Variable Speed Drives (VSD)

A variable frequency drives (VFD) is a system for controlling the rotational speed of an alternating
current (AC) electric motor by controlling the frequency of the electrical power supplied to the motor.
Variable-frequency drives are also known as adjustable-frequency drives (AFD), variable speed
drives (VSD), AC drives, microdrives or inverter drives. Since the voltage is varied along with frequency,
these are sometimes also called VVVF (variable voltage variable frequency) drives.

All VFDs use their output devices (IGBTs, transistors, thyristors) only as switches, turning them only on or
off. Using a linear device such as a transistor in its linear mode is impractical for a VFD drive, since the
power dissipated in the drive devices would be about as much as the power delivered to the load.

The most common type of packaged VF drive is the constant-voltage type, using pulse width
modulation to control both the frequency and effective voltage applied to the motor load.

VFD Motor

The motor used in a VFD system is usually a three-phase induction motor. Some types of single-phase
motors can be used, but three-phase motors are usually preferred. Various types of synchronous motors
offer advantages in some situations, but induction motors are suitable for most purposes and are
generally the most economical choice. Motors that are designed for fixed-speed operation are often used.
Certain enhancements to the standard motor designs offer higher reliability and better VFD performance.

VFD Controller

Variable frequency drive controllers are solid state electronic power conversion devices. The usual design
first converts AC input power to DC intermediate power using a rectifier or converter bridge. The rectifier
is usually a three-phase, full-wave-diode bridge. The DC intermediate power is then converted to quasi-
sinusoidal AC power using an inverter switching circuit.

The inverter circuit is probably the most important section of the VFD, changing DC energy into three
channels of AC energy that can be used by an AC motor. These units provide improved power factor,
less harmonic distortion, and low sensitivity to the incoming phase sequencing than older phase
controlled converter VFD's.

Since incoming power is converted to DC, many units will accept single-phase as well as three-phase
input power (acting as a phase converter as well as a speed controller); however the unit must be derated
when using single phase input as only part of the rectifier bridge is carrying the connected load

VFD Operation

When an induction motor is connected to a full voltage supply, it draws several times (up to about 6
times) its rated current. As the load accelerates, the available torque usually drops a little and then rises
to a peak while the current remains very high until the motor approaches full speed.

By contrast, when a VFD starts a motor, it initially applies a low frequency and voltage to the motor. The
starting frequency is typically 2 Hz or less. Thus starting at such a low frequency avoids the high inrush
current that occurs when a motor is started by simply applying the utility (mains) voltage by turning on a
switch. After the start of the VFD, the applied frequency and voltage are increased at a controlled rate or
ramped up to accelerate the load without drawing excessive current.

This starting method typically allows a motor to develop 150% of its rated torque while the VFD is drawing
less than 50% of its rated current from the mains in the low speed range. A VFD can be adjusted to
produce a steady 150% starting torque from standstill right up to full speed.

Note, however, that cooling of the motor is usually not good in the low speed range. Thus running at low
speeds even with rated torque for long periods is not possible due to overheating of the motor. If
continuous operation with high torque is required in low speeds an external fan is usually needed. The
manufacturer of the motor and/or the VFD should specify the cooling requirements for this mode of
operation

Components of a VFD

Rectifier - Converts the alternating current (AC) input power to direct current (DC) power

DC link- Stores the DC power to be used by the converter. These are the capacitors that are
typically in the back of VFD.

Converter - The IGBT (Inverse Gate Bipolar Transistor ) inverter is the heart of the converter
component.It under direction of the control circuit provides the PWM (Pulse width Modulation) output
of the motor,a controlled frequency and voltaage.

Control Circuit - This is where the programming takes place and controls all the working of the VFD
the brains of the operation.
What is VFD?
VFDs (Variable Frequency Drive) are drivers which regulate the electric current to instruments.
Instruments such as motors and fans work only at one speed if they are directly connected to the 3-
phase power supply, that is these motors typically only have an on/off state of operation.

