PANPACIFIC UNIVERSITY NORTH PHILIPPINES

College of Criminal Justice Education

Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology
(Lecture Notes)
PREPARED BY: JAN RAMEL TUMBAGA, M.P.H.

Course Outline:

Chapter 1: Introduction to Forensic Chemistry

Chapter 2: Blood and Blood Stains
Chapter 3: Semen and Seminal Stain
Chapter 4: Gunpowder and other Explosives
Chapter 5: Hair and Textile Fiber
Chapter 6: Chemical Aspect of Document Examination
Chapter 7: Glass and glass fragments & Fractures
Chapter 8: Foot impression and tolls impression
Chapter 9: Metallurgy
Chapter 10: Soil (Petrography as applied to crime detection)
Chapter 11: Arson
Chapter 12: DNA
Chapter 13: Forensic Toxicology
Chapter 14: Dangerous Drugs

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

Forensic Chemistry
- Application of chemical principles in the solution of problems that arise in
connection with the administration of justice.

Development of Scientific Crime Laboratory in the Philippines

- Public recognition of the value of science: Position of Medicos Titulares by virtue
of the Royal Decree No. 188 of Spain on March 31, 1876.
- For every province: Forensic physician was assigned – perform sanitary duties
and medico-legal aids to the administration of justice.
- December 15, 1884 – creation of committee to study the mineral waters of Luzon
and appointed Anacleto del Rosario as chemist by Governor General Joaquin
Javellar.
- Realizing the importance of this work – the government established in September
13, 1887 the Laboratorio Municipal de Manila under the inspection of the
Direccion General de Administracion Civil and the control of the Gobierno de
Provincias.
- Function of Laboratorio Municipal de Manila: analysis on food and water
(standpoint of public health and legal medicine) but also specimens for legal
medicine
- Anacleto del Rosario was appointed director after a competitive examination in
June 17, 1888.

Scientific Evidence
- Means sanctioned by law, of ascertaining in a judicial proceedings the truth
respecting a matter of fact (Sec. 1 Rule 128, Rules of Court) where scientific
knowledge is necessary.
- Evidence based on or conforming to the principles and techniques of science.
- Evidence is a proof of allegation (reasons)

What is Physical Evidence?

- Article and material which is found in connection with an investigation and which
aid in establishing the identity of the perpetrator or the circumstances under
which the crime was committed on which in general assist in the prosecution of
the criminal.
- Encompasses any and all objects that can establish that a crime has been
committed or can provide a link between a crime and its victim or a crime and its
perpetrator.

Physical evidences may be lost due to some reasons

a. Improper packing of the specimen
b. Failure to identify the specimen
c. Improper precautions used in transmitting the specimen
d. Improper preservation

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 e. Lack of precaution to prevent tampering of the specimen
Types of Evidences
a. Direct evidence – which the senses perceive.
- Any fact to which a witness testifies based on what he saw, heard, smelled,
touched or tasted.
b. Circumstantial (Indirect) evidence – seeks to establish a conclusion by inferences
from proved facts.
- Establishes a fact or circumstance from which the court may infer another fact at
issue.
c. Hearsay evidence – statement made by a witness on the authority of another and
not from his own personal knowledge or observation.
“Differences between Ordinary and Expert Witness”

Ordinary witness Expert witness

d. One who states facts and may not f. One who possesses a special skill,
express his opinions or conclusion. be it in art, trade or science.
e. Can testify to impressions of g. One who has special knowledge in
common experience (speed of matters not generally known to men
vehicle, voice of a man) of ordinary education and
experience.

Practice of Forensic Chemistry (work of a forensic chemist is divided into four stages)
1. Collection or reception of the specimen to be examined
2. Actual examination of the specimen
3. Communication of the results of the examination
4. Court appearance

GUIDING PRINCIPLES (Collection of Specimen-Practice of Forensic Chemistry)

a. Sufficiency of samples
b. Standard for comparison
c. Maintenance of individuality
d. Labelling and sealing

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CHAPTER 2: BLOOD AND BLOOD STAINS

What is Blood?
- Circulating tissue of the body.
- Highly complex mixture of cells, enzymes, proteins and inorganic substances.
- Red fluid of the blood vessels
- Blood is opaque
- Faintly alkaline (Normal pH is 7.35 to 7.45)
- Blood accounts for 7% of the human body weight
- Blood Volume: Male: 5-6 litres, Female: 4-5 litres

Composition of Blood
1. 45% formed elements or the solid materials consisting chiefly of cells.
a. RBC or Erythrocytes – contains haemoglobin and carry oxygen to various
cells in the body.
- Circular, biconcave discs or rounded edges.
- Mature RBC no nucleus, life span: 80-120 days
- the number: 5,000,000 RBC/mm3 blood
- the diameter: 10 microns
b. WBC or Leukocytes – masses of nucleated protoplasm.
- Defends the body from invading microorganisms.
- Helps fight infection.
- the number: 5,000 WBC/mm3 of blood

c. Blood platelets or Thrombocytes – cells that are produced by the bone

marrow and are necessary for proper clotting of blood. Normally responsible
for the retraction of blood clot.
- the number: 5 X no. of WBC

2. 55% Plasma – the fluid or portion of blood where the cells are suspended. It is
principally composed of:
a. Water (90%)
b. Solid (10%) – largely protein in nature and consists of albumin, several
globulins and fibrinogen.

CHEMISTRY OF BLOOD CLOTTING

The reaction mechanism of blood clotting is as follows:

1. Platelets + Plasma factors Thromboplastin

2. Thromboplastin + Prothrombin Thrombin
3. Thrombin + Fibrinogen Fibrin (clot)
Importance of the study of blood
1. As circumstantial or corroborative evidence against or in favour of the
perpetrator.

