Manufacturing Rev.

2014, 1, 15
Ó C.S. Harrison, Published by EDP Sciences, 2014
DOI: 10.1051/mfreview/2014012
Available online at:
http://mfr.edp-open.org

REVIEW ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS

A review of automation in manufacturing illustrated by a case

study on mixed-mode hot forging

Colin S. Harrison*
Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, School of Engineering, Glasgow Caledonian University, Cowcaddens Road,
Glasgow G4 0BA, UK

Received 4 June 2014 / Accepted 8 August 2014

Abstract – This paper describes a review of automation techniques as currently practiced in the forging and forming
industry. That industry has been relatively resistant to handling automation because of the severe challenges that are
faced by having typically small batch sizes, extremely challenging operating conditions in terms of temperatures and
pressures and lighting conditions. The paper discusses how aspects of these difficulties can be overcome and it is hoped
that the specific solutions and methodology presented will find general applications in other aspects of manufacturing
industry. The concept of the ‘‘Automated Forging of the Future’’ is introduced in which advanced handling, rapid
tooling-change and flexibility, smart metrology, advanced sensing and intelligent gripping techniques are presented.
The paper represents the distillation of work on automated forging based on the authors’ implementation of a
key theme in forging automation in Advanced Forming Research Centre (AFRC), The University of Strathclyde,
Glasgow, UK.

Key words: Automation, Robotics, Forging, Forming

1. Introduction The key advantages that are presented for automation

include:
The manufacturing forging industry can be classified across
several industries including Automotive, Aerospace and Medi- d Increased Volume (capacity).
cal being dominated by relatively high value added operation, d Improved Quality – via consistency of manufacturing and
much of the reminder having migrated overseas. Continual cost reduction in variability.
pressures have meant that industries have had to work smarter d Reduced Costs.
rather than harder, since lower costs bases attract plug- d Reduced dependency on hard to find labour to work in
compatible manufacturing replication, unless there is a high harsh operating conditions.
skill, higher value-add differentiator. Smart automation is pre- d Improved Safety Occupational health statistics continue
sented as one of these differentiators and the ability to quickly to illustrate that powered presses are a major source of
change over between batches, achieve higher manufacturing industrial accidents.
tolerances and overall quality, whilst in many cases increasing
volume have been key drivers for the implementation of
However, the financing of these new systems inevitably
advanced automation.
must and should be filtered by a cost – justification approach
Typical product families that have been automated include
in order to test the economic viability of the particular invest-
the production in the automotive industry of gears, hubs, crank-
ment proposition. A widely used system is based on manufac-
shafts with the concurrent objective of optimising materials per-
turing systems simulation allied to a cost benefit analysis in
formance by manipulating materials structure for example,
order to adopt a relatively low cost approach, one the initial
hardness and straight by the automated forging processes
business benefits have been outlined. Systems such as
themselves.
Witness [1] Hocus, and the like can be used to explore discrete
*e-mail: [email protected] event simulation approaches, especially where hard production
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0),
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
2 C.S. Harrison: Manufacturing Rev. 2014, 1, 15

