Class: 10 BIOLOGY NOTES

HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?

................................................................................................................................. Reproduction: -

Reproduction is the process of formation of new young individuals by the grown up individuals
that look very much like them.

It is one of the most important and fundamental properties of living organisms by which every kind
of living organism multiples to form new individuals of its own kind. Thus, reproduction is meant for the
continuation of the species. Reproduction, thus, creates new life and is essential for the perpetuation of
species. It gives rise to new organisms with the same basic characteristics as their parents. It plays an
important role in evolution by transmitting favorable variations from one generation to another.

Significance of Reproduction:-

1. Continuation of Life. Reproduction is essential for continuation of life on earth. In its

absence life will be wiped out of earth within span of some years.

2. Perpetuation of Species. Reproduction carries the genetic characteristics of the

parents into the new individuals. This perpetuates a species.

3. Replacement. It is a means of replacing individuals killed due to ageing, disease or

predation.

4. Population Characteristics. It maintains the composition of population of infants,

young, adults and aged.

5. Variations. It introduces new variations.

6. Transfer of Variations. Useful and neutral variations are transferred to the progeny through reproduction.
There variations help the individuals in the struggle for existence and adaptability to changed environmental
conditions.

BasicfeaturesofReproduction: (i) Replication of DNA. (ii) Growth and differentiation of cellular

machinery. (iii) Cell division. It is mode of reproduction in single celled organisms. (iv) Continued
replication of DNA, growth and cell division, formation of tissues, organs, etc. and maturation of
multicellular organisms. (v) Development of special reproductive structures and formation of new
individuals

Variations:- Variations are differences found in morphological, physiological and other traits of individuals
belonging to the same organisms, race or family. They develop due to (i) Faulty DNA replication (ii) Crossing
 over (iii) Chance separation of chromosomes during meiosis and chance combination during fertilization.

Importance of Variations:- They are highly important. There importance can be put as below:

a) Pre-adaptation:- Variation function as pre-adaptations to environmental changes like

increase or decrease in temperature, drought, antibiotic resistance, pesticide resistances. Normally each
population is adapted to live, feed and prosper in a particular niche or ecological space of operation.
Reproduction normally maintains the body design, features and functions suitable to that particular niche.
However, environmental changes do occur. They result in change of niches. Change in a niche is liable to
wipe out the population using that niche. However, variations present in some individuals n the population
may enable those individuals to survive, multiply and later form the population equal to previous one.

b) Individuality. Variations provide individuality to each living organism. It is because

of variations that we recognize on e another.

c) Struggle for Existence. Suitable variation provides an edge to certain individuals in

the struggle for existence.

d) Improvement of Varieties. Variations help breeders to improve varieties of plants

and animals.

e) Evolution. Variations are raw materials for evolution or formation of new species

Types of reproduction: -

The process of reproduction may be broadly grouped into two categories.

A) Asexual reproduction: -

The development of new individual with out the fusion of male and female gamete is known as asexual
reproduction. It usually includes the division of nucleus and the cytoplasm and hence is known as
somatogenic Reproduction. In asexual reproduction, new individuals are identical to the parents. It
represents a rapid mode of multiplication. It can occur in the following ways.

i) Binary fission: - In this process an organism divides into two equal parts, which on separation live
independently. During this process the nucleus of the parent cell divides mitotically into two equal parts
which is followed by the division of the cytoplasm resulting in the formation of the two identical cells referred
to as daughter cells. Binary fission occurs under favorable environmental conditions. e.g. amoeba.
Paramecium and euglena multiplies by binary fission.
ii) Multiple fission: - In this process an organism is covered externally by a wall called cyst, which protects
it from unfavorable conditions. Then the nucleus divides many times to give rise to the formation of many
small nuclei. When favorable condition arrive, the cyst is broken down and a large number of small
organisms come out which are capable of living at their own. E.g. amoeba, malarial parasite and
plasmodium etc. It is also known as Schizogamy or sporogamy.

iii) Budding: - In this form of asexual reproduction, the concerned organism gives an out growth called as
bud, which grows to form a new individual. The developingindividual its food from the parent and when it
becomes fully mature, it gets detached from the body of the parent to live an independent life. E.g. Hydra
multiplies by budding.