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 2. As evidence in case of disputed parentage.
3. As evidence in the determination of the cause of death and the length of
victim survived the attack.
4. As evidence in the determination of the direction of the case of victim or the
assailant.
5. As evidence in the determination of the origin of flow of blood.
6. As evidence in the determination of the approximate time the crime was
committed.

Problems in the study of blood

1. Where blood has to be searched.
2. Collection, preservation, packing and transportation of specimen suspected to
contain blood.
3. Does the stain contain blood or another substance?

Chronological test for blood

1. PRELIMINARY TEST – determines whether the stains contain blood or another
substance.
- Used to demonstrate the presence of blood.
- Determines whether visible stains do or do not contain blood.
- Benzidine, Phenolphthalein, Guaiacum, Leucomalachite, and Luminol
Test
2. CONFIRMATORY – test that possibly identify blood.
- Determines whether bloodstain really contains blood.
- Microscopic, Microchemical, and Spectroscope Test
3. PRECIPITIN TEST – determines whether the stain is of human or animal origin.
- If non-human, the specific animal family from which is originated is
determined.
- Positive Result: Development of white cloudy line
4. BLOOD GROUPING TEST – determines the blood group of human blood.

Blood grouping of fresh blood (A-B-O System)

- Land Steiner discovered the four blood groups (Group O, A, B and AB)
- He named the four groups on the basis of the agglutinogen or antigen content of
the RBC.

Blood Group Antigen / Agglutinogen Antibodies / Agglutinin in

on the RBC Serum
A A Anti-B
B B Anti-A
AB A and B Neither Anti-A nor Anti-B
O Neither A nor B (none) Anti-A and Anti-B

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Ten Different Mating Possible between the Four Blood Groups

Parents Group of Children Possible Not Possible

1. O X O O A, B, AB
2. A X O A, O B, AB
3. A X A A, O B, AB
4. B X O B, O A, AB
5. B X B B, O A, AB
6. A X B O, A, B, AB NONE
7. AB X O A, B O, AB
8. AB X A A, B, AB O
9. AB X B A, B, AB O
10. AB X AB A, B, AB O

Identification of Blood Type with Unknown

Anti-M and Anti-N

Anti-M + Whole Anti-N + Whole Antigen Present Type

Blood Blood
+ - M M
- + N N
+ + M and N MN

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CHAPTER 3: SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAIN

SEMEN – a whitish fluid of the male reproductive tract consisting of spermatozoa

suspended in secretion of accessory glands (prostate gland, seminal vesicle, and
cowpers gland).

Contains:
a. Fructose – provides sperm with energy
b. Prostaglandins – affect the muscles of the uterus. Assist the transport of the
sperm.

Parts of the Semen

a. Seminal Fluid
 has characteristic alkaline odor
 it is viscid, gelatinous and sticky.
 Becomes more liquid in character when exposed to air for one and
a half-hour due probably to enzymatic reaction.
 Slightly alkaline in reaction.

b. Formed Cellular Elements which includes:

1. Spermatozoa or Sperm cell – small objects with a pear-
shape head behind is a short neck and then a tail of about a ten
times as long as the head.
2. Epithelial cells
3. Crystal of Choline and Lecithin

Cases where ejaculation has no spermatozoa

1. ASPERMIA – a condition where a male has no spermatozoa at all in the

seminal fluid
2. OLIGOSPERMIA - a condition whereby males have abnormally low sperm
counts or with few spermatozoa.

 These two diseases can be taken from excessive sexual intercourse. Those
suffering from chronic epididymitis and their testicular diseases. Also taken from
chronic venereal diseases (STD).

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The Examination of Semen and Seminal Stain

- There are four examinations for seminal stains or seminal fluid in the form of stains
namely:
A. Physical Examination
B. Chemical Examination
a. Florence Test
b. Barberio’s Test
c. Acid Phosphatase Test
C. Microscopic Examination
D. Biological Examination

OTHER STAINS of Medico-Legal Interest

1. Obstetrical or Gynecological Stains – examination of the scene of the crime in

cases of criminal abortion, infanticide and sex offenses may lead to the discovery
of bed linen, towels, chemise, skirts, mattresses, blankets, etc. which have
stains.
2. Excrements:
Adults: yellowish brown
Infant: greenish yellow
3. Paints Stains: the criminal, in committing a crime may have brushed against a
newly painted wall or wall with loose water cement paint and may therefore carry
some of the paint on his clothing.
4. Rust Stains: Resembles bloodstains.
Rust – reddish-brown in color, insoluble in water and soluble in dilute acid.
5. Synthetic dyes: resembles old bloodstains but can be recognized by treating with
strong acids and alkaline.
6. Mineral Stains: these are due to red paints containing oxides of iron.
7. Stains of vegetable origin: stains resembling blood may be produced by fruit
juices like mulberry, mangosteen.

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CHAPTER 4: GUNPOWDER AND OTHER EXPLOSIVES

Two Kinds of Gunpowder :

1. Black powder – because of its inherent defects modern ammunition plants

abandoned the use of this.
2. Smokeless powder – is the most widely used propellant. It can either be a
single base propellant or double propellant.