data exist on Tact time, time in process, batch sizes and other systems integrator. The Forging Industries Association Technol-
production data can refine the investment proposition. In indus- ogy Plan [9] has identified a number of key issues that need to
trial situations a question raised almost from the first will be addressed which prioritises process control and modifica-
always be ‘‘What are the benefits’’ and some attempt at clarify- tions of the ‘‘Hoteye’’ system [10] and other sensing data for
ing the financial, engineering and any intangible benefits will Forging.
need to be constructed with increasing rigour. Some large mul- The methodology of this paper has been to survey the exist-
tinationals have their own specific cost modelling software to ing, though rather sparse academic literature, interview with
address financial returns [2], others use a combination of pay- industry expert practitioners, and to describe the associated case
back period or internal rate of return, perhaps via a spreadsheet. study. The first task is to try to define what is meant by automa-
Intangible benefits can often be influential, but present difficul- tion in forging and this description is sufficiently broad that a
ties in taking them above the line and are usually fought off. number of modular topics can be included:
Academic work on forging automation is relatively sparse,
however case studies can be found which illustrate the public d automated handling,
face of successful implementations [3]. d automated lubrication,
These key drivers automatically define an investment route d automated heating,
for scarce capital in that fundamentally the automation engineer d automated process control.
is faced with the challenge of automating for lower forecast
cost. This means that many developments which might have
desirable features are often not cost effective dependant on 2. Automation for forging applications
the analysis regime used. Systems simulation for automation
can be applied particularly where the implementation includes 2.1. Automated robotic handling
data on queuing, mean time between failures (MTBF) and
A key factor in automated handling for forges is the use of
mean time to repair (MTTR) though the results tend to be gen-
robots and the following section places this in context.
eral in nature. One possible approach when considering a large
The British Automation and Robot Association (BARA)
investment in forging/forming particularly due to the high cost,
[11] publishes an annual review on robot use based on feedback
and longevity of press technology, is often to simulate the pro-
from 40 leading suppliers [12] which reports that the market is
cess in order to clarify in detail how the modified operation will
dominated by automotive applications, and recent statistics sug-
work and this can then be verified in broad brush terms with a
gest there are 25,000 robots in service though the international
cost modelling approach in order to quantify the benefits.
federation suggests that only half of these are less than 12 years
The existing academic work on ‘‘Automation in Forging’’ is
old. Even though the market is dominated by automotive appli-
not extensive, for example a search of UK theses on the
cations, trends since 2005 indicate that other sectors are becom-
keywords ‘‘Forging Automation’’ (via the on line index) will
ing progressively more important. However the use of robotics
reveal a relatively weak result. Contrast this with a search on
in forging and is one that is increasing from a relatively low
the abstract keyword ‘‘Forging’’ where over 35 relevant theses
level depending on category definition (see Figure 1) and the
will appear including studies on lubrication, wear and damage
non-automotive applications have continued to grow.
as well as 3D simulations. Similarly in the main sources (jour-
It is estimated that 75% of installed robots are of the 6 axis
nals having an impact factor and rated conferences) a search
type (BARA-2009) figures, although these can also be mounted
using these keywords will result in few results, which are
on rails or hang from a track with over 90% of the 460 instal-
mainly concerned with kinematic modelling [4, 5], often with-
lations in 2009 being priced at between £10,000 and £50,000
out real world data [6], discussions of potential applications [7],
although there is an increasingly active market in robot refur-
thixotropic forging studies [8] and the like. In contrast there has
bishment, which on average is about 50% of the cost of a
been relatively steady development by suppliers and manufac-
new installation.
turers’ websites often have useful reporting material, though
A recent review by Rimrock Corp on forge shop automa-
discussions with robot suppliers (ABB/Fanuc) have revealed
tion [13, 14] describes an approach to adopting automation
that there has been little application development of automation
by subdividing the process (of handling) into the following
in forging, which reflects the lack of academic output.
operations:
This represents an opportunity to fully investigate the inte-
gration of automation in forging operations with the intention of
cost reduction, increases in quality and consistency and in over- d billet loading,
d trim press loading,
all process control.
d parts transfer robot,
Forging presents a tremendous challenge to the systems
d spray robot.
integrator wishing to build in automation to the manufacturing
process, combining as it does the effects of varying tempera-
tures, immense potentially destructive forces, and accumula- A conventional approach is to apply these to a pre-existing
tions of hardening lubricant. This combines with the high press situation in order to improve the process and the benefits
cost of replacing forging/forming presses where economic lives as listed can be substantial though there is cost associated with
can be decades, means that retrofitting automatic systems is one redesign of the process and part which is often difficult to quan-
feasible industrial approach. Here often the main implementa- tify at the outset though can provide substantial benefits in suc-
tion expertise lies in the area of the industrial supplier or cessful installations. This approach could be described as
 C.S. Harrison: Manufacturing Rev. 2014, 1, 15 3

Machine tending
Die Casting
Plastic moulding
Stamping, Forging, Bending
Other handling
Measurement
Palletising
Packing placing
Arc Welding
Spot welding
Laser Welding
Painting
Adhesives
Grinding/Deburring
Assembly
Other
Unspecified

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Figure 1. UK Robot application analysis for 2009 (BARA).

Figure 2. High volume ‘‘Compact’’ Automotive crossbar press (Schuler Automation) [17].

‘‘Robotizing the man’’ [15]. A more fundamental approach Offline robotic programming is available via systems such
which relates more to the state of the art is a system such as that as MasterCam [18] Roboguide [19], Robotmaster [20] or the
promoted by Schuler Automation [16] involving a completely open source ROS [21], in order to generate path control and
integrated transfer press line. servo instructions for the preferred robot system [22].
This system uses a fully enclosed approach and a central In robotic handling a key factor is the reliability of the sys-
drive to co-ordinate manufacture (see Figure 2). The part han- tem and integrators aim to show that their systems perform
dling is achieved internally by using a modular lever transfer robustly. An example of a reliable system is the use of MTBF
arrangement in order to handle formed panels between each and some suppliers claim to have an MTBF of 60,000 h for
individual press station. robots at Jaguar/Land Rover, meaning that a particular robot
A variety of handling systems are available such as would only be down once in every 15 years [24] (Figure 4).
cross shuttles, robot loading with conveyors, and independently Typical advertised benefits of robotic handling include:
controllable feeders depending on the client automation
needs. improved consistency,
A similar retrofit crossbar approach is possible with a con- greater production volume,
ventional press situation that transfers parts directly between reduced labour-hours,
presses without releasing the part. This should result is more safer operation,
accurate and reliable picking since the part does not undergo lowered production costs,
any intermediate drop convey and pick stage. Here the robot improved safety,
is mounted on a rail system and itself travels between sites environmentally friendly through lower energy costs,
whilst the part is still held (see Figure 3). typical productive life of robot 10–15 years [25].
4 C.S. Harrison: Manufacturing Rev. 2014, 1, 15

Figure 3. ‘‘Crossbar Robot’’ transfers parts directly from press to

press (Schuler Automation) [23].

