LimCont PDF

Defining Limits of Two Variable functions Case Studies in Two Dimensions Continuity Three or more Variables
Limits and Continuity for Multivariate Functions
A. Havens
Department of Mathematics
University of Massachusetts, Amherst
February 25, 2019
A. Havens Limits and Continuity for Multivariate Functions

Outline
1 Defining Limits of Two Variable functions

2 Case Studies in Two Dimensions
An Easy Limit
Failure Along Different Lines
Lines Are Not Enough
An Epsilon-Delta Game
3 Continuity
Defining Continuity
Some Continuous Functions
4 Three or more Variables
Limits and Continuity in Many Variables
Discontinuities in Three Dimensions

Definition of a Limit in two Variables
Definition
Given a function of two variables f : D → R, D ⊆ R2 such that D
contains points arbitrarily close to a point (a, b), we say that the
limit of f (x, y ) as (x, y ) approaches (a, b) exists and has value L if
and only if for every real number ε > 0 there exists a real number
δ > 0 such that
|f (x, y ) − L| < ε
whenever »
0< (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 < δ .
We then write
lim f (x, y ) = L .
(x,y )→(a,b)

Interpretation
Thus, to say that L is the limit of f (x, y ) as (x, y ) approaches

(a, b) we require that for any given positive “error” ε > 0, we
can find a bound δ > 0 on the distance of an input (x, y )
from (a, b) which ensures that the output falls within the error
tolerance around L (that is, f (x, y ) is no more than ε away
from L).
Another way to understand this is that for any given ε > 0

defining an open metric neighborhood (L − ε, L + ε) of L on
the number line R, we can ensure there is a well defined δ(ε)
such that the image of any (possibly punctured) open disk of
radius r < δ centered at (a, b) is contained in the
ε-neighborhood.

Limits along paths
Recall, for functions of a single variable, one has notions of left and
right one-sided limits:
lim f (x) and lim f (x) .

x→a− x→a+
But in R2 there’s not merely left and right to worry about; one can
approach the point (a, b) along myriad different paths! The whole
limit lim(x,y )→(a,b) f (x, y ) = L if and only if the limits along all
paths agree and equal L.

Defining Limits along paths
To write a limit along a path, we can parameterize the path as

some vector valued function r(t) with r(1) = ha, bi, and then we
can write
lim f (r(t)) = L
t→1−
if for any ε > 0, there is a δ > 0 such that |f (r(t)) − L| < ε

whenever 1 − δ < t < 1. Similarly we may define a “right” limit
along r(t), limt→1+ f (r(t)) if r(t) exists and describes a continuous
path for t > 1. The two sided limit along the path is then defined
in the natural way:
lim f (r(t)) = L ⇐⇒ ∀ε > 0 ∃δ > 0 :

t→1
|f (r(t)) − L| < ε whenever 0 < |1 − t| < δ .

An Easy Limit
A Classic Revisted
Example
sin(x 2 + y 2 )
Let f (x, y ) = . Then find
x2 + y2
lim f (x, y ) .
(x,y )→(0,0)
Solution:
We can compute the limit as follows. Let r 2 = x 2 + y 2 . Then
along any path r(t) = hx(t), y (t)i such that as t → 1, r(t) → 0,
we have that r 2 = krk2 → 0. It follows that
sin r 2 sin u
lim f (x, y ) = lim 2
= lim = 1.
(x,y )→(0,0) r →0 r
2 u→0 u

An Easy Limit
A Surface of Revolution
The previous example has a geometric solution as well: the graph
for z = f (x, y ) = sin(r 2 )/r 2 is a surface of revolution. What is the
curve revolved, and what is the axis?
Figure: The graph of z = sin(r 2 )/r 2 .

A Non-Existent Limit
Example
x2 − y2
Show that lim f (x, y ) does not exist for f (x, y ) = .
(x,y )→(0,0) x2 + y2
Solution: We will show that the limits along the x and y axes are
different, thus showing that the limit cannot exist.