iv) Fragmentation: - In this process of asexual reproduction an individual breaks up into several parts
called fragments. And each fragment develops into a new individual. Natural fragmentation occurs in algae.
Some flat worms and ringworm’s etc. It may also be induced by internal forces e.g. hydra.

v) Plasmotomy: - It is the division of a multinucleate protozoan into several small, multinucleate daughters
without nuclear division (Karyokonesis) the daughters grow and regain the normal number of nucleus by
nuclear division. It takes place in opalina and Pelomyxa.

vi) Spore formation: - In this process a resting cell gets protected by a thick coat that prevents the cell
from the unfavorable conditions like high temperature, drought, high acidity etc. On return of the
favorable conditions, the thick walls breaks open and a germinating spore comes out which grows and
reproduces in the usual fashion e.g. spores of bacteria like clostridium and bacillus etc.
vii) Vegetative reproduction: -When a part of the plant – stem, root or leaf gets detached and develops into
an independent individual, the process is referred to as vegetative propagation as explained under.

a) Vegetative propagation by roots: - In some plants like sweet potato, dahlia, adventitious roots become
thick and sworn due to the shortage of food. These bear adventitious buds, which develop many leafy shoots
called as slips. When such roots bearing adventitious buds are planted in the soil they produce new plants.

b) Vegetative propagation by stem: - In some plants, the stems can efficiently give rise to new plants, e.g. in
mint or chrysanthemum, sub aerial stems develop as lateral branches from the parent plant which gets
transferred into new plants. Similarly, in some plants, under ground stems become modified as store houses of
food materials
and gives rise to aerial shoots which get developed into new plants. E.g. rhizome of banana, tuber of
potato and corn of saffron etc.

c) Vegetative propagation by leaves: - In some plants like bryophyllum, the fleshy bear adventitious buds
their notches located on the margins when these leaves fall on a moist soil favored by favorable condition
of temperature and humidity, these buds develop into small plants. Which are capable of living
independently.

Other methods of vegetative propagation

1. Cutting: - It is the most common method of the vegetative propagation. In this method a piece of stem having
few nodes and internodes is taken from the parent plant and planted in the moist soil. After some time roots
immerge from its basal portion and the buds give rise to the shoots, which results in the formation of a new
plant. The plants of rose, sugarcane, banana, orange, and

bougainvillea are commonly grown by this method.

2. Layering: - Layering means development of roots on a stem, which is attached to the parent plant. The stem
that develops adventitious roots while still attached to the parent plant is a layer. Layering is a natural process,
but can be induced by bending a plant branch and covering its middle portion below the soil. However, the
apical portion of the branch is kept exposed to the air. After some time the portion of the branch below the soil
develops adventitious roots and can be transferred into an individual plant if planted in a moist soil under
favorable conditions. This process is commonly practiced in Magnolia, Jasmanium, rose e

3. Grafting: - In this process of vegetative propagation, a detached twig having several buds is planted or
inserted into the stem or root of another plant to grow an individual plant of the same kind. When the detached
twig is referred to as scion and the plant portion into which the twig is inserted is referred to as stock. In order
to avoid infection, the point of grafting is covered with grafting wax.

4. Tissue culture: - It is a modern method of vegetative propagation in which a small tissue is taken from a
plant and is allowed to grow in a medium containing all the essential nutrients required for the proper growth of
the plant. When the tissue grows it forms an undifferentiated mass of cells called “Callus” which is used for
further
multiplication. The callus is then chemically induced to form platelets, which are transferred into pots or
soil and raised to maturity.

Advantages of vegetative propagation: -

The main advantages of vegetative propagation are listed below:

1. It is a cheap and easy method of reproducing the plants.

2. The plants that do not produce viable seeds are easily propagated by this method.

3. It is the only method of producing and preserving two plant types during cross-
pollination.

4. This method is used to produce a large number of selected strains of plants without loosing any
desirable character.

5 It helps in the dispersal of offspring to the far and distant places.

viii) Regeneration:- It is the ability to form missing parts. Regeneration is helpful in multiplication of some
animals like Hydra and Planaria (Dugesia) if they are broken or cut into pieces. Each piece grows the
missing parts and forms the complete organism. The ability to regenerate in complete organism. The ability
to regenerate in differentiated organisms is due to presence of special reserve or stem cells. The reserve
cells first proliferate and form a large number of cells. Cells then undergo differentiation giving rise to various
cell types and tissues. The process of regeneration is highly organized and is similar to development as
found during growth of an individual from a young one.