Possible locations of nitrates when black powder and smokeless powder explode

It will be noticed that nitrates are present in both gunpowder so that one will expect to
find nitrates (NO3 ) in the following:

1. Residue of the barrel of the gun

2. In or around the wound
3. On the clothing of the person fired upon at close range
4. On the exposed surface of the hand of the person firing the gun

Factors that affect the presence and amount of gunpowder residues

a. Type and caliber of the ammunition – different types of ammunition fired in the
same weapon and from the same distance may give different pattern.
b. Length of the barrel of the gun – a weapon with 2 inches barrel will deposit
residues over a larger area than a weapon having a five inches barrel even
though they are fired at the same distance and with the same type of
ammunition.
c. Distance of the muzzle of the gun from the target.
d. Humidity – affects the speed with which powder burns. Powder having lesser
amount of moisture will burn more rapidly and completely within a given time
yielding a greater amount of residue.
e. Wind velocity and direction – in high winds the residue will be blown in the
directions of the wind yielding a scattered pattern.
f. Direction of firing – firing vertically, slightly greater than firing horizontally from the
same distance. Powder residues have weight. When gun is fired downward or
vertically all of the residence will fall on the target, but when fired horizontally
some of the residues are likely to fall short of target.

Possibilities that a person may be found positive for nitrates even if he did not
actually fired a gun

1. It is possible that the gunpowder particles may have been blown on the hand
directly from the barrel of the gun being fired by another person.

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 2. An attempt to shield the body by raising the hand would in some instances result
in the implanting of powder particles on the hand of a person close to one firing a
gun.

Possibilities that a person may be found negative for nitrates even if he actually
fired a gun

1. Use of automatic pistol 5. Use of gloves

2. Direction of the wind 6. Knowledge of chemicals that
3. Wind velocity will remove the nitrates
4. Excessive precipitation

Chemical test for gunpowder residues

There are two methods of determining the presence of gunpowder residues around the
gunshot hole namely:

1. A method patterned after the diphenylamine – paraffin test.

2. Walker’s test – this test is used if the powder particles are deeply embedded. It is
based on the conversion of nitrates to a dye.

EXPLOSIVE
– is any substance that may cause an explosion by its sudden decomposition or
combustion. A material either a pure single substance or mixture of substances which is
capable of producing an explosion by its own energy. When exploded always
accompanied with the liberation of heat and almost with the formation of gas.

Classification of explosives from the viewpoint of chemical composition

A. Inorganic Compound
Examples: lead azine Pb(N) ; Ammonium nitrate NH NO
B. Organic Compound
Examples: Trinitrotoluene (TNT); picric acid ( Trinitrophenol );
Nitrocellulose; mercury fulminate Hg (ONC)
C. Mixture of oxidizable materials and oxidizing agents that are not
explosives separately
Examples: Blackpowder – used today mainly as igniter for nitrocellulose
gun propellants and also in pyrotechniques.

Classification of explosives with respect to functioning characteristics

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 1. Propellants or low explosives – are combustible materials containing within
themselves oxygen needed for their combustion which burn but do not explode
and function by producing gas which produces explosion.
Examples: Blackpowder, smokeless powder, firecrackers and pyrotechniques.
2. Primary explosives or indicators – explode or detonate when they are heated or
subjected to shock.
Examples: mercury fulminate and lead azide
3. High explosives – explode under the influence of the shock of the explosion of a
primary explosive.
Examples: ammonium nitrate (AN), Dynamite, TNT – or trinitrotoluene

CHAPTER 5: HAIR AND TEXTILE FIBER

HAIR - is a specialized epithelial outgrowth of the skin which occur everywhere on the
human body except on the palm of the hands and soul of the feet. It is an appendage of
the skin. Hair is not completely round but maybe oval or flattened. Its width is not always
the same along its length. It starts out pointed and narrow and then strays more or less
the same.

Two kinds of Hair (among mammals including human being)

1. Real Hair – generally long and stiff
2. Fuzz Hair – generally short, fine at times curly and wooly

Parts of the Hair

Anatomically hair is consists of three (3) parts namely:
1. Root – portion embedded in the skin
2. Shaft – portion above the surface of the skin. It is the most distinctive part of
the hair.
3. Tip – sometimes termed point. The distal end of an uncut hair shaft.

THE HUMAN HAIR

Parts of the Shaft:

1. Cuticle – outermost covering of the hair. It is consists of one layer of non-

nucleated polygonal cells which overlaps like the scales on fish.
2. Cortex - the intermediate and the thickest layer of the shaft and is composed of
elongated, spindle shaped fibrils which cohere. They contain pigment granules
in varying proportion depending on the type of the hair.
3. Medulla Or Core – is the central canal of the hair that may be empty or may
contain various sorts of cells more or less pigmented and begins more or less
near the root.

Microscopic examination of human hair

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 Before performing the examination take note of any foreign material on the hair
and should be identified if present in sufficient quantity. Hair should be cleaned with a
mixture of equal parts of alcohol and ether.

1. Color – a. with naked eye b. under microscope

2. Length by Actual Measurement
3. Character of the hair – whether stiff, wiry or soft
4. Width Breath
5. Character Of The Hair Tip If Present
6. Manners By Which Hair Had Been Cut
7. Condition Of Root Or Base Or Bulb Of Hair
8. Character Of Cuticle
9. Character of Cortex
10. Presence Of Dye In Hair
11. Determination of Whether Naturally or Artificially Curled
12. Character of Medulla
A comparison of the medullary index of the hair from the different parts of
the body between man and woman is given in the table below:

Body Parts Man Woman

Neck 0.115 0.163
Forehead 0.132 0.148
Eyebrows 0.236 0.233
Eyelashes 0.095 0.146
Beard 0.260
Genitals 0.153 0.114
Armpits 0.102 0.179

Comparison between human and animal hair

HUMAN ANIMAL

1. Medullary index is less than 0.5 1. Medullary index is more than

0.5
2. Medulla may not be present 2. Medulla always present
3. Scale pattern is fine and each one 3. Scale is coarse and overlaps
less
Overlaps the other more than 4/5 than ½
4. Pigment granules are fine 4. Pigment granules are coarse

Other aspects of hair examination

1. Determination of characteristic by race
2. Determination of characteristic by sex
3. Determination of the region from which the human hair has been removed
4. Determination of the approximate age of individual

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TEXTILE FIBERS

In general and broad sense, the word “textile” is derived from the Latin word
“textilis” and the French “textere”, to weave, hence textile fiber means that can be
converted into yarn. A yarn consists of fibers and filaments that have been twisted
together.