The Axial Limits
Example
x2 − 0
Along the x-axis, y = 0, and so f (x, y ) = f (x, 0) = = 1,
x2 + 0
whence
lim f (x, 0) = 1 .
x→0
0 − y2
Along the y -axis, x = 0 and f (x, y ) = f (0, y ) = = −1,
0 + y2
whence
lim f (0, y ) = −1 .
y →0
Since lim f (x, 0) 6= lim f (0, y ), the limit lim f (x, y ) does
x→0 y →0 (x,y )→(0,0)
not exist.

Seeing the Crease
Figure: The graph of z = (x 2 − y 2 )/(x 2 + y 2 )

A Curious Wrinkle
Example
xy 2
Does the limit of f (x, y ) = as (x, y ) → (0, 0) exist, and if
x2 + y4
yes, what is it?
Solution: A simple reapplication of the method of the previous

example is not sufficient. Indeed, you can check that
lim f (x, 0) = 0 = lim f (0, y ) ,

x→0 y →0
and in fact, we can show that for any line of approach through
(0, 0), the limit is 0.

All the (defined) slopes

Example
Indeed: let m be any real number and consider the line y = mx,
which passes through (0, 0) as x → 0. Then
x(mx)2
lim f (x, mx) = lim
x→0 x→0 x 2 + (mx)4
m2 x 3
= lim 2
x→0 x + m4 x 4
m2 x
= lim = 0,
x→0 1 + m4 x 2
regardless of the value of m. (In the case of a line of undefined

slope, we simply have the y -axis, which shares this limit)
So is the limit 0?
Precarious Parabolae
Figure: The graph of z = (xy 2 )/(x 2 + y 4 )

A new path
Example
If we instead approach (0, 0) along the parabola x = y 2 , we find
that
y4 1
lim f (y 2 , y ) = lim 4 4
= 6= 0 .
y →0 y →0 y + y 2
Thus the limit does not exist!
Key moral: Given the complexity of surface discontinuities
(creases, wrinkles, precipitous slopes, etc), one cannot trust that
the limit exists just from testing some small family of curves.
When a limit does exist, proving it via curves is impractical, and
one must resort to the definition (working with ε’s and δ’s.)

Using the Definition to Prove a Limit
Example
3xy 2
Consider the function f (x, y ) = .
x2 + y2
An intuition for this one might be that the limit is zero as

(x, y ) → (0, 0). After all, the numerator is cubic, and the
denominator quadratic, so we can guess who should win in a fight.
After testing out lines, parabolas, and even some cubics

approaching (0, 0), one gets that the limits along these curves all
go to 0. How can we show that the limit is indeed zero?

All Paths Lead to. . .
Figure: The graph of z = 3xy 2 /(x 2 + y 2 ).

To Acquire a Delta, Fix and Epsilon
Example
Suppose we are given an ε > 0, and we know that |f (x, y ) − 0| < ε
for some (x, y ).
We wish to work backwards to figure out how close to (0, 0) the

point (x, y ) must be to ensure that this inequality is true.
The resulting bound on distance, δ, will depend on ε.

Inequalities and Algebra

From the assumed bound

3xy 2 y2
|f (x, y ) − 0| < ε =⇒ 2 = 3|x| <ε

x + y2 x2 + y2

and the following inequalities
x 2 ≤ x 2 + y 2 and 0 ≤ y 2 /(x 2 + y 2 ) ≤ 1
we have that
y2 √ »
3|x| ≤ 3|x| = 3 x 2 ≤ 3 x2 + y2 .
x2 + y2
We see the distance between (x, y ) and (0, 0) appearing on the far
right in the inequality.
Epsilong Proofs: When’s the punchline?

