~

f
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_23
Pressure Conduits
23.1. ·Definition, Etc.
A pressure conduit (such as a 'penstock) is a pipe which runs under pressure and,
therefore, runs full. This type 6f conduits prove economical than canals or flumes,
because they can generally follow shorter routes. Moreover, their biggest advantage is:
that the water or any other fluid flowing through them is not exposed anywhere and
hence, there are no chances or very less chances of its getting polluted. Hence, these
pressure conduits are preferably used for city water supplies. Since the water wasted in
percolation, evaporation, etcis also -saved, when water is carded through these conduits,
they are preferably used when water is scarce. The flow of water through conduit pipes
is generally turbulent, and hence, it will be considered so, while dealing with the
hydraulics of flow through such pipes.
23.2. Hydraulics of Flow and Discharging Capacities of Pressure Conduits
The pressure conduits are designed in such a way that the available pressure head is
just lost in overcoming the frictional resistance offered to the flow of water by the pipe. The
velocities generated in these pipes should neither be too small to require a large size diameter
pipe, nor should be so large as to cause excessive loss of pressure head.
The head loss by pipe friction may be found by using either of the following
formulas : - --
(i) Darcy-Weisbach Equation. It. states that
f'·L·V2
Hi 2gd
where HL = Head loss in metres.
L = Length of the pipe in metres.
=
d Diameter of the pipe in metres.
V = Velocity of flow through the pipe in
· m/sec.
f' = The friction factor, which depends upon
__ -~ _. R.eynold_n~u!Ilb~r fre.. Re.=:= ~d) and rela-
tive roughness of ~e pipe.

The relative roughness (o =2;) of a pipe.depends on the absolute roughness (e) of

the inside surface and the diameter of the pipe d. The approximate values off' are given
by the following empirical relations :

f' =0.04 [1+ 3; d] forold pipes ... (23.2)

1162
PRESSURE CONDUITS 1163

and /' =0.02 [ 1 + ;

3
d] fornew pipes ... (23.3)

The accurate value off' depends on Re and 8, and may be given by formula, such as

f' =a+}!__ ... (23.4)

Jr:
. __ _ __ where a, b and m are constants depending upon 8.
For Re. varying between 20,000 to 20,00,000, Schiller has given

f' = o.oos + )o~

0 6
... (23.5)
e
and Nikuradse has given for ~alues of Re varying between 20,000 to 32,40,000 as

f' ~ 0.0032 + ~~~;~ ..... (23.6)

e
(ii) Manning's formula. Manning's formula is also applicable to turbulent flow in
pressure..conduits and yields good results, provided the roughness coefficient n is ac-
curately estimated. Head loss according to Manning's equation is given as :
2 2
n · V ·L
Hi= R413 ... (23.7)

where n:::: Manning's rugosity coefficient.

. L = Length of pipe in metres.
V = Flow velocity through pipe in m/sec.

--·-····-·····----····.--·-- ·.---------------··[
R = Hydraulic mean depth of pipe

.
i.e,,
R A
.. Tr.tP
4
l
d .
=-p= rr.d =4 mmetres···
(iii) Hazen-William's formula. This formula is widely used for pipe flows and
states
V =0.85 CH. R0.63 SJ.54 ... (23.8)
where CH= Coefficient given by Table 23.1.
R= Hydraulic mean depth of pipe,
= (d/4) in metres.
S = Slope of the energy line.
V = Flow velocity through the pipe in m/sec.
· Table 23.1. Values of CH for Hazen William's ~()rmula
1
Pi e material Value of CH
Concrete (regardless of age) 130
Cast Iron
New 130
5years old 120
20yearsold 100
. Welded steel (New) 120
Riveted steel (New) 110
Vitrified clay 110 ..
Brick Sewers 100
Asbestos-cement 140
 1164 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
. . .
The carrying capacities of pipes decrease with time, because with the passage of
time, their interior surfaces go on becoming more and more rough. Hence, it is cus-
tomary to select higher values of e and n and lower values of CH for old pipes than are
generally taken for new pipes.
23.3. Forces Acting on Pressure Conduits
Pressure pipes must be ~e~i~~~<!_~()_ \Vi!?~~~l1_d_ the following forces :
( 1) Internal pressure of water·
(2) Water hammer pressures;
(3) Pressure due to external loads (when buried under the ground).
(4) Temperatures stresses (when laid abov.e the ground).
(5) Longitudinal stresses due to flow argund bends· or change in cross-section.
(6) Flexural stresses (when laid over support.$ atinterv.a1~ or on bridges). ·
These forces are discussed below : ·
(1) Internal Pressure of Water. The pressure exerted on the walls of the pipe by
the flowing water, in the form ofHoope's tension, is the internal pressure. The circum-
ferential tensile stress produced is giv~n as : ·. · · ·
P1d. 2
cr 1 =-mkN/m
2t .I