Figure 5. Robot handling crankshafts for the auto industry (ABB).

because of the many interactions that occur with real world

devices in a forging cell, particularly during the setup cycle.
Note that the addition of vision guided packages, including
2D and 3D aspects are slowly becoming more prevalent though
3D vision is not suitable for all applications in forging and
infra-red interference provides special difficulties as does lens
contamination issues from free floating dag.
An excellent demonstration of a robotic forging cell for tur-
bine blades was described in the ‘‘How it’s made’’ series [28]
which describes a robotic forge using a two gripper approach
to manipulate slugs, and form performs which also integrates
furnace heating, deburring and automated lubrication.
Note that Leistritz claim [29] that by using Superplastic
forging in isothermal conditions (rather than super plastic form-
ing) that a near net shape can be forged, used in conjunction
with electrochemical-machining for metal removal. The stated
Leistritz philosophy on automation relates to a common user
Figure 4. Standard 6 axis Robot model shown IRB 7600 (ABB). interface and is really a user-centred control systems approach.
This presents an alternative to substitutive thinking on automa-
Here the prevalence of high temperatures (up to 1100 °C tion which has the overall goal of minimising human interaction
for some materials) and airborne detritus means that exception- and is based largely on a machine dominated process. Example
ally robust robots are used, often incorporating specially Leistritz blades are shown in Figure 6.
adapted grippers [26]. Note the use of caged robot enclosure
for personnel protection (see Figure 5). Robot suppliers can 2.2. Automated lubrication
provide systems with payloads ranging up to 500 kg or more
depending on reach and are typically programmed via a teach Discussions with Houghton Plc and interaction with leading
pendant, though offline programming is often possible. A typ- manufacturers reveal that automatic lubrication systems are
ical ‘‘6-axis’’ servo has changed little in the basic configuration often a part of the forming process – usually named ‘‘dagging’’.
over 2 decades [27] though have now become extremely reli- This applies a colloidal graphite based suspension of water and
able, though overall system integrity is more difficult to assure mineral oil [30] and one approach to optimisation is to use a
 C.S. Harrison: Manufacturing Rev. 2014, 1, 15 5

A series of videos on forging illustrate this and very often a

manually applied spray process can be seen entering the field
of view from the side. The illustrated cell in this video of truck
axles forging shows robots moving on a floor mounted rail in a
two stage forging process however the dag is still applied by an
operator [32].
One novel application for a retrofit is described by East
Engineering [33] similar to that of an inkjet printer
(see Figure 9). Here the dag is directly programmed via a series
of small nozzles to spray particularly on one area and developed
by ‘‘Jerko Sprue-system [34]’’. The advantages being very fine
atomisation, precise delivery, and cooling effects limited to only
where the dag is applied meaning a more stable process (see
Figure 10).
This system has been installed by DIC Engineering as part
of a crankshaft line for General Motors incorporating an NKMZ
7000T forging press, with piezoelectric load cells to protect
Figure 6. Forged compressor blades (Leistritz). against overload.
It should be possible using a robot spray technique to gen-
erate a relatively sophisticated dag spray pattern that only oper-
ates where it is absolutely needed using a modified lance rather
than in the general area of the part and tooling. This will result
in less dag being applied together with reduction in the associ-
ated cooling effects, and could be of use particularly for blade
forming.
Some of the ideas presented in the above review were dis-
tilled into an example automated cell illustrating the key fea-
tures, and is presented here as a case study, in the Advanced
Forming Research Centre (AFRC) at the University of
Strathclyde.
A key issue to be addressed in forge manufacturing is that
of the variability introduced by manually controlled methods.
Individual forge operators tend to use individualised technique
which means that the output varies according to the speed of the
operator, the amount of lubricant applied and leads to results
Figure 7. Crystalline graphite structure illustrating lubricious which can be inconsistent. Automation of this process, as well
cleavage planes (McIntosh). as leading to increases in production volume additionally gives
improvements quality and especially in consistency of output
[35]. For the research investigator the latter feature (related to
Taguchi or design of experiments approach. A diagram illustrat-
stabilisation of experimental conditions) – means that the auto-
ing the structure for graphite dag is shown in Figure 7.
mated process can then itself be used as a process debugging
Once the parameters of the specific concentration have been
tool, without the confounding that tends to obscure the process
determined for a particular parts configuration (e.g. extrusion
improvements obtainable from any particular change. Therefore
and heading) and temperature then Statistical Process Control
the automated system itself can be used to diagnose the process,
(SPC) can be used to manage the process. An example of
for example where new consistent defects start to emerge from
dag application for extrusion is shown in Figure 8.
a stable process. Where manufacturing operations consist of
Many presses include auto-lubrication functions however
both manual and automated processes improvements can be
these do not always carry an approved ‘‘CE Mark’’ [31] and
reflected back from the automated to the manual operations
for this reason manual dagging is relatively common. Obtaining
in terms of for example, the application of lubricant.
a CE mark for the particular auto-lubrication press is a costly
The introduction of Automation in forging clearly has a
and time consuming process and one best undertaken by the
number of specific challenges. These are described in the fol-
press manufacturer at the time of the build, therefore manual
lowing section.
dagging is likely to continue until an uncertified pre-existing
press is replaced by one having the relevant certifications. There
also a perception that when it comes to the application of dag 3. Research challenges in forging automation
that the operator knows best.
Surprisingly in automation applications the dagging func- There are a series of important challenges that impact on
tion seems to be persistently applied by the human operator. industrial implementation of forging automation including
6 C.S. Harrison: Manufacturing Rev. 2014, 1, 15

Figure 8. Dag application in extrusion and heading (McIntosh).

