORPORATE CULTURE
those needs varies cross-culturally.
● PROFESSIONAL CULTURE
• Culture is shared. Because we share culture
with other members of our group, we are able ● GENDER CULTURE
to act in socially appropriate ways as well as
predict how others will act. Despite the shared ● AGE CULTURE
nature of culture, that doesn’t mean that
culture is homogenous (the same). The ● RELIGIOUS CULTURE
multiple cultural worlds that exist in any
society are discussed in detail below. ● REGIONAL CULTURE

• Culture is based on symbols. A symbol is ● CLASS CULTURE

something that stands for something else.
Symbols vary cross-culturally and are factors that bind people together
arbitrary. They only have meaning when
people in a culture agree on their use.
Language, money and art are all symbols.
Language is the most important symbolic ● CORPORATE CULTURE (for example, the culture
component of culture. of Microsoft)

• Culture is integrated. This is known as ● PROFESSIONAL CULTURE (for example, the

holism, or the various parts of a culture being culture of lawyers or doctors)
interconnected. All aspects of a culture are
related to one another and to truly understand ● GENDER CULTURE (for example, the different
a culture, one must learn about all of its parts, cultures of men and women)
not only a few.
● AGE CULTURE (for example, the culture of young,
• Culture is dynamic. This simply means that middle-aged, and old people)
cultures interact and change. Because most
cultures are in contact with other cultures, ● RELIGIOUS CULTURE (for example, Catholicsm,
they exchange ideas and symbols. All Islam)
cultures change, otherwise, they would have
problems adapting to changing environments. ● REGIONAL CULTURE (for example, Northern and
And because cultures are integrated, if one Southern Italy)
component in the system changes, it is likely
that the entire system must adjust. ● CLASS CULTURE (for example, working class,
middle class, and upper class)

18
 • intracultural social identity , for example, it is known ethnic origin ,
The term intracultural is used to describe data religion or level of one's education
and interactional data from within one cultural
group. 2) DECLARE THE SOCIAL INTEGRATION

For example: Value variations among Germans is core concept of social integration is to accept the unity
intracultural. between individuals, between groups but still
recognizes the differences of every element. It should
• intercultural be understood that one of the goals of communication
The term intercultural is generally used to is to give the same meaning for the message shared
describe comparative data and studies of a between the communicator and the communicant.
large number of cultures, or studies that try to
identify dimensions that are not culture 3) TO THE KNOWLEDGE
specific.
often interpersonal and intercultural communication
For example: Hofstede's work is intercultural, as it increase knowledge together, to learn the culture of
desribes cultural dimensions applicable for all each.
cultures.

Intercultural is also used to describe interactional

data from members of different cultural SOCIAL FUNCTION
backgrounds (normally more than two).
1. SUPERVISION

- practice intercultural communication

Intercultural Communication between different communicators and
communicant culture of mutual monitoring
- interpersonal interaction between members of functions. In any process of intercultural
different groups, which differ from each other in communication function is useful to inform the "
respect knowledge shared by their members and development " of the environment. This function is
in respect of their linguistic forms of symbolic mostly done by the mass media that disseminate
behavior. it an event that happen around us even though it
happened in a different cultural context.

2. CONNECTION BETWEEN CULTURE

Why study intercultural communication???
- the communication function is carried out
i. Increasing interaction between people due to between two people of different cultures
globalization. was a bridge over the differences between them.
The bridging functions can be controlled via
ii. Increasing diversity in workplace. messages they exchanged, the two are explaining
the differences of interpretation on a message that
iii. Need to developed caring responsible and produces the same meaning. This function is
ethical business leaders. carried out also by the various contexts of
communication, including communication

3. VALUE SOCIALIZATION
FUNCTION OF INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION - socialization function is a function to teach
and introduce the cultural values of a society
PRIVATE FUNCTION to another society.

 Private functions are functions that indicated 4. ENTERTAINMENT

communication through the communication
behavior originating from an individual - entertaining functions are often performed in
the process of intercultural communication. For
1 ) EXPRESS SOCIAL IDENTITY example, the arrival of outside artists shows the
differences between their cultures so that people
In the process of intercultural communication are some learn the language and follow their style.
of the communication behaviour of individuals who
used to express the behaviour of social identity is
expressed through the act of speaking both verbal and
nonverbal. of language behaviour that is knowable and

19
TRENDS OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION The Cultural Adjustment Process

i. GLOBALIZATION There are several stages most newcomers go through

in adjusting to a new culture.
Refers to the reduction and removal of barriers
between national borders in order to facilitate the flow 1. Fun: The excitement and adventure of
of good, capital, services and labour experiencing new people, things, and opportunities.

ii. MULTICULTURAL WORKFORCE. 2. Flight: The urge to avoid everything and

everyone that is different. This stage is characterized
Refers to the changing age, gender, ethnicity, by symptoms similar to those seen in cases of clinical
physical ability and race of employees across all type depression, but as a reaction to culture shock.
and place of works.
3. Fight: The temptation to judge people or things
that may be different in a negative light. At this stage,
one wrestles with the influence of the new culture while
BARRIERS TO INTERCULTURAL resisting giving up one's original cultural identity.
COMMUNICATIONS Hopefully, a blend will emerge that fits you well.