Since 3 times this distance ispan upper bound for |f (x, y ) − 0|, we
simply choose δ to ensure 3 x 2 + y 2 < ε. Thus, we may take
δ = ε/3.
p
Then provided δ = ε/3, we have that whenever 0 < x 2 + y 2 < δ,
the inequality »
3 x2 + y2 < ε
holds, whence
y2 »
|f (x, y ) − 0| = 3|x| ≤ 3 x2 + y2 < ε ,
x2 + y2
which proves that
3xy 2
lim = 0.
(x,y )→(0,0) x 2 + y 2

Defining Continuity
Local Continuity
Definition
A function of two variables f : D → R is continuous at a point
(x0 , y0 ) ∈ D if and only if
f (x0 , y0 ) = lim f (x, y ) ,

(x,y )→(x0 ,y0 )
i.e., the function is defined at (x0 , y0 ), its limit exists as (x, y )

approaches (x0 , y0 ), and the function’s value there is equal to the
value of the limit.

Defining Continuity
Continuity Throughout the Domain
A function is said to be continuous throughout its domain, or

simply is called continuous, if it is continuous at every point
(x0 , y0 ) of its domain.
A function f : D → R is continuous throughout D if and only if

the pre-image of any open interval (a, b) = {t : a < t < b} ⊆ R is
an open subset of the domain. In this context, an open set E ⊂ R2
is one for which around every point p ∈ E there is some open disk
centered at p contained fully in E , and an open subset of D is a
set which can be made as the intersection of D with an open set in
R2 . For technical reasons, the empty set and the whole of the
domain D are considered open subsets of the domain D.

Well Behaved Friends
Polynomials in two variables are continuous on all of R2 . Recall a

polynomial in two variables is an expression of the form
m X
X n
p(x, y ) = aij x i y j .
i=0 j=0
Rational functions are also continuous on their domains. Rational

functions of two variables are just quotients of two variable
polynomials
Ä R(x, y ) =ä p(x, y )/q(x, y ). Observe that
Dom p(x, y )/q(x, y ) = {(x, y ) ∈ R2 : q(x, y ) 6= 0}.

A removable discontinuity
If a function f has a discontinuity at a point (a, b), but
lim f (x, y ) exists and equals L, then the function
(x,y )→(a,b)
(
f (x, y ) if (x, y ) ∈ D
f˜(x, y ) = lim f (u, v ) =
(u,v )→(x,y ) L if (x, y ) = (a, b)
is continuous at (a, b).

E.g., the function

3uv 2  3xy 2 if (x, y ) 6= (0, 0)
R(x, y ) = lim = x 2 +y 2
(u,v )→(x,y ) u2 + v 2 0 if (x, y ) = (0, 0)
is continuous at (0, 0), and as it is elsewhere rational with only

(0, 0) as a zero of its denominator, R(x, y ) is in fact continuous
throughout R2 .
Example
y
Where is f (x, y ) = arctan x continuous?
Solution: Since arctan is continuous throughout its domain, this

function is continuous provided the argument y /x is continuous.
Since this argument is a rational function, it is well defined
everywhere in R2 except for points (x, y ) such that the
denominator is zero.
y
Å ã
Thus, we conclude that arctan is continuous on
x
2
R − {x = 0}, i.e., the whole plane except the y -axis.

Angular Surface
Figure: The graph of z = arctan(y /x).

Definition of a Limit in Several Variables

For a function f : D → R of several variables, regard the input
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ∈ D ⊆ Rn as a vector r = hx1 , x2 , . . . , xn i.
Definition
Given a function f : D → R, D ⊆ Rn , we say that the limit of f (r)
as r approaches a exists and has value L if and only if for every real
number ε > 0 there exists a δ > 0 such that
|f (r) − L| < ε
whenever
0 < kr − ak < δ .
We then write
lim f (r) = L .
r→a

Multivariate Continuity
Definition
A function of many variables f : D → R is continuous at a point
r0 ∈ D ⊆ Rn if and only if
f (r0 ) = lim f (r) ,

r→r0
i.e., the function is defined at r0 , its limit exists as r approaches r0 ,

and the function’s value there is equal to the value of the limit.
The function is said to be continuous throughout its domain if it is
continuous for every point r0 ∈ D.