3.1. Non specific automation process challenges

It is critical to any technical project that the basic ground-

work required by a long term effort investment is laid by
obtaining full backing from senior management. The issue is
that if there is insufficient or lukewarm support at senior pro-
duction levels then when unforeseen difficulties arise, and espe-
cially where there is no immediate solution, the danger is that
the project will be stopped. It is also important to have an extre-
mely complete understanding of the detailed nature of the task
that requires automation in order to be able to specify and
implement an automated system. Barriers to implementation
can include fear of redundancy [37] and labour displacement
– though in practice robotic automation tends to mean that
Figure 9. Jerko Dag ‘‘printer’’ (Jerko Spruesystems). existing staff are redeployed into other areas after an increase
in volume and quality has been achieved, though some of those
who leave voluntarily may not be replaced. There can also be a
process knowledge gap on an operation, and a standard tech-
nique is to video the precise manufacturing operations as well
as to elicit knowledge form the particular operator, some re-
design of the task is often required in order to cope with the lim-
itations of the automation system. This is against the known
background that robots are not ‘‘accurate’’ in the sense that
CNC machines are accurate, but the repeatability and flexibility
means that it these limitations can be handled and still make a
productive system.
Nevertheless we focus here on the technical aspects of
implementation, assuming that the solid financial and particu-
larly managerial backing exists. Automation in general has a
range of challenges but forging presents some that rare rela-
tively uncommon. There is a market led desire to move towards
small smaller batch sizes [38] and the case for automation may
mean that the technical aspects of implementation cannot easily
Figure 10. Printed Dag pattern showing local directed spray (Jerko be demonstrated – technical achievability influences the
Spruesystems).
benefits.
The major long term strategic challenge involved is that of
potential financial benefits [36] such as return on investment, worker substitution, the original source of the word robot [39],
Payback period, which interact with specific technical ones, particularly applicable in a hostile environment such as a forge
which are described here. or foundry operations involving high temperatures, levels of
Overall these can be grouped into Process Specific Chal- contamination, and extremely powerful machinery. The next
lenges, and No specific challenges applicable to any automation great leap forward is the deployment of the Asimo style self-
project. organising robot-android that has a capability without being
 C.S. Harrison: Manufacturing Rev. 2014, 1, 15 7

micro-managed at every step of the production process, and ide- and advanced safety protocols and ways of working are
ally capable of easy redeployment between processes. Even currently being developed. The idea is to move back from the
basic self organising systems indicate that that this is some caged robot process to one where human and robot work co-
way off in the future [40], nevertheless the goal is to provide operatively and using the humans sophisticated sensory and
plug compatible replacement, at lowered cost and raised quality. knowledge capability rather than automated substitution. This
Therefore the benefits of automation can be gained without the means that intrinsic safety protocols such as advanced sensing
inherent disadvantages of bolted down arms with smart sensors, in order to manage torque and speed control are required if the
programming and end effectors, slaved to a master controllers human is going ‘‘back in the cage’’. One approach is to have a
which comprise the bulk of automated systems today. Such sys- set of whisker detectors so that if a human (or other unexpected
tems are at least a decade away or more from being deployed in object) is encountered the robot immediately reduces power –
manufacturing. so that the human is not hurt. One system currently operating
(without a set of guarding) is described by Kuka where the
3.1.1. Teamwork/collaborative approaches human works closely with the robot – augmenting the robots
ability to perform repetitive tasks with the human ability
A challenge for the research practitioner is that of robot- to sense the world, make decisions and to behave in a non–
human interaction at a number of levels. The majority of robot programmed way. The trend is towards more bottom up rather
programming is still done in practice via the traditional teach than top down robot implementation [44] see ISO Tech
pendant – Illustration – backed by vendor training courses, Specification TS 15066 [45] with robot safety via collaborative
heavy course documentation and support channels. The reason interworking [43].
for pendant based operation is that the real world is still difficult For part or product family opportunities where the invest-
to model at the sufficiently detailed level in order to allow true ment case is reasonably demonstrated difficulties include the
offline programming to occur. This means that advanced. following items.
Program capability is thus dependant on high levels of familiar-
ity with the various menu trees, detailed co-ordinated systems,
Tool coordinate variants, in variable declarations, screen 3.2. Process specific challenges
prompts and the like. In short it is still fundamentally a pro- Hot Forging in particular means that handling equipment
gramming task requiring programmer skills, which present must be designed to cope with metallic materials at up to
challenges for the occasional user/and often it means that exter- 1100 °C, so replaceable, robust handling systems such as
nal expertise has to be bought in to complete a specific task in a gripper jaws are one possible solution for long term use. Cold
scheduled time, especially when production downtime is and warm forging often means a commensurate increase in
involved. forging forces. The idea that fragile dexterous robot hands
Recent alternative approaches to aspects of robot program- can be used is not one that finds implementation in practice.
ming include development by KUKA and others of on passive Hence smart techniques for advanced handling or sensing must
click and drag and interaction via Mobile phone devices. One be sufficiently robust as to cope with locally high temperatures.
approach is simply to emulate the pendant software [41] inside In the case of picking from for example an Electrotherm [46]
the application, though other emerging methods include physi- rotary furnace, the entire structure (end effector/gripper/part)
cally moving the robot itself [42] into position and selecting a is soaked for up to a second in an oven temperature typically
point recall button on the robot [43]. This offers a much more greater than 1100 °C. The level of robustness for any equip-
direct way of programming the robot since humans can use ment to deal with these temperatures should not be underesti-
intuitive honed skills in our own natural way of controlling mated, and in super-plasticity high temperatures are
motion rather than via an artificial menu system – reducing pro- encountered in combination with saggy, tricky to handle and
gramming and development time. Here falling hardware costs position materials, often in combination with specific cleaning
mean that entry level industrial robots, which start at about requirements due to uneven deposition of slag. Additionally
£20 k, may be only 20% of the cost of an installation due to the volume rates involved are often relatively low, and require
the additional value-added services that are required to make a level of skilled haptic feedback that is not commonly found in
an installation actually function correctly. That is the area that industrial automation, though research is moving forward rap-
key research challenge to simplify the introduction of smart idly there. Again the issue relates critically back to the business
flexible robots. case for the investment in a manufacturing context. Note that
Accuracy – robots are not ‘‘accurate’’ – or as accurate as a whilst manufacturing accounts for about 10% of employees
typical CNC machine tool, however they are conventionally it accounts for 18% of fatalities, and 18% of seven day
classed as ‘‘repeatable’’ which allows advanced systems to be injuries [47].
successful. Extremely high pressure/forces – upwards of 100 tonne
Force are not unusual. Whilst this means that there is an oppor-
3.1.2. Human robot collaboration/collision tunity to improve operator safety particularly with regards to
presses – a tangible benefit – it also means that extremely close
It is expected that next generation robotics for manufactur- attention has to be paid to forge interlocks between the robot
ing is going to interact more directly with the human operator and the press. Note that where press injuries occur a large
8 C.S. Harrison: Manufacturing Rev. 2014, 1, 15