4. Fit: Willingness to understand, to embrace, and

to creatively interact with the new culture. At this final
STEREOTYPES AND PREJUDICES stage, adaptation to the local culture has been made
and hopefully one has made a decent adjustment.
 Stereotypes: generalized 2nd-hand beliefs
that provide conceptual biases from which we
‘make sense’ out of what goes on around us,
whether they are accurate or fit the Ethnocentrism
circumstances.
 The belief that one’s own culture is superior to
 Prejudice: a negative social attitude held by all others and the tendency to judge all
members of one group toward members of cultures by one’s own criteria.
another group.
 Ethnocentrism is the belief that one’s own
 Stereotypes are oversimplified or distorted cultural group’s behaviors, norms, ways of
views of another race, another ethnic group, thinking, and ways of being are superior to all
or even another culture. They are simply ways other cultural groups. It is not to be confused
to categorize and generalize from the with patriotism, which is devotion to one’s
overwhelming amount of information we country. It carries devotion to the extreme
receive daily. point where you cannot believe that another
culture’s behaviors, norms, ways of thinking,
 The problem with stereotypes is that whether and ways of being are as good or as worthy
they are positive or negative, once they are as your own.
established, it is difficult to remove them.
Discrimination
 Prejudices – an unfair of dislike for a person
or grgoupbecause of race, sex, religion.  Discrimination is the overt actions one takes
to exclude, avoid, or distance oneself from
 Prejudice is a negative attitude toward a other groups. Discrimination takes
cultural group based on little or no stereotypes and prejudice one step further—
experience. to action, whether overt or covert. You can
discriminate against someone subtly by
 CULTURE SHOCK : The anxiety that results slightly turning away your body when in a
from losing all of our familiar signs and conversation, or by avoiding eye contact with
symbols of social intercourse. them.

Signs: feelings of helplessness,

lowered self-esteem, desire to return
home, insomnia, depression,
physical illness, withdrawl and
hostility toward host culture.

20
The Developmental Model of Intercultural o Stage 4: Acceptance.
Sensitivity (DMIS)
“These people and I have different values
 The DMIS offers a structure that explores how and experiences, and I think we can learn
people experience cultural differences. from one another.”
According to Bennett and Bennett (2004), it
has six stages.
o Stage 5: Adaptation
 The widely known work of Milton Bennett
helps to elucidate the process of adaptation to The individual is very open to world views
a new culture. In his work, Developmental when accepting new perspectives.
Model of Intercultural Sensitivity, 1993, he
describes six main stages in the development “To address our issue, I have to adjust
of intercultural sensitivity: my approach to consider both my own
and my counterpart’s background.”
 denial
 defensiveness o Stage 6: Integration
 minimization
 acceptance Individuals start to go beyond their own
 adaptation cultures and see themselves and their
 integration actions based on multifarious cultural
o Stage 1: Denial. The individual does not viewpoints.
recognize cultural differences.
“I can look at things from the perspective
An individual in this stage might be heard of various cultures.”
saying:

“All cities are the same; they all have tall

buildings, fast food chains, and coffee
shops.”

o Stage 2: Defense. The individual starts

to recognize cultural differences and is
intimidated by them, resulting in either a
superior view on own culture or an
unjustified high regard for the new one.

An individual in stage 2 might be heard

saying:
“This culture does not view life the way
we do; our culture is certainly better.”
“Their ways are better than my own; I
wish I were one of them.”

o Stage 3. Minimization.

Although individuals see cultural

differences, they bank more on the
universality of ideas rather than on
cultural differences.

An individual in this stage might be heard

saying:

“Once we see through the cultural

differences, we really are just the same.”

21
TYPES OF SPEECH CONTEXT 4. Mass Communication

 This refers to communication that takes place

through television, radio, newspapers,
1. Intrapersonal magazines books, billboards, internet, and
other types of media.
 this refers to communication that centers in
one person where the speaker acts both as Example:
the sender and the receiver of the message.  You are a student journalist
articulating your stand on current
Example:
issues through the school’s
 You spent the night thinking and newspaper.
analyzing why a student from the
other class talked to you on the way
home and you decided it probably TYPES OF SPEECH STYLES
meant nothing.