VFD is needed if multiple operation speeds are desired. Also, apart from selectable speeds, the
efficiency of the overall system is increased due to the fact that the motor only sees the necessary
amount of input power to achieve desired output power. Also, the motor can be slowly brought up to
speed, eliminating huge start-up current spikes.

Working of VFD for a motor:

To understand the working of the VFD, internal diagram is shown below:
 The circuit consist of three main blocks:

 Input converter/ input rectifier

 DC bus
 Output inverter

Two rectifiers are used for each phase, one is to convert the AC signal to DC signal and other will
allow power to pass through only when the voltage is negative. Thus, the AC voltage is converted to
DC at the rectifier.

Then the DC voltage is passed through DC bus circuit, which contains capacitors and inductor or
resistors, thereby smoothing the incoming power supply to the dc bus.

The final section of the VFD is referred to as an “inverter.” The inverter contains transistors that
deliver power to the motor. The “Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor” (IGBT) is a common choice in
modern VFDs. The IGBT can switch on and off several thousand times per second and precisely
control the power delivered to the motor.

The IGBT uses Pulse Width Modulation (PWD) to simulate a current sine wave at the desired
frequency to the motor.

Pulse Width Modulation means amplitude of the analog current signal increases as the width of the
DC pulse increases. The voltage will be in pulse and current signal will be converted into sinusoidal.
The amplitude of the sinusoidal wave is dependent on the width of the pulse and the delay of the
pulse, which is adjusted to the desired current value.

Motor speed (rpm) is dependent upon frequency. Varying the frequency output of the VFD controls
motor speed:

Speed (rpm) = frequency (hertz) x 120 / no. of poles

The frequency of the signal is increased by the VFD for increase the speed of the motor. As
frequency increases the motor torque decreases and speed increases.

Advantages:
 Limit torque
 Save energy
 Maintenance cost can be lowered
 Control of process temperature and pressure

Basic design and operation principles behind variable-frequency drives

(VFDs)

Although much has been published on variable-frequency drives (VFDs), people

continue to be confused by them. The intent of this article is to provide a basic
overview of these devices by evaluating key features as well as their impact on a
building’s electrical system.

A VFD is used extensively in modern facilities to save energy on mechanical systems,

such as motors, pumps, etc. Selected to match motor curves to ensure speed and loads
are matched, VFDs can help save motor energy by allowing for variable flow of air,
water, etc., based on the demands and needs of a particular site. This is accomplished
by converting the fixed frequency of incoming alternating current (AC) voltage to direct
current (DC) — and then reconverting it back to AC voltage by varying the frequency at
which the insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) are gated on and off.

Basic operation
A VFD operates by converting the input sinusoidal AC voltage to DC voltage and then
back to AC voltage. This conversion occurs by using either silicon-controlled rectifiers
(SCRs) or IGBTs. The DC voltage is switched using IGBTs to create an AC output
voltage (called the inverter). The IGBT can switch on and off to create an AC voltage
waveform that delivers power to the motor. The IGBTs create an AC waveform by using
pulse width-modulated (PWM) switching ( Fig. 1). The frequency at which the switching
occurs, which varies from manufacturer to manufacturer, is called “carrier frequency.”

A typical 6-pulse VFD has six diodes as a front-end bridge rectifier that converts AC to
DC. VFDs can also have 12 diodes — two sets per phase (2 × 2 × 3 = 12 pulse) — or
18 diodes — three sets per phase (3 × 2 × 3 = 18 pulse) — and so on (Table). One set
of diodes is supplied by a Delta-Y transformer to create a phase shift on the AC side
between the two rectifiers to reduce harmonics reflected back to the source.