Test for Textile Fibers

1. Burning or ignition test

2. Fluorescent test
3. Microscopic examination
4. Chemical analysis of fibers

CHAPTER 6: CHEMICAL ASPECT OF DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

DOCUMENT
– an original or official written or printed paper furnishing information or used as a proof
of something else. Is any object that contains handwritten or typewritten markings
whose source or authenticity is in doubt.

Packing, preservation and transportation of documents

Documents are precious things and therefore should be treated accordingly.

1. Documents should be handled, folded and marked as little as possible.
2. If folding is necessary to send to the laboratory, the fold should be made along
old lines. Place it in Manila paper envelope or brown envelope since it is
sufficiently hard paper or it can be placed in a transparent plastic envelope.
3. On receipt the document should be placed between two sheets of plain white
paper in a folder.
4. Documents should not be touched with pencil, pen or anything that could
possibly mark them

Problems encountered in the analysis of paper

1. Determination of whether two pieces of paper originated from the same

source.
2. Determination of the probable age of the paper.
3. Determination of the composition of the paper.

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 1. Fiber composition – practically all papers may be classified from the standpoint of
their basic fiber composition into sets of fiber mixtures namely:
a. Mechanical pulp – ground wood sulfite mixture, this is a pulp from coniferous
and dicotyledonous wood in combination with sulfite chemical pulp from
conifers.
b. Soda – sulfite mixture – chemical pulp from dicotyledonous woods.
c. Rag sulfite – cotton rag or linen rag.

2. Sizing material – added to paper to improve its texture. Examples of sizing

materials are rosin, casein, gelatin and starch.
3. Loading material – added to paper to give weight. It partially fills the pores
between the fibers of the paper. Examples of loading materials are calcium
sulfate and barium sulfate.

EXAMINATION OF PAPER
The examination and comparison of paper may determine the following:
1. The age of the paper as compared with the age of the known document.
2. Whether a paper is identical with or different from another paper whose history is
known.
3. Whether two sheets of paper of the same manufacturer were made at the same
time. In this case we have to know when the form was printed or when the paper
was first made that bears a particular mark.

THE FOUR TESTS FOR PAPER

1. Preliminary examination
2. Physical test causing no perceptible change
3. Physical test causing a perceptible change
4. Chemical test

The Analysis of ink

Some of the most important questions that arise in the analysis of ink are:
1. Whether the ink is the same or like or different in kind from ink on other parts of
the same document or on other documents.
2. Whether two writings made with the same kind of ink were made with identical
ink, or inks of different conditions.
3. Whether an ink is as old as it purports to be.
4. Whether documents of different dates or a succession of differently dated book
entries show natural variations in ink writing or whether the conditions point to
one continuous writing at one time under the same condition.

TYPES OF INK
1. Gallotanic ink or iron-nutgall ink (blue
2. Logwood ink (black)
3. Nigrosine ink or aniline ink (blue black or purple black)

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 4. Carbon ink or Chinese ink or India ink
5. Colored writing ink
6. Ballpoint pen ink

OTHER ASPECTS OF DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

The detection and deciphering of illegible writing is one of the major problems in
document examination.

Illegible writing – is unnecessary writing which is not capable of being read

usually made on checks, birth certificate, passports and transcript of records.

Example of illegible writing:

1. Ensures – the removal of writing of paper. It can be made mechanically or
chemically.
2. Obliteration- the obscuring of writing by superimposing ink, pencil or other
marking materials.
3. Sympathetic ink – substances used for invisible writing.
4. Indented writing – term applied to the partially visible depression appearing on
a sheet of paper underneath the one that the visible writing appears.
5. Writing on carbon paper – remember that used sheets of carbon paper can be
made readable.
6. Contact writing – blank paper may contain traces of ink because of previous
contact with some writings.

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CHAPTER 7: GLASS AND GLASS FRAGMENTS & FRACTURES

Glass is important as physical evidence because it breaks the pieces are scattered at
the crime scene and on the suspect. It is a common type of thing carried away evidence
in and burglary and vehicle hit and run cases.

The evidence maybe fragments of a headlight leads found at the scene of a hit and run
accident, window glass from the scene of robbery, or glass through which a bullet was
fired.

GLASS – is a supercooled liquid which possesses high viscosity and rigidity. It is a non-
crystalline inorganic substance.

COMMON OXIDES USED IN GLASS MANUFACTURE

OXIDES FUNCTION
1. Silica (SiO₂) ………………………………… Base of commercial glass
2. Soda (Na₂O) …………………………………. Acts as flux for silica
3. Lime (CaO) …………………………………. Gives the glass chemical
Durability which is
otherwise lack because of the water-
soluble
Na₂O.
4. Magnesia (MgO) …………………………………. Present as impurity or
substitute for CaO.
5. Alumina (AI₂O₃) ………………………………… Gives the glass
greater chemical durability lower
coefficient of expansion, and greater
freedom from devitrification.
6. Potash (K₂O) …………………………………. For chemical durability and
resistance
to devitrification.

ANALYSIS OF GLASS

The most important problem commonly referred to a forensic chemist is the

comparison of two or more samples as glass.