Topological Definition
As before there is a topological reframing of the definition: a

function f : D → R is continuous throughout its domain if and only
if the pre-images of open sets of R are open subsets of the domain
(possibly empty, or all of the domain). The definition of openness
involves being able to find an open ball around every point.
The open δ-balls appearing in the limit definition are

neighborhoods of the approached point, lying in the pre-image of
an ε-neighborhood. Thus, we can rephrase the limit definition as
follows: limr→r0 f (r) exists and equals L if and only if for any small
open neighborhood U of L, we can always find a suitable open
neighborhood N of r0 for which f (N ) ⊆ U .

Discontinuities in Three Dimensions
Discontinuity along a surface
Example
1 1
Let f (x, y , z) = = , r = xı̂ + y̂ + z k̂.
+ +z −1 x2
2 y2
r·r−1
Where is the function discontinuous? Where is it continuous?
Solution: The function is rational, and so it is defined and

continuous except where the denominator is 0. The denominator is
zero when r · r = krk2 = 1, i.e., the denominator of f vanishes
precisely along the unit sphere.
Thus f (r) is discontinuous (and undefined) on the unit sphere

S2 = {r ∈ R3 : krk = 1}, and is continuous throughout R3 − S2 .

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Defining Limits of Two Variable functions Case Studies in Two Dimensions Continuity Three or more Variables

Limits and Continuity for Multivariate Functions

February 25, 2019

A. Havens Limits and Continuity for Multivariate Functions

1 Defining Limits of Two Variable functions

A. Havens Limits and Continuity for Multivariate Functions

Definition of a Limit in two Variables

A. Havens Limits and Continuity for Multivariate Functions

Thus, to say that L is the limit of f (x, y ) as (x, y ) approaches

Another way to understand this is that for any given ε > 0

A. Havens Limits and Continuity for Multivariate Functions

Limits along paths

lim f (x) and lim f (x) .

A. Havens Limits and Continuity for Multivariate Functions

Defining Limits along paths

To write a limit along a path, we can parameterize the path as

if for any ε > 0, there is a δ > 0 such that |f (r(t)) − L| < ε

lim f (r(t)) = L ⇐⇒ ∀ε > 0 ∃δ > 0 :

|f (r(t)) − L| < ε whenever 0 < |1 − t| < δ .

A. Havens Limits and Continuity for Multivariate Functions

A. Havens Limits and Continuity for Multivariate Functions

Figure: The graph of z = sin(r 2 )/r 2 .

Failure Along Different Lines

A. Havens Limits and Continuity for Multivariate Functions

Failure Along Different Lines

The Axial Limits

A. Havens Limits and Continuity for Multivariate Functions

Failure Along Different Lines

Seeing the Crease

Figure: The graph of z = (x 2 − y 2 )/(x 2 + y 2 )

A. Havens Limits and Continuity for Multivariate Functions

Lines Are Not Enough

Solution: A simple reapplication of the method of the previous

lim f (x, 0) = 0 = lim f (0, y ) ,

A. Havens Limits and Continuity for Multivariate Functions

Lines Are Not Enough

All the (defined) slopes

regardless of the value of m. (In the case of a line of undefined

Lines Are Not Enough

Figure: The graph of z = (xy 2 )/(x 2 + y 4 )

A. Havens Limits and Continuity for Multivariate Functions

Lines Are Not Enough

A. Havens Limits and Continuity for Multivariate Functions

Using the Definition to Prove a Limit

An intuition for this one might be that the limit is zero as

After testing out lines, parabolas, and even some cubics

A. Havens Limits and Continuity for Multivariate Functions

All Paths Lead to. . .

Figure: The graph of z = 3xy 2 /(x 2 + y 2 ).

A. Havens Limits and Continuity for Multivariate Functions

To Acquire a Delta, Fix and Epsilon

We wish to work backwards to figure out how close to (0, 0) the

The resulting bound on distance, δ, will depend on ε.

A. Havens Limits and Continuity for Multivariate Functions

Inequalities and Algebra

and the following inequalities

Epsilong Proofs: When’s the punchline?

A. Havens Limits and Continuity for Multivariate Functions