B) Sexual reproduction: - In this process, development of new individuals takes place by the fusion of sex
cells of male and female gametes either from different individuals or from different organs of the same
individual. The individual that produces male gametes or sperms is called as male and the individual, which
produces gamete, or ovum is called female. During sexual reproduction a gamete from male fuses with the
gamete from female. This process is called fertilization and results in a single cell called zygote. The zygote
develops into a new organism. It is most common in multicellular organisms.
i) Sexual reproduction in plants: - A flower is the reproductive part of plant. It consists of four sets of floral
organs. Sepals, petals, stamen and carpel. The stamen constitutes the male part of the flower. A flower
bears a certain number of stamens collectively known as androecium. Each stamen consists of three parts
– anther, connective and filament. The anther bear four chambers of pollen sacs, each filled with pollen
grains. The pollen when ripe is released from within the anther through a narrow slit and produces male
gametes or spores. A flower also bears one or more carpels collectively known as Gynaccium or pistil. Each
carpel consists of three parts- slightly swollen and sticky stigma at the top, then a cylinder stalk called style
and basal swollen ovary, which bears ovules containing egg cells or eggs.

On the maturation of the flower, the stigma becomes receptive to the pollen grains. A pollen grain
after being deposited on the stigma produces a long pollen tube, which grows down through the stigma and
style and enters one of the ovule in the ovary. Then the sperm fuses with an egg and zygote is formed by
their fusion. This process of fusion of male and female nuclei is called fertilization. After fertilization the
ovule develop into seed and the whole ovary becomes a fruit. The mature fruit contains one or many seeds
each with an embryo inside which gives rise to a young plant of the next generation.

Pollination: - The process of transfer of the pollen grain from the anther of a stamen to the ovary of the
carpel of the flower is referred to as pollination. Pollen grains are carried by the wind, water insects and
other animals up to the stigma of a pistil. It is of two main types viz.

1. Self-pollination:( Auto gamy) - This process involves the transfer of pollen from the anther of a stamen
to the ovary of the carpel of the same flower. It is the characteristic property of the bisexual flowers.

2. Cross-pollination: - (Xenogamy) This process involves the transfer of the pollen grains from the anther
of the stamen to the ovary of the carpel of the other flower wither on the same plant or a different one. It is
a characteristic property of unisexual flower. Cross pollination occurs with the help of two main groups of
agents –biotic and abiotic. The former include living beings such as insects and birds, while the latter include
wind and water. Flowers and pollen grains are accordingly modified to facilitate the process of cross-
pollination. Insects –pollinated plants have flowers that are brightly coloured and produce necter to attract
insects. Wind pollinated plants have flowers that produce a large number of pollen grains, which are very
light. These are easily carried by the wind over long distances.

ii) Sexual reproduction in animals: - In animals, various processes perform the sexual reproduction. In
some unicellular organisms the fusion of morphologically identical gametes takes place, e.g. monocysts.
 While some others produce two types of gametes, the male gamete which is motile and small in size (micro
gamete) and the female gamete which is passive and comparatively larger in size (macrogametes). The
union of such micro and macrogametes is referred to as anisogamy or herogamy e.g. higher animals and
plants as referred to, in these animals the fusion of male and female gametes occur and the process being
referred to as fertilization. In lower vertebrates like fish and amphibians etc. it generally occurs outside the
body of the female (external fertilization). Such animals lay eggs and are called oviparous. In some animals
and man it occurs within the body of the female (internal fertilization). Such animals give birth to young ones
and are called as viviparous.

Fundamentally, the process of fertilization results into the restoration of the diploid number of
chromosomes determination of the sex of the new organism and activation of the zygote to start a series
of mitotic divisions called as cleavage. The zygote when grows into an embryo gives rise to the young
organism of the next generation.

Fertilization: - Fertilization is the process, which results in the fusion of the sperm with an ovum to form a
single diploid cell called zygote. It can occur in the following two ways:

1. External fertilization: - It is a characteristic property of primitive organisms and is an adaptation of

aquatic animals. In this process the process of the fusion of male and female gamete takes place outside
of the female in an external

medium like water.