Test / Analysis for Glass

1. Spectrographic Test
2. X-ray Diffraction Test

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 3. Physical Properties Examination
4. Ultraviolet Properties Examination
5. Polish Marks Test

GLASS AS EVIDENCE OF CRIME

In the field of forensic chemistry emphasis is placed on

1. Automobile glass in case of hit and run

2. Broken windows caused by pressure, blow or bullet in case of robbery.
3. Broken bottles, drinking glasses, spectacles found at the scene of an
assault or other crimes of violence, which would suggest examination of
the soles and heels of a suspect for imbedded glass fragments.

CHAPTER 8: FOOT IMPRESSION AND TOLLS IMPRESSION

IMPRESSION: a strong mark produced by pressure that goes below the

surface. A stamp form or figure resulting from physical contact. It causes
damage to an object.

IMPRINT: weak mark made by pressure that stays on the surface

MOULAGE: a faithful representation of an impression with use of casting

materials. It is admitted that moulage cannot reproduce all characteristics of
the object under all circumstances but whatever is mission in a moulage it can
be supplied by a photograph.

CASTING MATERIAL - Any material which can be changed from plastic or

liquid state to solid condition.
- For foot impression and tire impression, Plaster of Paris is the
best casting material
- Sometimes it is desirable to hasten or retard the setting time of
the Plaster of Paris.

OTHER CASTING MATERIALS:

1. Wood’s metal – used for small impressions as tooth impression, tool

impression. It is a variety of solder with melting point 60-70 degrees
Celsius. It is made of B- - 50%, Pb 25%, Sn – 12.5% and Cd – 12.5%.
2. Plastic material – like plasticine and dental composition. Used for
small impression. Dental composition is the best casting material for
making the cast of tool marks.

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 3. Negocoll – used for human body as cast of hand or face. It is rubbery
gelatinous consisting of colloidal magnesium soap.
4. Celerity – brown substance used for backing and strengthening the
hominid.

Cast of human body – it is sometimes required to make a cast of a

human hand or face. It is important that the temperature of the negative
material should be below 110*F (43.3*C). a temperature higher than
this will be uncomfortable if not injurious to the subject.

Characteristics of a good casting material:

1. It must be readily fluid or plastic when applied – so that it can penetrate

into minute depressions or cracks of the impression. Fluid materials are
more satisfactory than plastic materials in this respect since even the
most plastic materials does not enter into the crevices of all the minute
impressions.
2. Must harden rapidly to a rigid mass – so that no deformation of the cast
takes place when it is being removed from the impression. Rapid
hardening is desirable as the time factor is often of importance.
3. Must not be deformable nor shrinks – so that if measurements are to be
made from the cast, it can retain exactly its size and shape.
4. Must be tough – so that the minute lines and ridges in the impression
do not break or disintegrate, so that it will stand the wear and tear it will
receive during examination.
5. Must be easy to apply – since casts have to taken under all kinds of
difficult circumstances, it can readily be seen that the simpler the
method the better the result.
6. Must not have the tendency to adhere to the impression.
7. Should have fine, even composition and surface – the grain of the
surface must be considerably smaller than the smallest detail it is
desired to show in the cast otherwise this detail is lost in the grain.
8. Should not injure the impression.
9. Should be easily obtainable.
10. Should be cheap.

TOOL IMPRESSIONS

Tool impressions may be classified into two general classes.

1. Those produced by such instruments like axe, hammer, pliers and

cutters which touch the area only once in producing the impression.
a. Compression marks – produced by a single application of the tool in
one area of contact. Ex. The impression of a single blow of a
hammer.

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 b. Friction marks – these are series of scratches or striations produced
by pushing a tool across the surface such as those produced by
cutters, axe and jimmy.
2. Those produced by such instruments like saw or file that is applied in
repeated strokes all over the same area. It is hard to identify since one
– mark overlaps the other.

EXAMINATION OF TOOL IMPRESSION

Examination of tool impression is done by comparative examination the

purpose of which is to determine or to show that the particular tool made the
impression in question.

CHAPTER 9: METALLURGY

Metallurgy – the art of extracting and working on metals by the application of

the chemical and physical knowledge

Metallography – branch of metallurgy that involves the study of microstructure

of metals and alloys. All metals are composed of minute grains or crystals,
under the naked eye and then viewed from a distance a metal appears to be
homogeneous but when viewed under a mettalography microscope the crystal
structure is visible. These crystals of the metal are tightly packed.

Application of metallurgy in criminal investigation

1. Robbery
2. Theft
3. Hit and run
4. Bomb and explosion
5. Nail examination
6. Counterfeit coins
7. Restoration of tampered serial number

Counterfeit coins
Counterfeit coins are made to imitate the real thing and used for gain.

Two kinds of counterfeit coins:

1. Cast coins – coins made in molds
2. Struck coins – coins made by striking or stamping method

TAMPERED SERIAL NUMBERS

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Tampered serial numbers are restored by the application of etching fluid.
Etching fluid is a fluid used to restore tampered serial numbers. Choice of
etching depends on the structure of the metal bearing the original numbers

ETCHING FLUIDS
1. For cast iron and cast steel – ten percent sulfuric acid and potassium
dichromate.
2. For wrought iron and forged iron - solution no. 1 ( hydrochloric acid is
80ML, water is 60ML, cupric chloride is 2.9 grams and alcohol is 50ML)
solution no.2 ( 15% nitric acid).
3. For aluminum – glycerin is 30ML, nitric acid is 10ML, and hydrofluoric acid is
20ML.
4. For lead – 3 parts glacial acetic acid and one part water.
5. For stainless steel – dilute sulfuric acid or 10% HYDROCHLORIC ACID
in alcohol.
6. For copper, brass, silver, and other copper alloy – ferric chloride –
19Grams, hydrochloric acid – 6ML, and water – 100ML
7. For tin – 10%hydrochloric acid
8. For zinc – 10% sodium hydroxide.
9. For silver – concentrated nitric acid
10. For gold and platinum – aqua regia ( 3 parts hydrochloric acid and 1
part nitric acid )
11. For wood – subject to a jet of steam.