percentage lead to hand amputations [48]. Even smaller presses 3.2.1. Handling flash/excess material
are easily capable of crushing a handling or lubricating robot
which means that the system has to have extremely reliable Forging and forming processes often produce small but
methods of controlling the operations in the tooling area. A pre- important amounts of waste or excess flash material either after
vious research project [49, 50] where a cold forming press rou- clipping or as part of the extrusion process. One objective of the
tinely operated at 300 strokes/min (and on occasion up to 1000/ forming process is to optimise the material parameters by using
min) described a programmable method of co-ordinating the the deformation process and thus the idea is to do the minimum
motorised feeding cycle with the instantaneous linear encoder possible machining. If clipping operations are used the build-up
position on the press, though commonly in addition limit of flash can become a serious issue as it the one of the parts
switches are used which interact with the master cell PLC to simply remain stuck in the tooling so that the handling system
co-ordinate the robot. This means that for example simply rely- cannot remove them. Some detailed and practical thought needs
ing on visual indications given the difficult operating environ- to be put in to work out how the material will be dealt with,
ment, which often consists of poorly lit, and variable ambient either via ejector pins or similar approaches.
conditions, presents high risks to equipment and personnel.
An additional challenge related to automatic forging/form- 3.2.2. Press integration
ing is that loosely contained objects have the potential to be
ejected at very high speed from tooling. One of the major Integrating with existing manufacturers presses presents
causes of injury related to presses [51] is the secondary damage major challenges and one approach is to go back to the original
caused by potential high temperature hard projectiles being manufacturer, or specifically the press controller. Presses have
ejected from the press. This can occasionally occur in the use long lives typically 50 years+ but much longer is not unusual
of ceramic tooling for superplastic forming (SPF) presses temps – with upgrades in controllers in order to interface with
450 °C–950 °C at up to 7 MPa forming pressures for Ti-6AL- advanced metrology, (displacement, force measurement typi-
4V, though redesign techniques have mitigated the tendency of cally) often via industrial style PLC interfaces. Fortunately spe-
the tooling to explode. The Boeing Company, [52] reports two cialists exist that can deal with this, skills which are often
occurrences of catastrophic explosive brittle failure in 14 years employed by the systems integrator, including the critical safety
where serious injury was prevented by reinforced heat shields. elements, safety interlocks, guarding as required [19, 53, 54].
Airborne lubricant – often forming and particularly forging Often once the press project moves forwards snags occur, such
tends to use lubricating/release agents and the result is that as dealing with the waste product (flash) created when parts are
equipment is covered in a thin dusty black film of graphite. This reduced in volume – failure to do this will jam the tools, as well
detritus also presents difficulties for the picking and placing as how parts that stick in the tool are to be removed.
operations since the compacted/layered material tends to One method of anticipating problems is to generate a detailed
strongly adhere (at high temperatures) to the tooling. In manual video of exactly (in excruciating detail), what goes on in the
situations this is dealt with by intermittent cleaning based on typical formation of a part. Experience suggests that even if this
operator knowledge of where and how the build-up occurs, is done the depth of the micromanagement of every single ele-
however in an automatic context provision has to be made ment of the process has to be focussed on in extreme detail.
otherwise toolsets become damaged as the effective cavity vol- One hypothesis is: what systems have to be in place to allow
ume reduces [3]. a blind person do this task? Learning gained from that pre-anal-
Handling/haptic dexterity – this can be a particular research ysis phase – will pay off at the implementation stage however
challenge where dexterity and adaptation is required and the some developments may only emerge later, here the use of a
handling and automation of SPF is an area where automation knowledgeable systems integrator is invaluable. Automated tool
has been proven to be difficult [52]. Dealing with non-rigid changing is also possible but tends to be extremely expensive,
formed structures (e.g. SPF) presents handling challenges that up to 50% of the cost of a new press in some cases, depending
low sensitivity robots often have difficulty with, allied often on mass, and here conventional Single Minute Exchange of Die
to lower volumes of very high value parts – this is often linked techniques are more likely to be cost effective.
to a tricky cleaning cycle due to deposits being left on the tool-
ing. The operator skill level is relatively high and the process is
not always completely understood which presents difficulties 4. Case study – advanced forming centre
for the automation engineer, or research challenges. Current automation
handling approaches are most frequently based on the use of
high temperature protective ‘‘silver’’ suits whilst the operator A forging automation research programme at University of
stands in front of a 1000 °C oven and uses previous skill and Strathclyde has been developed in conjunction with input from
a delicate sense of feel to remove the super-plastically formed world leading companies such as Boeing, Rolls Royce, Timet,
sheet with basic long tools. Aubert-Duvall and Barnes Aerospace, and formerly, Mettis
One potential approach is for active force measurement, or Aerospace. The industrial input formed a key part of the
current feedback/monitoring to be used allied to an advanced research agenda based on a membership model [55]. As part
vision system. Here again the difficulty is based on the high of that process a requirement to pursue advanced automation
temperatures encountered. techniques was identified as part of a strategic road-mapping
 C.S. Harrison: Manufacturing Rev. 2014, 1, 15 9