where P1 = Internal static pressure in kN/m 2 •

d = Diameter of the pipe in metres.
·· t= Thickness of the pipe shell in metres.
\
cr 1 = Circumferential tensile stress to be
I
counteracted by providing Hoope's rein-
-

for¢ement.
(2) Water Hammer Pressure. When a liquid flowing in a pipe line is abruptly
stopped by the closing of a valve, the velocity of the ~ater column behind, is retarded,
and its momentum is destroyed. This exerts a tl;Just on the valve and additional pressure
on the pipe shell behind. The more rapid the closure of the valve, the more rapid is the
change in momentum, and hence, greater is the additional pressure developed. The
pressures so developed are known as water~hamm{!r pressures·and may be so high as
to cause bursting of the pipe shell (due to increased circumferential tension) if nof
accounted for in the designs. · ·
. The maximum pres.sure developed in pipe lines due to water hammer is given by
the formula
- 14.+62 · V- .
P2= ...y K·d..
L+--- ! !
... (23.10)
. t :i
1

·where V= Velocity of water just before the closing

of the valve in m!sec.
d = Diameter of pipe in metres.
t = Thickness of pipe shell in metres.
K= Constant
= Modulus of elasticity of pipe material
Bulk modulus of elasticity of water
 PRESSURE CONDUITS 1165
The value of K for steel comes out to be 0.01, for cast iron = 0.02, and for cement
concrete= 0.1.
The water hammer pressure can be calculated by using the above equation. But for
design purposes, its value is generally taken as 840 kN/m2 for small size.pipes of 7.5
to 25 cm diameter, and is gradually reduced to 490 kN/m2 for pipes above 1.2 m
diameter, as given in Table 23.2.
Table 23.2. Water Hammer Pressures

Pipe diameter in cm. Water hammer Pressure in k.N!m 2

7.5 to 25 840
30to40 770
50 630
60 600
75 560
90 490
105 to 135 490

The circumferential tensile stress caused by water hammer pressure may then be
calculated easily by using
P2·d
cr2---.--
2t
(3) Stress due to External Loads. When large pipes are buried deep under the
ground, the weight of the earth-fill may produce large stresses i~qhe pipe material. The
stress due to the external earth fill load is given by
2
f=22.7h·d ... (23.11)
.. - t
where h = depth ofih~ earth~iill -abo\'e .the ccro-wn iil
metres.
d = diameter of pipe in metres.
f= stress produced in kN/m2 •
Note. In the above formula, it is assumed that the earth to the sides does not give
any lateral support and weighs about 18.4 kN/m3 .
(4) Temperatures Stresses. When pipes are laid above the ground, they are ex-
posed to the atmosphere and-are, therefore, subjected to temperature changes. They
expand during day time and contract at night. If this expansion or contraction· is
prevented due to fixation or friction over the supports, longitudinal stresses are produced
in the pipe material. The amount of these stresses may be calculated by the formula :
··--- - - ----0~-- j="E'··'a.-·-T_c: -·-· ·--'-'·''" "'""=- -'. "---·· -~_,.c:c_ __ -'--'--"'---'"'~(i3.12)
where E= Modulus of elasticity of the pipe
material.
ex= Co-efficient of expansion of the pipe
material.
T = Change in temperature in °C.
Expansion joints at suitable intervals (say 20 m to 30 m or so) must be provided to
counteract these stresses.
 1166 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