CHAPTER 10: SOIL (AS APPLIED TO CRIME DETECTION)

Petrography is a branch of geology which deals with the systematic classification and
identification of rock-forming minerals and soils.

Minerals are materials found in the earth’s crust.

12 Most Abundant Elements in the Earth’s Crust

Elements Percentage
oxygen 49.5
silicon 25.7
aluminum 7.5
iron 4.7
calcium 3.4
sodium 2.6

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potassium 2.4
magnesium 1.9
hydrogen 0.9
Titanium 0.6
chlorine 0.2
phosphorous 0.1

- The upper 10 miles of the crust is about 95% igneous (solidification of molten mineral
mixtures granite and basalt), 4% shale, 0.75% sandstone, and 0.25% limestone.

 Igneous rocks are of the following:

 Spinel type – Mg, Fe, Cr oxides
 Olivines – Mg and Fe silicates
 Feldspars – Ca, Na, and Al silicates

 These were originally magma or molten material. That comes from inside the
earth.
 Sedimentary rocks are the products of the action of water, wind, sulfurous acid,
and other agents. These tended to collect in rivers, lakes, and oceans. Seepage
of water tended to cement the particles. Shale, sandstone, and limestone
comprised 5% of the Earth’s crust. Examples are dolomite, siltstone, and
sandstone.
 Metamorphic rocks are those that developed and changed from sedimentary
and igneous rocks through heat and pressure.
Example is coat that has changed to anthracite.
 Soil, in crime detection, is considered as matter in the wrong place.
 Soil is taken for granted by investigations.
 However, soil will give n important clue in crime detection.

Constituents of Soil
 Primary minerals
. undecomposed fragments of rocks
. igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic rocks
. minerals that could be found: quartz, silica, calcite, dolomite,
mica, feldspar, hornblende, or pyroxene
other constituents of primary minerals: gysum, talc, kaolinite,
limonite, serpentine, magnetine

 Characteristics of Common Primary Materials

Quartz
. present in the three main types of rocks
. common vein-forming mineral
. 12% of the earth’s crust
. formula is SiO2
. specific gravity is 2.65
. has a hardness of 7’

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 . the only mineral that scratches glass
. transparent, translucent, opaque, or maybe
colorless
. glassy or waxy luster, some varieties are dull
Silica
. formula is SiO2
. common compound in nature
. colorless, tasteless and physiologically inert
although prolonged breaking of silica dust leads to
silicosis
. insoluble in water, most acids, and alkalis, but it
reacts with HF and slowly with heated H5PO4
. crystals are hard and transparent and have a
specific gravity of about 2.6
. melting point is about 1600oC
Calcite
. CaCO3
. hardness is 3
. specific gravity is 2.72
. hexagonal crystals
. colorless to white to amber or to any color
Dolomite
. CaCO3, MgCO3
. hardness is between 3.5 - 4.0
. specific gravity is 2.85
. hexagonal crystals
. frequently as a massive gray or white rock, finely
to coarsely granular, resembling limestone
Mica
. any of large group of aluminum – silicate materials
. easily splits into very thin flexible sheets
. muscovite – KAI2 (AlSi3O10) (OH)2
. Phologopite – KMg3 (AlSi3O10) (OH)2
. Paragonite – NaAl2 (AlSi3O10) (OH)2
. Lepidolite – Kli2 (Si4O10) (OH)2
Feldspar
. chief constituents are plutonic igneous rocks
. Silicates of Al, K, Na, Ca, and rarely Ba
Pyroxene
. K, Al, SiO3 2, Fe, Na, Mg

 Clay
This is a mixture of decomposing minerals. An example of this is hydrated aluminum
silicate, a decomposing feldspar. The color of clay depends on the cations that are
present.

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Organic Constituents
Organic matter in the soil comes from dead plants, decomposing bodies, manure
and other plants left alone on the soil

Classification of Dust
1. Dust deposited from the air
2. road and footpath dust
3. Industrial dust
4. Occupational dust

Analysis of Dust
1. Density Gradient Tube Method
2. UV light
3. Treatment with 0.1M HCI
4. Treatment with C2H5OH

CHAPTER 11: ARSON

- is the malicious burning of a dwelling, house, or outhouse of another man which by

common law is felony.
- In all fires, there must be a cause before an effect is produced.
- Combustion takes place because of the following criteria:
a. oxygen,
b. heat
c. and fuel
Stages of the Combustion of Solid Materials
A. Resins and other readily volatilized materials are driven off and burned, and
almost pure C in the form of charcoal or coke is left.
B. As additional heat is applied to the carbon, further combustion takes place and
heats other combustible materials until there is mass burning.