2. Internal fertilization: - fertilization ( fusion of gamates) takes place inside the body of
the female individual Male
Reproductive System:

The male reproductive system is a complex system, which develops, and functions under the influence of
hormones. The reproductive organs become functional only after attaining sexual maturity, which is attained
at the age of 13 –14 years in males. The male reproductive system consists of a pair of testes, ducts,
accessory gland and penis.
 1. Testes: -In man and most other animals, the testes are two oval bodies suspended in a sac hanging
from the lower wall of the abdomen – the scrotum. Apparently human sperms cannot develop at a higher
temperature found within the body cavity. Hence the testes are suspended outside the body.

Each testis is composed of 200 – 300 coiled seminiferous tubules lined with epithelial cells that produce
sperms. These are also lined with interstitial cells of leydig, which produces the male sex hormone called
testosterone. It promotes development of accessory glands and controls secondary male sex character
along with the formation of spermatozoa.

2. Epididymis:- Epididymis is made up of a compact mass of small-coiled tubules forming a convoluted

tubule of 6 cm in length. It lays along side the testes in the scrotal sac. Testes and Epididymis together
constitute testicle. Epididymus stores the sperms. Filters them and makes them motile by the time they
reach to its posterior part connected with the Vasdeferens. Chemicals produced by the lining of the tube
are essential for maturation of the sperm

3. Vasdeferens: -It is the muscular tube about 40 cms long that leaves the scrotum by the inguinal canal
and emerges with a duct from the bladder into the urethra. The terminal position of each Vasdeferens
enlarges to form a duct capable of contraction and expulsion of the stored sperms. A glandular seminal
vesicle empties into each ejaculatory duct before it connects the urethra. This secretes a viscous fluid,
which is expelled along with the sperm. The mixture of this fluid and sperm is known as semen.
In the Vasdeferens the sperms are inactive but as soon as they mix with this secretion they become quite
active.

4. Prostrate Glands: - These are paired glands lying below the bladder around the junction of ejaculatory
duct of two sides with the urethra. These discharge its secretion directly into the urethra, which as alkaline
in nature and contributes 15 – 30% of the total volume of the semen.

5. Cowper’s Gland: - These paired glands are also attached to the urethra about 5cm below the prostrate
gland. They secrete an alkaline substance, which serves as a lubricant for the semen. 6. Penis: - The penis is
the external male genital organ. It is composed of three columns of
spongytissues.

7. Seminal Vesicles:- It can be seen at the base of the urinary bladder. They secrete mucus and a watery
alkaline fluid that contains nutrients, including the sugar fructose, which is an energy source for the sperm.
Each seminal vesicle empties its contents into the ejaculatory duct, adding to the volume of the semen.

Female Reproductive System:

The female reproductive system consists of a pair of oviduct (Fallopian tube) uterus and the vagina.
1. Ovaries: - The human ovaries are two small almonds like flattened bodies lying on the sides of the
vertebral column behind the kidney’s in the pelvic cavity. Ovaries produce female gamete ova and the
female sex hormones such as Oestrogen and
progesterone. These hormones cause a number of changes. The ovary releases one ovum every 28
days.

2. Oviduct (Fallopian tube): -Close to each ovary is an expanded funnel shaped oviduct. Both oviducts
are narrow tubes opening into the uterus. Its walls are lined with cilia, which sweeps the ovum towards the
uterus. The oviduct is about 10-15 cms long. It curves outwards towards the sides of the abdomen. It is
wider towards the sides but very towards the

uterus. An ovum is produced and released alternatively from the two ovaries after every four weeks and it
makes take three days travelling down the oviduct to the uterus. If sperms are present, fertilization takes
place in the upper end of the fallopian tubes. If the ovum is not fertilized, it is discharged during the next
menstrual flow.

Uterus: - It is a large, thick walled, pear shaped muscular organ. It is connected to its either sides to the
fallopian tubes. The upper portion of the uterus is secular, then lays the body and then the lower
constricted portion called cervix. The body of the uterus has three coverings, the inner most
endomatrium, the middle myomatrium and the outermost perimatrium. The endomatrium is glandular
containing blood vessels and uterine glands. The middle layer or myomatrium is muscular having several
layers of smooth muscle fibres. The upper perimatrium has cerous membrane and a thin connective
tissue. The cervix acts as a splinter muscle the close the uterine lumen and prevents the foreign particles
from entering into the uterus.