2. Interpersonal
1. Intimate – this is private, which occurs between or
 This refers to communication between and among close family members or intimate individuals.
among people and establishes personal
relationship between among them. 2. Casual – this style is common among peers and
 Dyad communication – communication that friends. Jargon, slang, street language, gay language
occurs between two people. or vulgar words are used.

Example: 3. Consultative – this style is the standard one.

 You offered feedback on the speech Professional or mutually acceptable language is a must
performance of your classmate. in this style. Examples of situations are communication
 You provided comfort to a friend who between teachers and students, employers and
was feeling down. employees, doctor and patient, judge and lawyer, or
President and his constituents.
 Small group – this refers to communication
4. Formal – this style is used in formal settings. Unlike
that involves at least three but no more than
the consultative style, this is one-way. Examples are
ten people engaging in a face to face
sermons by priests and ministers, State of the Nation
interaction working to achieve a desired goal.
Address of the President, Formal Speeches, or
pronouncement by judges.
Example:
5. Frozen – this style is frozen in time and remains
 You are having a discussion with
unchanged. It mostly occurs in ceremonies. Common
your groupmates on how to finish the examples are the Preamble to the Constitution, Lord’s
assigned task Prayer, Allegiance to the country or flag.
3. Public

 This type refers to communication that

requires you to deliver or send the message
before or in front of a group.

Example:
 You deliver a graduation speech to
your batch.

22
SPEECH ACT Performatives

 Verbs that execute the speech act that they

intend to affect.
Speech Act  A performative utterance is a statement which
enable the speaker to perform something just
 Is an utterance that a speaker makes to by stating it.
achieve an intended effect.
 Offering an apology, greeting, request, Example:
complaint, invitation, compliment, or refusal
 Might contain just on word or several word or The phrase “I now pronounce you husband
sentences. and wife,” when uttered by an authorized
person such as a judge will have the actual
Three types of Speech Acts (according to J.L Austin) effect of the binding couple in marriage.

1. Locutionary Act
 Is the actual act of uttering
 Occurs when the speaker performs SEARLE’S CLASSIFICATION OF SPEECH ACTS
an utterance (locution), which has a (according to John Searle)
meaning in the traditional sense.
 This act happens with the utterance 1. Assertive
of sound, a word, or even a phrase  A type of illocutionary act in which
as a natural unit of speech. the speaker expresses belief about
the truth of a proposition. Some
Example: examples are suggesting, putting
forward, swearing, boasting, and
“Please do the dishes.” concluding.

2. Illocutionary Act Example:

No one makes better pancakes than
 is the social function of what is said
I do.
 is the performance of the act of
saying something with a specific 2. Directive
intention
 A type of illocutionary act in which
 stating an opinion, confirming, or
the speaker tries to make the
denying something
addressee perform an action. Some
 making a prediction, promise, a examples are asking, ordering,
request requesting, inviting, advising, and
 issuing an order or request begging.
 giving an advice or opinion
Example:
Example: Please close the door.

By uttering the locution “Please do the 3. Commissive

dishes,” the speaker requests the  A type of illocutionary act which
addressee to wash the dishes. (request) commits the speaker to doing
something in the future. Examples
3. Perlocutionary Act are promising, vowing, and betting.
 Is the resulting of what is said. This
effect is based on the particular Example:
context in which the speech act was From now on, I will participate in our
mentioned. group activity.
 Happens when what the speaker
says has an effect on the listener. 4. Expressive
 A type of illocutionary act which the
Example: speaker expresses his/her feelings
or emotional reactions. Examples
are thanking, apologizing,
“Please do the dishes” would lead to the
welcoming, deploring
addressee washing the dishes.

23
 Example: 3. Turn-taking
I am sorry for not helping out in our
group projects and letting you do all  Turn taking pertains to the process
the work. by which people decide who takes
the conversational floor.
5. Declaration
 A type of illocutionary act which Examples:
bring a change in the external o “Can we listen to the one who
situation. Simply put, declarations talks in front of us?”
bring into existence or cause of o “Excuse me? I think we should
affairs which they refer to. Examples speak one at a time, so we can
are blessing, firing, baptizing, clearly understand what we
bidding, passing a sentence, and want to say about the topic.”
excommunicating. o “Go on with your ideas. I’ll let
you finish first before I say
Example: something.”
You are fired!
4. Topic Control