(5) Stresses due to Flow Around Bends. and Change in Cross-Section. Whenever
the velocity of a flow (eithyr magnitude or direction) changes, there is a change in ~he
momentum, and therefore, by
Newton's Second Law, a force
y
is exerted, which is propor"
tional to the· rate of change of
momentum. The force re-
quired to bring this change in
momentum comes from~he
pressure variation· witfiiri th~---··
fluid and from forces trans-
mitted to the fluid from the
pipe walls.
The free-body diagram of
various forces acting on the
.water contained in a horizontal
... pipe . bend is show.n in Fig.
,, Fy

23.1. Applying momentum Fig. 23.1. ·Forces at a pipe bend.

equation, and resolving the
forces in x and· y direction, we get
y.,Q .
',II
P1A1-Fx-PzA2cos9= ~ ·[V2cos9-V1] ... (23.13).
I

Fy- PzA.2 sin 9 = y~Q [V2 sin 9]

I
and ... (23.14)

where p 1 and p 2 are the pressures, V1 and

V2 are the velocities at sections 1-1 and·
2-2 respectively. The forces Fx .and FY are
the forces which are transmitted from the
pipe to the water.· An equal and opposite
force must, therefore, be developed i.n the
form.of stresses in the pipe wall. Similar
forces will be developed when the cross-
Fig. 23.2. Forces at a change in X-section.of a pipe.
sectional ·area of the pipe is. suddenly
changed, as shown in Fig. 23.2.
Due to these impressed external forces or stresses, the pipe line may be thrown out
of.alignment as and when such situations arise, unless held firmly by anchoring it in
massive blocks of concrete or stone masonry. ·
i":---- __ .:_Etij-Flexural -Stresses.Many-a-times;'-steCI pipes--are laid cover concrete supports,
· built above the ground ; and sometimes the rain water, etc. may wash off the ground
from below the pipes at intervals. Under all such circumstances, bending stresses get
produced in the pipe, sinc.e the pipe then act&. "like a beam with loads resulting from the
weight of the pipe, weight of water in the pipe and any other superimposed loads: The
stresses caused by this beam action may be determined by usual methods of analysis
applied to the beams. However, these stresses are generally negligible except for long
spans or where there are huge superimposed loads.·
 PRESSURE CONDUITS 1167
23.4. Various Types of Pressure Conduits
Depending upon the construction material, the various types of pressure conduits
are:
(1) Cast iron conduits.
(2) Steel conduits.
(3) Reinforced cement concrete conduits.
(4) Hume steel conduits.
(5) Vitrified clay conduits;
(6) Asbestos cement conduits.
(7) Miscellaneous types of conduits.
The selection of a particular type of material for the conduit depends mainly upon
their relative economy and also upon the availability of·material, labour, etc. for con-
struction in the vicinity of site.
(1) Cast Iron Conduits. Cast iron pipes are widely used for city water supplies.
They are sufficiently resistant to corrosion and may last as long as 1OO;years or so.
They are generally manufactured in lengths of about 3 ..6 metres but may be manufac-
tured in lengths up to 6 m or so. on special orders. Cast iron pipes in different
thicknesses, are generally available for withstanding different pressures upto a maxi-
mum of 2400 kN/m 2 (24.5 kg/cm 2).
In order to protect the pipes from corrosion, almost all the metal pipes- are given
some kind of protective coatings. Larger pipes are generally protected by bituminous
linings or by cement mortar ( 1 : . 2) linings.
BELL
S.maller size pipes, such as those required for
small service lanes in a water supply distribu- LEAD JUTE

tion system, ars:_g~IH~l'~lyY,o_~t~4-~!fu zjp.c, --- ls:s:s:s::~~~~~~zz:Zf::z::2::z<~