4.Vagina: - It is large muscular tube of 7-10 cms long that runs from the uterus to the out side. Vagina
receives sperms from the male organ, penis. It also serves as a birth canal during the birth of the child.

Menstruation:- if there is no occasion for the released ovum to be fertilized then the ovum is passed out.
It will never be implanted in the uterus in the unfertilized state. After about 2 weeks of ovulation, in the event
of egg not being fertilized, the uterus begins to contract. This is a sign of undoing the preparations it had
made to receive the fertilized egg. Upon the contraction of uterus, the blood capillaries rupture and the
blood flows out through the vagina. This process is called menstruation. The blood along with tissue debris
is called Menses. Menstruation lasts for 3-4 days. Afterwards, the uterus starts preparing itself afresh for
the arrival of the ovum in the next 2 weeks. To sum up, menstruation takes place 14 days after the ovulation.
Again 14 days after menstruation, there is fresh ovulation. In this way, ovulation and menstruation alternate.
Both these processes stop once pregnancy has set in. when the girls attain the age of 13-15, she begins
to ovulate. This is the age of her sexual maturity and the first menstruation in the life of a girl is called
Menarche. The menstruation stops in a woman in the late forties and the ending of menstruation is called
Menopause.

Contraception:- It is possible to into limit the size of family through various means. It requires the use of
methods which prevent the fertilization of ova. Fertilization of the egg
and its implation is referred to as conception or pregnancy. Prevention of conceptions called
contraception. There are several ways by which conception can be prevented.
 Contraception Methods:- These methods involve prevention of fertilization and conception result in birth
control and is the basis of family planning. Contraception may be natural or mechanical.

a) Natural Methods of contraception:- If copulation is avoided for a few days, i.e. at 3 days of the first
day of ovulation which likely to be the time period when the ovum is available in the uterus, fertilization can
be avoided. This is called rhythm method of contraception.

Another natural method of contraception is coitus interrupts . in this method require extreme self-
discipline and self-control.

b) Mechanical methods of contraception:- In this approach, various mechanical method are used to prevent
the passage of semen to the fallopian tube or to prevent implantation.

Condoms or nirodh. Diaphragm or cervical

cap. Intra uterine device (IUD) or loop.

c) Chemical methods of contraception

Spermicides. IN this method, strong spermicidal (sperm-killing) creams, jellies, etc are injected in the
vagina before copulation, which kill the sperms and avoid fertilization. Oral contraception or pills. Oral
contraception prevent ovulation in females. These pills should be taken daily. Birth control pills contain
synthetic hormones resembling oestrogen and progesterone which prevent ovulation but allow monthly
shedding of the uterine lining through menstrual bleeding.
d) Surgical methods the ligature (tying by thread) of the vas deferens by a surgeon is called
vasectomy. In a vasectomized person, sperms are produce but these do not come in the seminal vesicle
when such a person ejaculates, his semen does not contain sperms.

In women, ligature of the fallopian tube can be done (tubectomy) to prevent passage of ova down
the fallopian tube.

Sexually transmitted diseases. Diseases spread through sexual contact are called sexually
transmitted

diseases (STD).

Some sexually transmitted deseases

Acquired immuno deficiency
1.
syndrome(AIDS) 2. Syphilis 3. Gonorroea
4. Herpes 5. Genital warts 6. Chlamydia
Acquired immuno deficiency syndrome (AIDS)
Acquired immuno deficiency syndrome commonly known as AIDS is probably the most notorious disease
in humans. It is sexually transmitted diseases it can pass from one person to another during sexual
 intercourse. This disease can also be transmitted if blood from an infected person comes in contact with
that of a healthy person through a cut, or a scratch or by means of blood transfusion.
AIDS is a pandemic disease, I.e. it is found world over. The word ‘immuno deficiency’ means that the
immune system of the affected person becomes deficient or weak. It is cell-mediated disorder of the immune
system.
Causative organism the pathogen which AIDS is the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is too small naked eyes. Once the virus enters the body it and
grows in the body fluid and blood cell of the infected person.
Mode of transmission HIV may be transmitted in many ways.
i) Sexual contact with the affected person through semen or vaginal fluid or through blood
in case there is any tearing of tissues during the intercourse.
ii) Exposure to infected blood and blood products by using the same syringe already used by
an infected person, and by use of infected blood during blood transfusion.
iii) Organ transplant from an affected person to a healthy person.
iv) During artificial insemination, the semen used may contain HIV infection
v) During pregnancy, from an infected mother’s blood to her baby’s blood.
Incubation period:- The average incubation period of HIV virus is about 28 months (range 15-57
months).
Symptoms:- A person infected with AIDS may show one or all of the following symptoms:
i) The person feels fatigued or tired, suffers from loss of weight and fever, and sweats
profusely.