 Topic control covers how procedural

TYPES OF COMMUNICATIVE STRATEGIES formality or informality affects the
development of topic in
1. Nominative conversations. For example, in
meetings you may have a turn to
 A speaker carries out nomination to speak after the chairperson directs
collaboratively and productively you to do so.
establish a topic. Basically, when  Remember that regardless of the
you employ this strategy, you try to formality of the context, topic control
open a topic with the people you are is achieved cooperatively. This only
talking to. means when a topic is initiated, it
should be collectively developed by
Examples: avoiding unnecessary interruptions
o “Have you heard the news and topic shifts.
about the prettiest girl in
school?” Example:
o “Does that make sense to you?” o "One of the essential lessons I
gained from the discussion is
the importance of sports and
2. Restriction wellness to a healthy lifestyle."

 Restriction in communication refers 5. Topic Shifting

to any limitation you may have as a
speaker. You are typically given  Topic shifting, as the name
specific instructions that you must suggests, involves moving from one
follow. These instructions confine topic to another. In other words, it is
you as a speaker and limit what you where one part of a conversation
can say. ends and where begins.

Examples: Examples:
o In your class, you might be o "By the way, there's a new shop
asked by your teacher to opening at the mall"
brainstorm on peer pressure. o “In addition to what you said
o When you were asked to deliver about the beautiful girl is that
a speech in a specific language. she is also smart."

6. Repair

 Repair refers to how speaker

address the problems in speaking,
listening, and comprehending that

24
 they may encounter in a o Psychology (values, beliefs,
conversation. attitudes, preferences, cultural
and racial ideologies and
Examples: needs)
o "Excuse me, but there are 5
Functions of Communication  The purpose for writing and
not 4." delivering the speech can be
o "I'm sorry, the word should be classified into three:
pronounced as pretty not priti." o An Informative Speech
provides the audience an
7. Termination understanding of the
concept or idea presented
 Termination refers to the by the speaker.
conversation participants’ close - o An entertainment speech
initiating expressions that end a provides the audience with
topic in a conversation. amusement.
o A persuasive speech
Examples: provides the audience with
o "Best regards to your parents! well-argued ideas that can
See you around!" influence their own beliefs
o “It was nice meeting you. Bye!” and decisions.

 The topic is your main point, which

can be determined once you have
decided on your purpose.
PRINCIPLES OF SPEECH WRITING
 Narrowing down a topic means
making your idea more specified and
focused.
The Speech Writing Process
 Data gathering is the stage where
you collect ideas, information,
sources and references.

 Writing patterns are structures that

will help you organize the ideas.

WRITING PATTERNS:

Biographical Presents To inform

descriptions of
your life or of a To entertain
person,
famous or not.

Components of Speech Writing Process Categorical/ Presents To inform

related
 Audience Analysis entails looking Topical categories To entertain
into the profile of your target supporting the
audience. The profile includes the topic To persuade
following information:
o Demography (age range,
Causal Presents To inform
male-female ratio, educational
cause-effect
background, and affiliations or
relationships
degree program taken)
o Situation (time, venue,
situation, size)

25
 Types of Speech According to Purpose
Chronological Presents the To inform
idea in time 1. Informative Speech
order
 Provides audience with a clear
Comparison/ Presents To inform understanding of a concept or idea.
comparison/
Contrast To persuade 2. Entertainment Speech
contrast of two
or three points  Amuses the audience. Humorous
speeches.
Problem- Presents an To inform
solution identified 3. Persuasive Speech
problem, its To persuade
causes and  Seeks to provide the audience with
recommended favorable or acceptable ideas that
solutions can influence their own ideas and
decisions.

 An Outline is a hierarchical list that shows the

relationship of your ideas. Types of Speech According to Delivery
1. Table Format
2. List Format 1. Extemporaneous
 The body of your speech provides an
 Speaking with limited preparation
explanation, examples or any details that can
help you deliver your purpose and explain the  Guided by notes or outline
main idea of your speech.  Delivered conversationally
 Most popular type
 The introduction is the foundation of your
speech. Examples:

 The conclusion restates the main idea of o When you are a candidate for a post
your speech. in a student government and you
deliver your campaign speech
 Editing/Revising your written speech before a voting public
involves correcting errors in mechanics, such o When you are assigned to report a
as grammar, punctuation, capitalization, topic in class
unity, coherence, and others.

 Rehearsing gives you an opportunity to 2. Impromptu

identify what works and what does not work
for you and your target audience.  Speaking without advanced
preparation
 Unrehearsed speech
 Spoken conversationally

Examples:
PRINCIPLES OF SPEECH DELIVERY
o In an event where you are asked to
say a few words.
o First day at work or in class, or
Good Delivery – conveys the speaker’s ideas clearly, during an interview
interestingly and without distracting the audience.