2. To generate and prove out automation forming techniques

which have a 5–10 year technical benefits lead on exist-
ing industrial practice.

These industrial and research benefits include the following

key features:

increased production volume,

reduced variability,
improved quality – dimensional accuracy,
Reduced Cost Reduction in scrap,
improved safety ‘‘Power presses are among the most dan-
gerous machines used in industry’’ (PUWER) [58],
process debugging capability via stabilised experimentation.

Figure 11. Manual spraying becomes robotically consistent.

5.1. Design considerations
exercise and this resulted in a creation by the author of a vision As part of the implementation of the Automation Capability
for Automation by the author to encapsulate the main objectives a Forge working group was set up comprising forge operators,
for Automation in AFRC. manufacturing engineers, in order to clarify the key integration
It was clear from industrial interaction that manual variabil- strategies as well as the tactical implication of the various tech-
ity in forging in particular is a key determinant of inconsistency nological choices and how they would impact on the project.
in product quality and for a research organisation attempts to From this interaction it became clear that here was a desire to
generate process improvements can be masked by the associ- operate the main forge – a 2000 tonne max screw press from
ated indeterminism. Some operators take longer to transport Schuler (Figure 16) in both manual and automated modes in
part from furnace to press, even a single operator has variability order to perform relatively short production run research pro-
in the associated processing time dependent on levels of tired- jects on special metals as well as to have an integrated automa-
ness, and other external factors. Thus part temperature – a key tion cell. This meant that from a design point of view the
determinant of forging quality and grain size is difficult to con- automation had to be capable of being safely stowed in the
trol at the point of hit, regardless of how much effort is placed short term in order that particular manually orientated projects
on temperature control at the oven, since the transport time is could be executed. For the Forging automation team his meant
variable. a fairly hard think about exactly how to balance the apparently
Process variability in manually dominated processes has competing requirements of both manual and automated
been widely observed by work study exercises and is a feature operation.
of simulation exercises in manufacturing [56, 57]. For the pro- For example in a typical robotic orientated cell a pick and
cess experimenter this variability is anathema in the isolation of place robot would be positioned front and centre (or slightly
improvements so as part of the technological development of offset due to the geometry of the robot joints) in a permanent
advanced forging and forming. Accordingly the key vision of floor position, meaning difficulties for both access and interop-
the AFRC automation then evolved into a two-pronged erability. A possible configuration would be to have the han-
approach, that of developing and researching advanced automa- dling robot on a swing arm or similar system to allow it to
tion techniques in their own right, and to attempt to expunge, or be deployed when necessary, however this has implications in
at least to mitigate, the inherent variability in forging techniques terms of trailing cables and repositioning and after some consid-
by repeatable, automated, usually robotic approaches. eration an overhead gantry was selected which allowed the han-
This vision was then discussed and presented internally so dling robot to be safely parked when manual only operation is
that agreement on the strategic thinking could be embedded in desired.
the senior management of the industrial partners, key to assur- As part of the investigative work it was decided to pilot a
ing the success of the project. Management buy-in is essential particular project in the forge handling area and a Tier1 mem-
from the earliest possible stage in order to ensure the viability bership poll was taken in order to confirm that this was an
of the project when the going gets difficult. A pilot project acceptable approach, duly ratified by the AFRC technical
was selected see Figure 11, and detail associated with the pro- board. The pilot project selected was automated lubrication &
ject is presented in the following section. cleaning colloquially known as ‘‘dagging’’ based on the appli-
cation of a specialised micro-graphite suspension to the tooling.
5. Vision for automation Here consistency of application and lubricant amount on to the
tooling was a key objective as well as to develop some learning
The author defined the purpose of Automation as: in the forge on the practicalities of working with industrial scale
applications.
1. To generate a stable repeatable platform for forging and The first step was to define what the characteristics of the
forming trials/experiments. automated solution was to do which included the area of the
10 C.S. Harrison: Manufacturing Rev. 2014, 1, 15