ii) Persistent dry cough, oral rash and shortness of breath may be observed.

iii) Headache, visual disturbance, vomiting and fits are also witnessed.

iv) Gastro-intestinal problems like mild diarrohea may occur.

v) Skin blotches, eczema, fungal infection and sometimes skin cancer may be observed.

vi) A type of lung disease known as pneumocystic carnie pneumonia develops. Severe immune deficiency leads
the pathogen (protozoa) to multiply in lungs and fills them with pneumocysts.

vii) Cancer or tumor of blood vessels known as Kaposi’s sarcoma may be seen.

viii) Nervous system any b e affected, the brain may be badly damaged leading to a loss of

memory, ability to speak and to think.

A completely infected AIDS patient may die within three years of infection.

Prevention and control:- Although there is no cure for AIDS, the HIV infection can be prevented by
taking certain precautions.
 i) Responsible sexual behaviour
• Avoiding multiple sex partners

• Using a condom or other barrier method of contraception which prevents direct contact
between body fluids of two persons.

• Avoiding prostitution and homosexuality

ii) Screening of blood before transfusion

• Treatment of all blood and other products use din transfusion to destroy the HIV

iii) Avoiding sharing of needles

• By use of disposable syringes and needles.

iv) Avoiding pregnancy if the mother is HIV positive

v) Education people

• Having knowledge of the ways by which AIDS can be spread and the precautions that should be
taken to avoid HIV infection.

Syphilis:-

Causative organism: Trponema pallidum, long corkscrew bacteria.

Models of spread: Sexual contact with the infected person can cause the disease. Infants can
contract this disease during birth.

Incubation period: Symptoms of the disease occur in about 10-90 days after contraction, but
generally notice in 3-4 weeks.

Symptoms:- Syphilis symptoms occur in stages. These can appear anywhere from 10- 90 days after
contraction. The common symptoms are given below.

i) Fever and sores appear on the skin, in the throat and urinogenital areas especially vagina or penis, anus, rectum
and mouth. Sores are firm, round and often painless, and can lead to other serious diseases as well.

ii) Break out of rashes on hands, feet and palms in seen.

iii) White patches are observed in the mouth.

iv) Acne-like warts are found in the groin area.

v) Hairfall occurs in patches from infected areas.

Prevention and cure:-

• Having sexual intimacy with only one person

• Avoiding prostitution and homosexuality

• Taking appropriate medical treatment.

Gonorrhoea:
Gonorrhoea is a sexually transmitted disease that often involves urethra, vagina or penis, cervix,
anus, throat, joint and eyes as its target sites. A large number of gonorrhoea cases are reported each year.

If gonorrhoea is at an advance stage, the symptoms include-abdominal pain and bleeding between
menstrual periods. These symptoms are more common in females and are usually more pronounced than
in males. They can appear anytime from 2-10 days after contration all the way up to one month after
contraction.