Sources of Oxygen
1. Air
This is a mixture of 78% N2, 21%O2, 1% inert gases
2. Nitrates
When nitrates are heated, oxygen gas is produced.
2KClO3 2KNO2 + O2
3. Chlorates
When chlorates are heated with a catalyst, oxygen gas is liberated.
2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2

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 4. Peroxides
When peroxides are heated, oxygen gas is formed.
2 BaO2 2BaO + O2
5. Oxidizing Agents
a. KClO3/H2SO4
b. ClO44
c. K2CrO4
d. H2CrO4
e. K2Cr2O2
f. HNO3
g. KMnO4

Spontaneous Combustion
Combustion due to gradual accumulation of heat when the heat generating material
stored in a poorly ventilated place reaches ignition temperature. Fires are caused by
spontaneous combustion for a number of reasons:

1. Leakage of reactive chemicals materials set up rapid chemical action with the
evolution of heat and fire.
2. Slow chemical oxidation of product stored in bulk causing a built up of heat that
cannot be dissipated by contact with the air.
3. Bacterial action resulting in the evolution of sufficient heat to produce
inflammation.
4. Alteration in composition due to slow breakdown in structure resulting from either
chemical instability as in plastics or to elevated temperature causing the material
to reach a state of extreme inflammability.

Analysis of Specimens

A. Preliminary Test
Ashes or debris suspected to contain inflammable substance is placed on a wide
mouth test tube or glass with fitted rubber stopper and heated fumes evolved is
tested with Sudan or Rhodokrit powder (which is chemically termed as
paraphenylazophenylazo – 2 – naphthol or tetrazobenzene – Beta – naphthol)
(C22H16N10). Such substance is insoluble in H2O, soluble in chioroform, acetic acid,
alcohol, ether, acetone, petroleum, fixed and volatile oil, organic acid.
B. Confirmatory Test
1. Steam distillation of sample.
2. Distillate obtained from steam distillation is injected into the gas chromatograph
to identify the accelerant used.
C. Spectrographic – analysis (conducted in cases where foreign metals are recovered
from the crime scene.)
D. Miscellaneous Laboratory Examination
1. Microscopic Examination.
2. Spectrography

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 (Metals, glasses, mineral evidences such as soil, ceramics, plaster, industrial
dust and similar substance are determined

CHAPTER 12: DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

Advantages of DNA
1. DNA is stable – it can be isolated from material that is months or even years
old.
2. DNA can be destroyed from wide variety of biological resources like blood,
semen, hair, saliva and bone.
3. DNA can be replicated in the laboratory (Polymerase Chain Reaction – PCR)
4. DNA shows greater variability from one individual to the next.

What is DNA?
- Hereditary material that contains the genetic code/information necessary for
duplication of cells and for production of proteins.

Facts about DNA

1. Chemical substance found in all cells whose composition have been passed on
from parents to their children.
2. Biological Evidences that can be submitted for DNA Analysis:
a. Blood and Bloodstain
b. Semen and Seminal stain
c. Hairs and follicles or root
d. Saliva or buccal swab
e. Bones and organs
f. Tissues and cells
3. Line-up of cases where DNA Analysis can be of help:
a. Sexual assault case like rape
b. Murder
c. Homicide
d. Robbery
e. Hit and Run
f. Extortion
g. Paternity case
h. Identification of remains from mass disaster cases and missing persons
4. How DNA Analysis is used to identify with accuracy the perpetrators of crime:
a. Human tissues such as hair, blood, semen is often left in places where a
crime has been committed.
b. By carefully collecting such bits of tissues, their owner can be identified from
the DNA pattern obtained.

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Evidence Condition Location Collection
Saliva Liquid Scene Use syringe transfer
into test tube. Keep
refrigerated.
Clothing, Object Collect as is.
Tissue, Organ Fresh Scene Place in container.
Keep cold.
Dried Scene Place in container.
Bone With Tissue Scene Collect hair with
tissue in container.
Keep refrigerated.
Hair With blood Scene Separate hair from
blood. Collect in
paper packet.
Intact Hair Scene Pick up sample with
clean forceps. Place
in paper packet.
Fragments Scene Tape lift. Package in
container.
Control Person Pulled (at least 20)

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CHAPTER 13: FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY

Poisons are frequently involved in homicidal, accidental or suicidal deaths. These

poisons are used to destroy plants and animals. The detection of poisons and their
identification is an important aspect of forensic toxicology.

 Toxicology is a branch pharmacology that deals with the effects of posions,

their identification of detection, and the development and used of antidotes.
 Pharmacology is the study of the response of living organisms or drugs.
 What is POISON? Too much sugar may give a child stomach ache. Too much
salt may act as an emetic. Overdose of iron supplement causes deleterious
effects amount to toxic materials on human health.
 A poison is a substance which on being absorbed into the body injures health
or destroys life. Any substance can act as a poison when taken in excess.
Sugar, salt, and vitamins may act as poisons.
 Legally, poisoning is established if it is proven that a substance (poison,
stupefying or intoxicating agent or a prohibited drug or as unwholesome drug)
was administered with the intention to cause hurt or knowing that a substance
was likely to cause hurt.

Types of Poison
1. Organic
Synthetic drugs, alcohol, petroleum products, insecticides, chloro-compounds,
aromatic and organo-P-compounds
2. Inoganic
Metals, metalloids, non-metals, salts, acids, bases: As, SB, Pb salts, cyanides,
fluorides, CO, H2S, Cl2, Br2, I2.
3. Biological
All poisonous plants and their parts (leaves, bark, seeds, fruit, stems and roots)
and extracts from these plants. Opium, strychnine, cocaine, atropine.

Location, Collection and Evaluation of Materials

To establish the corpus delicti is the first requirement in any investigation of a

poisoning case. Questions like the ones below help the locations of evidence.
1. Was the victim healthy, free from any disease?
2. Was the attack of sickness sudden or slow?
3. What was the time interval between the onset of the attack and the final
termination in death or recovery?