6-pulse VFD
A 6-pulse VFD develops the output DC voltage by taking each phase of the AC source
and installing one set of diodes to gate on and off (Fig. 2). A 6-pulse VFD is most
commonly used in the building system. Typical current total harmonic distortion (THD)
back to the source can be as high as 35% at the input terminals of the VFD. You can
install an inline inductor to reduce the reflected harmonics back to the point of coupling,
as defined by IEEE 519. The inductor reduces the current distortion — and thus the
voltage distortion — at the source. The input line inductors are typically 3% to 5%
impedance. Base the selection of the inductor on harmonic evaluation of the electrical
system at the building, impact of voltage drops across the inductor, and impact of
power factor to the building electrical system.
The impact of harmonics should take into account available fault current (i.e., the
stiffness of the electrical system). See IEEE Standard 519 for more details. However, if
there are significant VFDs and other harmonic-producing devices in a building’s
electrical system, such as electronic ballasts, uninterruptible power supplies, electronic
switching devices, etc., think about using 12- or 18-pulse VFDs to reduce the harmonics
reflected back to the source.

12-pulse VFD
A 12-pulse VFD has phase shift transformers ahead of 6-pulse VFD to cancel the
harmonics reflected back to the source. The phase shift transformers can be tuned to
reduce harmonic distortion to less than 10% at the input terminals of the VFD (Fig. 3).
The windings of the transformers are offset to cancel the largest harmonics from the
VFD. By reducing the harmonics at the input terminals, the intent is to reduce voltage
distortion at the source because the current THD at each piece of equipment is reduced.
Conduct a harmonic evaluation to validate the findings. Disadvantages in providing a
12-pulse VFD are the cost (i.e., it can be up to 50% more) and the physical footprint
required. A 6-pulse VFD for a typical 25-hp motor can be installed on the wall next to
the motor. A 12-pulse VFD will be a free-standing “switchboard” type unit.
18-pulse VFD
An 18-pulse VFD provides low harmonic distortion through phased cancellation of
primary harmonics (5th and 7th) and the higher order harmonics that could cause
resonance on capacitive and inductive loads (such as filters, transformer, etc.). Because
cost can be prohibitive for most building applications, only consider this approach for
facilities that have significant harmonics on the electrical system. The THD at the input
terminals can be less than 5%; therefore, lower total voltage harmonic distortion will be
realized at the source (i.e., point of common coupling), depending on the circuit
impedance (Fig. 4).
Selection criteria
Before selecting a VFD, evaluate the current THD. A 6-, 12-, 18- or even 24-pulse VFD
should be evaluated to determine the best solution. Harmonics can cause faulty meter
readings, motor bearing failure (due to electrical currents), blown fusing on capacitors,
and/or telephone communication interference. A possible effect of harmonics is
excitement of a system resonance that can significantly raise the voltage and cause
system failures.

The carrier frequency and circuit impedance is a key feature in selection of a VFD to be
aware of in regard to switching speeds and resonance. The manufacturer’s
representation should ensure that the resonance frequency is skipped during startup of
the VFD. The resonance frequency is a function of the VFD carrier frequency and
impedance of the circuit; therefore, it’s specific to the site conditions.

The resonance in an electrical system occurs when there are harmonics on the electrical
system — and where the inductive/capacitive loads are tuned to specific frequency to
allow for oscillation due to impedance of the circuit. The effects of resonance can be
explained briefly by the basic formula, V = I × Z. When current and impedance are
excited to high levels, the voltage increases causing heating on the electrical system.

In addition to the reflected harmonics back to the source and to the motor, VFD
selection should include voltage rating and system lockout. Keep in mind the nominal
voltage of a VFD with upper and lower limits. Also, evaluate the impact of overvoltage
on a VFD. Some VFDs tend to lock out with overvoltage condition after select restarts.
You should also ensure that single-phase protection includes both time and magnitude
components.

How does the motor nominal rating (typically 460V) correlate with nominal voltage of
VFD (typically 480V)? The system utilization voltage should be such that it does not go
beyond the high voltage rating of the motor (causing increased current and
prematurely burning the motor). At the same time, it should not be too low where a
sag on the system voltage, combined with building voltage drop, does not shut down
the VFD.

When sizing the input breakers for a VFD, think about when the VFD is in bypass mode.
Is the bypass starter specified as across the line or reduced voltage? Although VFDs are
important in reducing the inrush current to generators, consideration should be given
when a VFD is operated in bypass while on generator.

VFDs have losses, just like other electronic devices that transform voltage. Depending
on type (6-, 12- or 18-pulse) and manufacture of VFD, the losses can be 4% to 10%.
These losses should be taken into consideration in sizing electrical systems and
requirements for ventilation.