tooling to be covered and the reach of the robot – bearing in

mind that the recommendation is to reduce exposure of the
robot itself to the operation of the 2000 tonne press in case
of inadvertent crushing. An automated stirring system was also
introduced (agitation) in order to prevent the suspended graph-
ite in the lubricant from settling out into layers. In manual oper-
ation an occasional quick stir with a stick does the job but all
these small steps have to be automated in an integrated
installation.
The first step was to trial various locations based on partic-
ular lubricant spray gun choices, and based on this possible
selection in conjunction with a possible adaptor to cover the
entire area, a design and manufacture of the associated holding
fixtures/nozzle assembly.
Once a first estimate of the robot assembly had been created
it was then modelled in the Fanuc Software ‘‘Roboguide’’ [59]
Figure 12. Design of special tool – layout checking.
which contains a detailed model of the each of the Fanuc
robots, and can generate motion paths and timing information
for the particular type of robot chosen. It is also particularly use- kind of control retrofit is required on major items of capital
ful as a communications tool since it can show exactly how a equipment like this. Note that large presses in particular can
particular robot will work in practice to each member of the have a useful life commonly 50 years or more, and controls
team and create supplementary AVI video material (see Figures upgrades are a regular feature.
11 and 12). Feedback on the simulation was then incorporated
into the model and a suitable mounting for the robot was then 5.2.1. Presentation devices
defined based on the technicalities of positioning a plinth onto a
robot pit – defined prior to the automation theme. A student was Part of the issues of using industrial automation is the level
engaged for this work and having completed the modelling of investment that is required in presentation devices and this
work in ProEngineer can then be exchanged into Roboguide, aspect needs careful appraisal – and an acceptance that fine tun-
an approach used in other Fanuc installations [60, 61]. ing will probably be required after the system has been intro-
A key part of the design of the manufacturing process was duced. Since the handling and orientation devices have to
to break the process into a series of automatable tasks which strictly aligned on the basis of a pick repeat operation (often
could then be controlled either by the robot controller through without a vision system) then either some sort of vibratory bowl
conventional 24 V DC I/O or alternatively via a master PLC, to feed system is used or other arrangement to present parts in a
be installed at a later date. In the first instance the development consistent location.
has been focused on controlling I/O via the robot controller In the implementation here since the setup is not for contin-
since that was convenient and available, though these can uous industrial production in the first instance it was decided to
migrate to the master PLC later. manually preload the furnace with billets and then drive the
Breaking the task down into individual parts means that it automation from that point. This offers flexibility and does
was realised that what the forge operator does is more involved not detract from the benefits of automation since the process
than realised and includes a suit of operations so that the only really begins after the billets or preforms have been heated
following devices have to be slaved to a master control to the correct temperature.
program.
5.2.2. Lubrication robot Fanuc M6iB/6S – basic
5.1.1. Furnace heating – automation specifications

The AFRC rotary furnace device includes an incrementing 951 mm reach,

hearth which can be moved round to the next position for pre- 6 Kg payload at wrist,
sentation to the operator/robot. upright, Wall or Inverted mounting,
0.08 mm repeatability at full speed,
5.2. Screw press – automation 8 Digital Inputs/Outputs,
mechanical weight 135 kg.
Here the screw press needs to be controlled remotely by a
master PLC in order to execute pre-programmed load condi- An examination of the setup of the press lubrication at the
tions and press stroke. Some thought needed to be put into what strategic level allocated the dagging robot and a convenient
would happen if a part is stuck in the tooling, as well as into robot supplied by Fanuc was available the M6iB/6S. Since it
making sure that appropriate communications protocols are was recommended that the robot itself not be placed at any time
put into place and that facilities exist to interact with the master within the jaws of the press, it was sensible to use one with a
PLC. In the case of the AFRC press it was part of the tender relatively long reach since the platens of the AFRC screw press
process that the press was automation ready, but often some are large and it was desired that the robot be able to lubricate as
 C.S. Harrison: Manufacturing Rev. 2014, 1, 15 11

included. Since even the smaller robot (overall mass 140 kg)
is capable of moving at up to 600° per second it does have
the potential to cause some damage both to staff and itself
and auxiliary equipment. Guards were therefore procures and
installed internally – having physical interlocks in the first
instance, with plans to integrate electrical integration once the
final PLC was selected. Final layout is contingent upon place-
ment of the multiforge/horizontal upsetter and integration of the
guarding to cope with both the position of that in the one man-
ufacturing cell.