Modes of spread: As with most sexually transmitted diseases, having multiple sex partners increases
your risk of contracting it. Any kind of unprotected sex is always a
risk. Any kind of contact of sores with an infected person is also risk. Besides these ways, infants can
contract the disease during birth.
Symptoms:
• Inflammation of mucous membrane in the urinogenital tract.
• Burning sensation while passing out urine
• Rectal discomfort
• Pain in the joints
• Rashes on palms
• Mild sore throat
• In females, it may cause sterility
Prevention and cure:
• Having sexual contact with only one person
• Avoiding prostitution and homosexuality
• Taking antibiotics, such as penicillin infection or appropriate medicines at the appropriate
time.
Differentiate Between Binary Fission Multiple Fission 1. Products. It gives rise to two
individuals.
1.It forms several (more than two) individuals. 2. Condition. Binary fission occurs under
favourable conditions
 2.Multiple fission occurs under favourable and unfavourable conditions. 3. Nucleus. Nucleus of the parent
cell
divides only once to form two daughters.
3.Nucleus of the parent undergoes repeated divisions to form a number of daughter nuclei. 4. Cytoplasm.
Cytoplasm undergoes
cleavage after each nuclear division.
4. Cytoplasm does not divide after every nuclear division. 5. Residue. No part of the parent body is
left unused. Example: Amoeba, Paramecium
5. A part of the body, covering and residual cytoplasm is left behind. Examples:- Amoeba
Plasmodium(encysted Unicellular Organisms Multicellular Organisms
Specific 1. Reproductive cell. The same cell
cells take part in which functions as the body of
reproduction. the organism also gets transformed into reproductive cell. 2. Technique. Technique of
reproduction
are simple.
Techniques of reproduction are commonly complex. 3. Asexual Reproduction. It generally
occours through fission
It occurs by several methods like fragmentation, regeneration, budding, spore formation, vegetative
reproduction, etc. 4. Sex Organs. No special sex cell or sex
organ is present.
They are present.
5. Sexual Reproduction. It occurs
through is ogamy to heterogamy
It is commonly oogamous.
External Fertilization Internal Fertilization 1. Place. Fertilization occurs outside the body of the female.
Fertilization occurs inside the body of the female.
2. Release of Gametes. Both the sexes discharge their gametes outside their body.
Only the male discharges the gametes and also in the reproduction tract of the female. The female
retains its gametes.
3. Surety. It is not a sure method. It is sure method of fertilization. 4. Embryo develops unprotected,
outside the body of the female.
Embryo is generally well protected but may develop outside or inside the body of the female
Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction 1. Parents. Asexual reproduction is uniparental i.e., involves
a single parent.
Sexual reproduction is generally biparental, i.e., involves to parents of different sexes. 2. Gametes.
Gametes are not formed. Gametes are always formed.
3. Divisions. All the division s are
mitotic.
Meiosis occur once. All other divisions are mitotic. 4. Fertilization. Fertilization is absent. Fertilization or
fusion of gametes
takes place. 5. Multiplication. It is rapid method of
multiplication.
It is comparatively slower method of multiplication. 6. New Individuals. They are genetically
similar to the parents.
New individuals are genetically different from either of the two parents 7. Variations. Variations are very
few. Abundant variations occur during
sexual reproduction. 8. Evolution. It has little evolutionary
importance.
By producing variations, sexual reproduction plays an important role in evolution.
Some important terms:- Hermaphrodite:- An organism in which both the male and female sex organs
are present is called hermaphrodite or bi-sexual. Hydra and earthworm are such organism.
Gamete:- Two types of reproductive cells produced in males and females are called gametes. Female
gametes are larger in size than the male gametes but are non- motile. The male gametes are motile.
Puberty:- In humans , reproductive organs become functional only after attaining sexual maturity. This is
attained at the age of 13- 14 years in males, and 10-11 years in females. The age of attaining sexual
maturity is called puberty. It leads to development of secondary sexual characters.
Placenta:- From the outer most membrane of the embryo, a number of out pushings arise and get inserted
into the inner wall of uterus of mother to form placenta. This device draws nutrition from the maternal blood.
Umbilical cord:- It serves a link between the foetal and maternal circulation.
Homeostasis:- One hormone accelerate the function of a particular organ, but the other hormone puts a
brake on it. This system of opposing effects leads to a proper control and balance in the working of the
organs. When there is too much of acceleration of the effect organ, the later sends a message back to the
endocrine gland asking to stop secreting the hormone. This is a kind of feedback information, which serves
to bring about a steady state or a stable state. This steady state of body function is called Homeostasis.
Semen: -It is a thick viscous fluid, which is ejaculated at the time of insemination. It contains sperm cells,
secretion of seminal vesicles, prostate glands,Cowper’s glands and urethral glands. In man the amount of
semen discharged per ejaculation varies from 2.5 ml to 3.5 ml containing 200 – 600 millions of sperms and
only one is needed for fertilization.
Sperm:- It is a haploid cell in which 4 different parts can be recognized; Head, Neck, Middle piece, Tale.
The head contains the haploid nucleus. The neck bears centriole. The middle piece has compact
mitochondria. The tale beats in a characteristic manner so as to provide locomotion to the sperm as a
whole.