In addition to matching the VFD to the motor, consider the environment as well. What
are the derating factors for altitude and temperature? This will vary from manufacturer
to manufacturer. In addition, evaluate the VFD for the seismic rating based on
International Building Code and client requirements. A VFD may be designed to survive
a seismic event, operate after a seismic event, or operate during and after a seismic
event.
VFDs have been known to affect the bearing of the motor and cause premature failures.
The ratio of V/T can create parasitic capacitance between the motor stator and the
rotor, which induces a voltage on the rotor shaft. If this voltage, referred to as
“common mode voltage,” builds up to a sufficient level, it can discharge to ground
through the bearings. High carrier frequency can also contribute to bearing failure. The
higher carrier frequency can cause increased current discharge pulses, but this also
means the VFD will run more quietly.

Recommendations
Ensure carrier frequency is less than 6 kHz with adjustable frequency. Ensure the motor
is as close as possible to the VFD to minimize conductor length. If the conductor is
longer than recommended by the manufacturer, consider providing an inductive or RCL
filter(Fig. 5).

Reduced harmonics should be considered for soft loads (such as at the end of an
electric utility feed in a rural area or when powering loads with on-site generators) to
reduce the voltage THD at the point of common coupling (PCC). High voltage distortion
can cause malfunction of electronic devices.

Ensure the VFD output conductors are sized per manufacturer recommendations, and
consider adding output line reactors. The line reactors should be sized to match the
distance requirements of a VFD that is not located near the motor load.
Sizing of the electrical infrastructure should take into account the VFD losses, voltage
tolerance, and footprint requirements. The electrical system should be sized for both
when the motor is operated in VFD mode and when in bypass (across the line) mode.

Big picture
In addition to cost, consider many other factors when selecting a VFD. The carrier
frequency is critical to reduce impact on the motor bearings and motor life. Install the
output and input inductors to reduce harmonic distortion at the motor and at the PCC
for most applications. If the site has high harmonics on the electrical system, a 12-
pulse VFD would typically be used. To minimize resonance of higher order harmonics,
an 18-pulse VFD may be required.

During site startup and acceptance testing, pay special attention to voltage set points
relative to utility source. The resonance frequency should be skipped during startup and
on-site generation equipment should be tested with the VFD in normal operation mode
and in bypass mode. The bottom line is you should always select VFDs based on careful
evaluation of how they will interface with the electrical system of the building in
addition to the pairing with mechanical motor selection.

What is a pulse rectifier and what kinds are

there?
DECEMBER 28, 2016 BY DANIELLE COLLINS LEAVE A COMMENT

Variable frequency drives are made up of three primary sections: a rectifier, which
converts the supplied AC voltage to DC; a DC bus, which stores the DC voltage; and an
inverter, which converts the DC power back to AC at the voltage and frequency required
by the motor.
The most common, and simplest, rectifier designs use diodes, with each phase of
power requiring two diodes, one that allows current to pass through when voltage is
negative, and one for when voltage is positive. Therefore, a 3-phase system requires six
diodes to make up the rectifier. This design is commonly referred to as a 6-pulse
rectifier because it draws current from the AC source in six pulses. And because the
current draw from the power supply isn’t a smooth sinusoidal waveform, the VFD is
considered to be a non-linear load.

This non-linear current draw can distort the supplied AC power, causing problems
for motors and other electronic equipment. The amount of distortion depends on the
capacity of the supply circuit. If the rectifier represents a large percentage of the
available capacity of the supply, then distortion can be substantial.

Distortion can be modeled as additional voltage waveforms in multiples of the

fundamental (i.e. 60 Hz) voltage. These additional waveforms start at a multiple of 5, but
(for 3-phase systems) skip all multiples of 3. This is known as harmonic distortion, and
for typical 60 Hz systems, the 5th, 7th, 11th, and 13th harmonics are most prevalent.