and are known as galvanised fron ·pipes. --·
Bell and spigot joint (Fig. 23.3) is often PIPE DIA
used for connecting cast iron pipes.
A few strands of jute are wrapped around
the spigot before inserting it into the bell, and
then, more jute is packed into the joint. The SPIGOT
remaining space between the bell and the Fig. 23.3. Bell and spigot joint
spigot is finally filled with molten lead, which for cast.iron pipes.
gets solidified and tightly chalked into the
joint after cooling, and thus making a water-tight joint. The quantity of lead required
varies from 3.5 to 4 kg for 15 cm dia pipe to about 45 to 50 kg for 1.2 metres dia pipe.
___(2) Steel conduit~~ Steel QiQ_es c_an be used for large diameters, say upto or above
for
6 metres or so .. Steel plates of varying thicknesses withstancllng ditterent pressures,
are generally bent and welded or sometimes riveted. Welded pipes are smoother and
stronger than riveted pipes, and are, therefore, generally used these days. Since steel is
strong in tension, even large size di~meter pipes can be made of thin shells. They are,
therefore, lighter than -cast iron pipes.
Galvanised s~eel pipes with circumferential corrugations are much more stronger
than ordinary steel pipes. They are, therefore, used where large dia pipes of smaller wall
thicknesses are required. Such pipes are usually manufactured in various sizes varying
 ..;;;;:;:;;_. -- -
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1·

1168 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

from 20 cm to 2 metres in diameter, and are lighter and can be more easily transported
at distances.
Expansion joints are generally not required in steel pipes which are buried under
the ground, because they are not subjected to large temperature changes. However, pipes
which are exposed to the atmosphere may require expansion joints so as to minimise
temperature changes.
Steel pipes get rusted quickly, which, r~duces their life a:s well as carrying
capacities. They are, therefore, protected on the inside as well as outside by protective
coatings. Under ordinary conditions, steel pipes may last as long as 40 years or. so. The
various pipe lengths in case of steel pipes are connected by welded or riveted joints.
(3) Reinforced Cement Concrete Conduits. Ordinary cement concrete pipes are
manufactured in small sizes (i.e. up to say 0.6 m diameter) ; while they are reinforced
with steel for large dia pipes. They are easily available in sizes up to diameters say about
1.8 metres and may be got manufactured for larger diameters say up to about 4.5 metres,
on special orders. These pipes may either be prepared at site by transporting various
ingradients (i.e. cement, steel aggregates, water, etc.) or can be manufactured in factories
and then transported to site. They are known as 'cast in situ' pipes in the former case,
and 'precast pipes' in the latter case. Cast i~ situ pipes are useful when the site
conditions are difficult, and where it may be difficult to carry the pipes. But since such
pipes are cast at site, lesser supervision and check is possible, as compared to the case
of precast pipes which are cast in the factories, and thus sttbjected to greater quality
control and supervision. ·
R.C.C. pipes can be manufactured in three different ways, viz.
(a) pipes having bar and mesh reinforcement, and concrete poured by usual ordinary
methods of concrete pouring, and tamped ;
(b) pipes made by rotating the mould or the form rapidly about the pipe axis. The
mould contains concretecanerfabricated reinforcement. The·cel1trifugaTforce·mrows 6fC
the concrete which the.n spreads in a uniform layer over the internal surface of the mould
and embed the reinforcement ; thus providing a high density watertight concrete surface.
This type is known as centrifugal type ;
'l'I
(c) the third type of pipes are made by lining thin cylindrical steel shells both
111,

I
internally and externally with rich cement concrete. These are stronger and more water-
tight than the first two. They are known as cylinder type.
R.C.C. pipes are generally made from 1 : 2: 4 cement concrete with maximum size
of aggregates as 6 mm. They are provided with circumferential reinforcement to carry
ho9p tension and a nominal longitudinal reinforncement equal ·to 0.25% of cross-sec-
. _.iional area of concrete. The thickness of R.C.C. pipes generally varies from 7.5 cm to
~~ 0.6 m fo:r:._g!pes of diameters_* varyl!lg~f!o.!!1_9:2_rn_,~2. ~~7.~:l'Il:c.=-...:. ---'-'--~- ~--~ '- . _,
(4) Hume Steel Conduits. Hume steel pipes are R.C.C. pipes patented under this
name. They consist of thi!Y:S°teel shells coated from inside with cement mortar by
centrifugal process. The tl:itckness of the inside coating 1aries from 1.2 cm to 3 cm
depending upon the size of the pipe. They are also coated from outside so as to protect
the steel shell from externa1).:eather or soil action. The thickness of external coating is
2.5 cm for pipes upto 1: m~tre in diameter and is 3. 75 cm for pipes of larger diameters .
.. ' ' .