26
3. Manuscript Impromptu Speech

 Speaking with advanced preparation  Are delivered with little or no time for
 Planned and rehearsed speech preparation.
 Reading aloud a message
Strategies in Organizing and Delivering an
Examples: Impromptu Speech

o Newscasting with a TelePrompter or 1. Past-Present-Future

autocue device.
o Presenting the legal proceedings 2. Point-Reason-Example/Explanation-Point
and verdict in court.
o Reading the rules and criteria in a Example:
contest.

4. Memorized

 Speaking with advanced preparation

 Planned and rehearsed speech
 Reciting a written message word-
for-word from memory.

Examples:

o When you perform in a stage play

o When you deliver a declamation,
oratorical, or literary piece
o When an actor or actress performs a
script from memory in a scene.

3. Opening, Rule of Three, Clincher

Example:

TYPES OF SPEECHES

Manuscript Speech

 This is when a speaker reads a pre-written

speech word by word to an audience.

Where it is most advantageous?

 Public Figures
 Media Personalities
 Spokesperson for government and
private organizations.

Memorized Speech

 Requires you to commit the speech to

memory so that you do not bring your notes
when delivering it.

27
a. Bridging. Extemporaneous Speech

This entails a connection between what you  Is a planned and prepared speech. It is
do know and what you do not know. delivered with the help of short notes and
clear outline.

Entertainment Speech

 Aims to share goodwill, joy, and pleasure to

the audience.

Informative Speech

b. Reframing.  Aims to educate the audience on a particular

topic.
This means rephrasing or redefining the topic
into something that you want to talk about.
This usually occurs if you think the topic is
inappropriate. Types of Informative Speech

Speech about This focuses Yourself

objects or on tangible
people items like Sherlock
gadgets, Holmes
products,
structures or
people.
Speech about This focuses First Aid
processes on a process or
sequence of Short Story
events. Writing

Photography

Web designs
Speech about This focuses Martial Law
c. Playing Devil’s Advocate events on an event
that happened, Zombie
This refers to you standing on the opposite is happening or Invasion
side. might happen
in the future. Accident

Cosplay Show
Speech about This focuses Big Bang
concepts on beliefs, Theory
knowledge,
theories, Bermuda
principles, or Triangle
ideas
Feminism

28
Organizational Pattern 2. Speech that Questions Value

A. Chronological Pattern.  This type focuses on questions of value

regarding topics on the self, family,
 This can be used if you want to friendship, religion, government,
present the history, evolution, or freedom, love, money, among others.
development of your topic in
sequential order. 3. Speech that Questions Policy

B. Spatial/Topical/Categorical Pattern.  This type questions the current state of

things which can impact the future.
 This can be used if you want to
inform your audience about the main 4. Speech that Refutes
features, descriptions, or categories
of your topic.  This type either responds to or disproves
the claims of others while defending and
C. Cause-Effect Pattern. promoting own claims.

 This can be used if you want to show

the causal relationship of events or
phenomena. Organizational Patterns
o Single-Cause-Multiple
Effects 1. A. F.O.R.E.S.T
o Single-Effect-Multiple
Causes a) Anecdotes. Begin your speech with
o Multiple Causes-Multiple a personal story, observation or
Effects experience.
o Domino Effects b) Facts and figures. Provide striking
statistics that can support your idea.
D. Comparison-Contrast. c) Opinion. Add in your opinion.
d) Rhetorical Questions. Think of and
 This can be used if you want to add engaging rhetorical questions.
compare objects, events, or e) Emotive Language. Appeal to your
concepts underscoring their audience’s emotion.
similarities and differences. f) Superlatives. Use superlatives to
o Block exaggerate your ideas.
o Point-by-point g) Tripling. The rule of three in English
writing principle simply entails using
three words together to reinforce
your point.

2. Problem-Solution
Persuasive Speech
3. Problem-Cause-Solution
 Is the form of communication that
people of diverse background 4. Comparative Advantages
mostly engage in.
 The primary goal is to influence the 5. Monroe’s Motivated Sequence
thoughts, feelings, actions, and
behaviors or attitudes of listeners. Alan Monroe, a professor from Purdue
University, created an outline for making
speeches based on the psychology of
persuasion.
Types of Persuasive Speech
Technique:
1. Speech that Questions Fact
Attention-grabber
 This type questions the existence of a Needs
particular event or happening. Satisfaction
Visualization
Call to action

29