The measurement of harmonic distortion is referred to as total harmonic distortion

(THD):

Where:

Ih = magnitude of the voltage harmonic component or the current harmonic component

I1 = magnitude of the fundamental voltage or the fundamental current

With the 6-pulse rectifier described above, the 5th and 7th order harmonics are
significant, and filtering is often needed. One way to reduce THD in an AC drive is to
use a 12-, 18-, or even 24-pulse rectifier.

Harmonic current in a motor increases hysteresis losses and eddy current losses.
These losses raise the motor’s operating temperature, which can derate performance
and reduce the life of the motor.
A 12-pulse rectifier uses two 6-pulse rectifiers in parallel (12 diodes) to feed a common
DC bus. A transformer with one primary and two secondary windings creates a 30
degree phase shift between the two current waveforms, which eliminates the 5th and
7th harmonics and reduces current THD to between 10 and 15 percent. Disadvantages
of a 12-pulse rectifier are cost—due to the special transformer required—and physical
footprint.

Diagram of a 12-pulse rectifier, which consists of two 6-pulse rectifiers as well as a primary
transformer and two secondaries.
Image credit: Emerson Industrial Automation
Similarly, an 18-pulse rectifier uses three 6-pulse rectifiers (18 diodes) and a multi-
phase transformer with one primary winding and three secondaries. The multiple
windings work to offset the voltage waveform by 20 degrees. This cancels the 5 th, 7th ,
11th, and 13th harmonics and provides a current THD in the range of 5 percent. But as
the transformer becomes more complex and additional rectifiers are added, cost and
footprint further increase.
 Comparison of harmonic distortion levels with 6-, 12-, and 24-pulse rectifiers.
Image credi: ABB
Eliminating virtually all harmonics requires a 24-pulse rectifier, which consists of two 12-
pulse rectifiers in parallel and two 3-winding transformers. The transformers provide a
voltage waveform offset of 15 degrees, which cancels most low-frequency harmonics.
However, the high cost of a 24-pulse rectifier makes it practical only for very high-power
drives or for large multi-drive systems.
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
The IGBT is a power switching transistor which combines the advantages of MOSFETs
and BJTs for use in power supply and motor control circuits

The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor also called an IGBT for short, is
something of a cross between a conventional Bipolar Junction Transistor,
(BJT) and a Field Effect Transistor, (MOSFET) making it ideal as a
semiconductor switching device.
The IGBT Transistor takes the best parts of these two types of common
transistors, the high input impedance and high switching speeds of a
MOSFET with the low saturation voltage of a bipolar transistor, and combines
them together to produce another type of transistor switching device that is
capable of handling large collector-emitter currents with virtually zero gate
current drive.

Typical IGBT
The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor, (IGBT) combines the insulated gate
(hence the first part of its name) technology of the MOSFET with the output
performance characteristics of a conventional bipolar transistor, (hence the
second part of its name).
The result of this hybrid combination is that the “IGBT Transistor” has the
output switching and conduction characteristics of a bipolar transistor but is
voltage-controlled like a MOSFET.
IGBTs are mainly used in power electronics applications, such as inverters,
converters and power supplies, were the demands of the solid state switching
device are not fully met by power bipolars and power MOSFETs. High-current
and high-voltage bipolars are available, but their switching speeds are slow,
while power MOSFETs may have higher switching speeds, but high-voltage
and high-current devices are expensive and hard to achieve.
The advantage gained by the insulated gate bipolar transistor device over a
BJT or MOSFET is that it offers greater power gain than the standard bipolar
type transistor combined with the higher voltage operation and lower input
losses of the MOSFET. In effect it is an FET integrated with a bipolar
transistor in a form of Darlington type configuration as shown.

Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

We can see that the insulated gate bipolar transistor is a three terminal,
transconductance device that combines an insulated gate N-channel
MOSFET input with a PNP bipolar transistor output connected in a type of
Darlington configuration.
As a result the terminals are labelled as: Collector, Emitter and Gate. Two of
its terminals (C-E) are associated with the conductance path which passes
current, while its third terminal (G) controls the device.
The amount of amplification achieved by the insulated gate bipolar
transistor is a ratio between its output signal and its input signal. For a
conventional bipolar junction transistor, (BJT) the amount of gain is
approximately equal to the ratio of the output current to the input current,
called Beta.
For a metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor or MOSFET, there is no
input current as the gate is isolated from the main current carrying channel.
Therefore, an FET’s gain is equal to the ratio of output current change to input
voltage change, making it a transconductance device and this is also true of
the IGBT. Then we can treat the IGBT as a power BJT whose base current is
provided by a MOSFET.
The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor can be used in small signal amplifier
circuits in much the same way as the BJT or MOSFET type transistors. But as
the IGBT combines the low conduction loss of a BJT with the high switching
speed of a power MOSFET an optimal solid state switch exists which is ideal
for use in power electronics applications.
Also, the IGBT has a much lower “on-state” resistance, RON than an equivalent
MOSFET. This means that the I2R drop across the bipolar output structure for
a given switching current is much lower. The forward blocking operation of the
IGBT transistor is identical to a power MOSFET.
When used as static controlled switch, the insulated gate bipolar transistor
has voltage and current ratings similar to that of the bipolar transistor.
However, the presence of an isolated gate in an IGBT makes it a lot simpler to
drive than the BJT as much less drive power is needed.
An insulated gate bipolar transistor is simply turned “ON” or “OFF” by
activating and deactivating its Gate terminal. Applying a positive input voltage
signal across the Gate and the Emitter will keep the device in its “ON” state,
while making the input gate signal zero or slightly negative will cause it to turn
“OFF” in much the same way as a bipolar transistor or eMOSFET. Another
advantage of the IGBT is that it has a much lower on-state channel resistance
than a standard MOSFET.
IGBT Characteristics

Because the IGBT is a voltage-controlled device, it only requires a small

voltage on the Gate to maintain conduction through the device unlike BJT’s
which require that the Base current is continuously supplied in a sufficient
enough quantity to maintain saturation.
Also the IGBT is a unidirectional device, meaning it can only switch current in
the “forward direction”, that is from Collector to Emitter unlike MOSFET’s
which have bi-directional current switching capabilities (controlled in the
forward direction and uncontrolled in the reverse direction).
The principal of operation and Gate drive circuits for the insulated gate bipolar
transistor are very similar to that of the N-channel power MOSFET. The basic
difference is that the resistance offered by the main conducting channel when
current flows through the device in its “ON” state is very much smaller in the
IGBT. Because of this, the current ratings are much higher when compared
with an equivalent power MOSFET.
The main advantages of using the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor over
other types of transistor devices are its high voltage capability, low ON-
resistance, ease of drive, relatively fast switching speeds and combined with
zero gate drive current makes it a good choice for moderate speed, high
voltage applications such as in pulse-width modulated (PWM), variable speed
control, switch-mode power supplies or solar powered DC-AC inverter and
frequency converter applications operating in the hundreds of kilohertz range.
A general comparison between BJT’s, MOSFET’s and IGBT’s is given in the
following table.
IGBT Comparison Table

Device Power Power

IGBT
Characteristic Bipolar MOSFET

Voltage Rating High <1kV High <1kV Very High >1kV

Current Rating High <500A Low <200A High >500A

Current, hFE Voltage, VGS Voltage, VGE

Input Drive
20-200 3-10V 4-8V

Input Impedance Low High High

Output Impedance Low Medium Low

Switching Speed Slow (uS) Fast (nS) Medium

Cost Low Medium High

We have seen that the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor is semiconductor

switching device that has the output characteristics of a bipolar junction
transistor, BJT, but is controlled like a metal oxide field effect transistor,
MOSFET.
One of the main advantages of the IGBT transistor is the simplicity by which it
can be driven “ON” by applying a positive gate voltage, or switched “OFF” by
making the gate signal zero or slightly negative allowing it to be used in a
variety of switching applications. It can also be driven in its linear active region
for use in power amplifiers.
With its lower on-state resistance and conduction losses as well as its ability
to switch high voltages at high frequencies without damage makes
the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor ideal for driving inductive loads such
as coil windings, electromagnets and DC motors.