5.2.4. Automation in practice

As the development of the automation work continued it

Figure 13. Robot operating inside press tooling. became obvious that the experimental benefits from highly
repeatable trials of particular forging situations excited research
interest. An additional project of opportunity arose, related to
much of this as possible. The other robot that was initially con- quenching where the advantage of repeatedly quenching an
sidered an LR Mate used elsewhere [3] would also have been object under programmable control emerged. Despite the fact
feasible for smaller forgings but would have provided less cov- that the automated handling system was not designed for this
erage of the complete area of the tooling. The M6iB also pro- from the outset a brief model in Roboguide and clarified that
vides fairly sophisticated Robot I/O that can slave associated it would be possible to repeatedly quench objects, thus improv-
devices without the need for a PLC – useful at the prototype/ ing the consistency of the experimental procedures. This has
pilot stage in particular. A photo of the setup is shown in been a trend that has been observed elsewhere, robots tend to
Figure 13. be redeployed to other factory/R&D functions rather than be
It was necessary to analyse how this would work with the replaced.
particular choices of lubricant gun available and how that As part of this work it was decided to add automation capa-
would interact with the screw press and associated obstacles bility to a larger furnace presently used for quenching trails
– this is where working between the Software Roboguide/ based on a forklift. This means that it would be possible to rou-
ProEngineer proved invaluable, with CAD data being supplied tinely and repeated quench the relatively large (up to 25 kg)
by subcontractors in order to check the reach and manoeuvra- objects in a systematic way, since the time to go from the fur-
bility of the robot, and the required press opening to allow it. nace to quenchant by the existing manual (forklift) method was
Part of the work that the manual operator does in forging is very variable.
the application of lubricant, and one popular trade-name is
‘‘Dag’’, a range of technical fluids specially formulated for 5.2.5. Trimming/clipping press
forming and forging operations. In practical terms the operator
usually uses judgement to determine where and how much dag At the output side of the screw press, a clipping press has
should be applied but a simplified path using the robot – akin to been placed which removes any final waste from the final
a spraying application is possible in order to obtain complete stamped part. From the Automation engineers view both
coverage. It is possible to tune the process – often using com- presses can be regarded as similar devices – in which program
pressed air to drive a purpose made spray gun as well as a mix- control is handed over to the individual press controller, which
ture screw which defines the size of the opening orifice and then has load displacement parameters required for a particular
hence flow rate. Additional debugging of the re-spray pattern part sequence.
is available by close and knowledgeable examination of the 5.2.6. Robot gantry
parts produced to see if recognisable faults are apparent through
the misapplication or over/under-application of lubricant. Here It became apparent from the design and review meetings
it is important that an experienced operator provided feedback that it would not be possible to have the pick robot at the back
on exactly how specific faults are being produced and what they of the press for a number of reasons and this posed the issue of
mean. access:
In the case of the work being reported here the lubrication
robot provided a convenient pilot project since it incorporated the press was fixed in a substantial pit and could not be
the main features of robotic operation without the precision moved,
required of a classical pick and place operation, and all the asso- Fanuc M710iC,
ciated feeding supply devices. 50 kg Max load capacity at wrist,
repeatability ±0.07 mm,
5.2.3. Safety protocols/guarding reach 2050 mm,
mechanical weight 560 kg,
Legislative requirements and basic consideration for staff 6 axis electric servo robot,
safety dictated at an early stage that safety guarding had to be capable of floor wall or ceiling mount capability.
12 C.S. Harrison: Manufacturing Rev. 2014, 1, 15

Figure 16. Fanuc M710 robot mounted inverted on Gantry.

Figure 14. Checking clearance of robot and park position.

The robot could be repeatedly placed in a centralised posi-

tion when required. The working envelope of the robot and its
flexibility would be enhanced considerably.
The disadvantages were the increased cost and increased
complexity in programming (7th axis).
However these disadvantages were greatly enhanced by the
increased flexibility – especially important in an R&D environ-
ment where the ability to change over from task to another and
to implement small batch sizes is critically important. Having
considered these alternatives the decision was taken to source
a motorised overhead rail/Gantry via Fanuc robotics and the
installation of this was also managed by Fanuc robotics, with
simulation done in Roboguide and laid out using ProEngineer
as shown in Figures 15 and 16 and basic configuration in
Figure 16. This allowed the location and handling arrangement
to be checked so that the robot could be placed in an ideal park
position, and deployed in front of both the Programmable fur-
Figure 15. Checking robot interaction with press.
nace, screw press and clipping press. Motion between these was
able to be checked and elementary off line programming ideas
The Electrotherm Furnace was required at the front for looked at top check that the robot would be able to pick parts
manual operations – therefore the robot had to accommodate and place them correctly.
this too. Therefore the robot had to go at the front. The forklift
could not access the rear of the press to change tooling – since 6. Conclusions
that was the case the dagging robot was placed at the rear offset
as shown. This paper has described a review of manufacturing auto-
The forklift based bolster/tool change mean that any tempo- mation as related to forging and an outline of a process to
rary placement of the robot had to also cope with tool-change design and implement an automated robotic forging cell, based
and no overhead crane was available. This meant that access on a large press. The process requires clear management sup-
to the front and the floor area had to be kept clear for both man- port from the beginning as well as a realisation that for certain
ual operation and for forklift access/egress. Placing the Robot applications smart design can accommodate both manual forg-
on a swing arm was also considered though this would have ing and automated forging operation using the same installa-
meant considerable space implications as well as placing the tion. A micro-management approach to the process is
500 kg robot mass on the end of a simply supported cantile- required that includes all the corrective actions that intelligent
vered beam. Fanuc Roboguide was used to define the layout operators do in order to produce smart forgings and the process
(see Figures 14 and 15). of laying out the cell has been described, using CAD tools
Possibilities of mounting the robot on temporary plinths, on including Roboguide, and ProEngineer. At the time of
a fixed overhead structure were considered but a useful writing the cell is still undergoing development but the funda-
approach was that of inverting the robot and mounting it on a mentals have been laid down based on the original authors’
motorised gantry. This has a number of advantages. vision and are expected to produce stable experimental
The standard workspace is clear and the robot could be results as well as a basic structure for flexible technology
parked safely well away from the press when not in use. development.
 C.S. Harrison: Manufacturing Rev. 2014, 1, 15 13

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Cite this article as: Harrison CS: A review of automation in manufacturing illustrated by a case study on mixed-mode hot forging.
Manufacturing Rev. 2014, 1, 15.