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 4. What did the victim eat or drink just before the attack.
5. What was the time interval between the onslaught of the sickness and the taking
of the food or drink?
6. Is there some food or drink left from the victim’s meat? If so is it normal?
7. Did any other person take the same food? If so, what was the effect on the other
person?
8. Does the victims show any abnormality in smell or breath, appearance or in his
excretions?
9. Was the victim attended to, by a doctor? If so, what are the details of the disease
and medical treatment he received?
10. Did the victim plan suicide?
11. Did the victim, his relatives or other acquaintances have access to poisonous
materials?
12. Did the victim, his relatives, friends or enemies purchase any poisons during the
past few years?
13. Did the victim’s profession involve contact with poisons; if so, what type of
poisonous material did he handle?
14. What was the mental and physical state of the victim? Did he have any suicidal
tendency? Or, did he suffer from attacks of sudden illness like heart attack?
15. Did the victim handle dangerous materials in his hobbies?
16. Did the victim suffer from pains or other disabilities?
17. How did the victim act or behave before death or unconsciousness?
18. What were the symptoms before collapsing? Did he feel difficulty in breathing or
did he vomit or purge? Did he show abnormal physical signs such as
convulsions, delirium, paralysis, papillary changes, cyanosis or drowsiness?

Symptoms of Poisoning
1. Vomiting (due to As, acids, alkalis, excess liquor and certain metallic salts)
2. Diarrhea (agents causing vomiting)
3. Cramps (caused by metallic poisons like As, Sb, and Pb)
4. Delirium (caused by dhatura, cannabis, alcohol, atropine, hyoscine, and LSD.
5. Convulsions (caused by strychnine, nicotine, and cyanides)
6. Paralysis (snake venom, aconite, and As)
7. Coma (caused barbiturates, opium, and its products, CO, chloroform, and excess
of liquors)

Identification Techniques
After isolation, the poison can be identified by the following:
1. Color Reaction
Some reactions are very sensitive and therefore they can detect a class of poisons
in minute quantities. These reaction are not specific for an individual poison.
2. Melting Points (m.p.)
The suspected poison is mixed with an authentic sample and if the m.p. is not
depressed the identify of the suspected materials is established. The difficulty here
lies in the fact that the pure sample is difficult to procure.
3. Boiling Point (m.p.)

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 The liquid poisons are determined by their b.p.’s. Some heavy oils and high b.p.
liquids are distilled under reduced pressure. Comparison with standard boiling points
of liquid indicate the identify.
4. Crystal Structure
Most of the substance and their derivatives have definite crystal structures. The
substance of their derivatives are crystallized. Then, the crystal structure are
studied.
5. Microscopy
Vegetable materials such as leaves and bark are identified through microscopy only.
Some organic substance are likewise identified like the former.

CHAPTER 14: DANGEROUS DRUGS

- Habitual self-administration of drugs comes to a point where harm results to the

individual or to society
- Some drugs depress the action of the brain others stimulate the central nervous
system, still others alter thought processes.
- Some proponents of regulation and prescription controls perceived prohibition as the
next logical thing in reducing addiction.
- Drug prohibition seeks to reduce drug use by making drugs less available and more
expensive and by deterring potential users with criminal penalties.
Pharmacology. This is the science of drugs.
This embraces information about the sources, physiochemical properties,
biological effects, and therapeutic uses of drugs.

Note: Drugs are known only to stimulate or to depress cellular functions. They do not
endow cells with new or unique properties.

Administration of Drugs:
1. by mouth (slowest route)
2. IV injection (reserved for serious situations)
3. Subcutaneous and intra-muscular injection (more rapid onset of action)
4. Inhalation (via the lungs and bloodstream)
5. surface application (used in the treatment of certain diseases of the skin or the eyes)

 Drug abuse is a recognized problem confronting the world, Philippines included:

 R.A. 6425 or the Dangerous Drugs Act of 1972 was enacted specifically against this
problem.
 The Dangerous Drug Board (DDB) was created to coordinate the efforts of the
various government and civic agencies. Anti-narcotic units were organized to
enforce the provisions of the said act.
 PDEA was created with RA 9165.

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 The Crime Laboratories of the Philippines assist law enforcers in their task by
conducting analyses of the drugs seized, confiscated or surrendered.

Various Forms of Drugs

1. Tablets
2. Capsules
3. Powder
4. Bricks of morphine
5. Crushed dried leaves
6. Cigarettes
7. Plants uprooted
8. Pots and improvised seed beds

Classification of Prohibited Drugs

A. Narcotics
B. Depressants
C. Stimulants
D. Hallucinogens
The State of Marijuana and its Potency (THC Content)
State Amount of THC
Loose vegetation 1.5%
Sinsemilla 3.5-4.0%
Hashish 3.5%
Hashish Oil or Liquid Hashish A drop can make a “high”

Drug Tests
Drug Test Color Reactions/s
Opium and its derivatives Marquis Purple or Violet
Heroin HNO3 Yellow to Green
Morphine HNO3 Red orange to Yellow
Cocaine Cobalt thiocynate Blue ppt
Barbiturates Dillie –Koppanyi/scott Violet
Red ornage to Dark
Scott Marquis
brown
Amphetamine Mandelin
Green to Reddish brown
LSD PABA/van urk Purple
Van urk Duquenois-Levine Violet
Marijuana KN Red bottom layer
Shabu Symone Purple

Confirmatory Tests

There are several methods available to the chemists to confirm the preliminary tests
A technique that is more specific than the color test is the Microcrystalline Test

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  A small amount of the drug is dissolves in a few drops of a solvent in
a slide
 Then a reagent is added, forming crystals that are characteristics of
the drug
 This is then observed under the microscope
 The UV and IR spectrophotometers and the gas chromatograph are also used for
positive identification of the drug

 Thin Layer Chromatography or TLC is a rapid, sensitive, and an inexpensive way to

identify a drug

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