* The standard ~eb~i{in~'d diameter of pipes is always the internal diameter.

PRESSURE CONDUITS 1169
The thickness of steel shell depends upon the size of the pipe and. also upon the pressure
to be borne by the pipe. Like all R.C.Cpipe.s, they are heavy and_ difficult to handle.
(5) Vitrified Clay Conduit:S. They are generally not used as pressure conduits, but
are extensively used for carrying sewage and drainage at partial depths. These pipes are
tree from corrosion and provide a smooth hydraulically efficient surface. They are not
used as pressure pipes, because clay is weak in tension, and formation of water-tight
joints becomes difficult in them. Clay pipes are commonly made in lengths of about 0.6
m to 1.2 m or so.
(6) Asbestos Conduits. Asbestos; silica and cement are con.verted under press1.Lre
to a dense, homogeneous material possessing high strength, called asbestos cement. This
material is used for casting these pipes. The asbestos fibre which is thoroughly mixed
with cement serves as reinforcement. These pipes are generally available in different
sizes, say from 10 cm to 90 cm in diameters and in about 4 metres length~. These pipes
are generally made in 4 different grades to withstand pressures of 350 kN/m 2 to 140
kN/m 2. These pipes are joined by means of special type of flexible joint called 'simplex
joint'. The assembly consists of a pipe sleeve and two rubber rings which are compressed
between the pipe and the interior of the sleeve.
Advantages. The advantages of asbestos cement pipes are :
(i) They are light and hence easy to transport.
(ii) They can be easily assembled without skilled labour.
(iii) They are highly resistant to corrosion.
(iv) They are highly flexible and may permit as much as 12° deflection in laying
them around curves.
(v) Expansion joints are not required as the coefficient of expansion is low and
thejoints are also flexible.
(vi) They are very smooth and thus provide a hydraulically efficient pipe. Their
carrying capacities do not reduce with time.
(vii) They are very suitable to be used as small size distribution pipes.
Disadvantages and .limitations. Their disadvantages are :
(i) They are costly.
(ii) These pipes do not have much strertgth and are brittle and soft. They are liable
to getdamaged by excavating tools or during transportation transits.
(iii) The rubber joint seals may deteriorate if exposed to gasoline or other
petroleum products, and hence cannot be used for transporting petroleum
products.
---PfMiscellaneous TypesofCondii1K-Various otlfer materials which may be used-
for manufacturing pipe conduits are : copper, wrought iron, plastics, etc. Copper pipes
are very costly although they are highly resistant to acidic as well as alkaline waters,
they can be bent easily and do not sag due to heat. They are, therefore, very useful for
carrying hot water in the interior of the buildings. Wrought iron pipes are Jighte1 than
cast iron pipes and can be more easily cut, threaded and worked. They are more costly
but neat in appearance. They are generally manufactured in small sizes and are very
useful for indoor works. However, they corrode quickly and are less durable. they are,
 l\
1170 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
. . . . I .
. therefore, generally protected by galvanising them with zinc coatings and tpey are then·
known as galvaQised iron pipes. ·
Plastic pipes are lighter and free from cdrrosion. But they are of low strengths and
less durable. MoreQver, they can not withstand high temperatures exceeding 60°C or so.
They may, however, be used for very minor works in house connections, etc. HDPE
pipes are however, being increasingly used these days for various uses, such as in
tubewell boarings, sewage mains, etc. etc. They are however, still not being made in
large sizes suitable as penstock pipes. ·

PROBLEMS
1. (a) What is meant by a pressure conduit? Discuss briefly the forces acting on a pressure conduit.
(b) Write a brief note on the design capacities of pressure pipes.
2. What are the different construction materials which are used for manufacturing pressure pipes ?
Discuss their comparative merits and demerits.
3. Write a note on Pressure conduits'.