A SMALL LIME KILN

FOR BATCH AND

CONTINUOUS FIRING
CONSTRUCTION DETAILS AND EVALUATION OF AN
EXPERIMENTAL KILN

Introduction
In 1996 ITDG (now Practical Action)
commissioned Paragon Ceramics Ltd to
build an experimental lime kiln at Dedza in
Malawi. Paragon designed the kiln in
partnership with local lime burners. It
works with a variety of fuels and can be
operated as a batch or continuous
production kiln. Where wood is the only
fuel option, the kiln works well burning
softwood which could be grown on a
managed plantation. Good quality
hydrated lime and lime putty have been
produced for building. These notes are a
practical guide on how to build the kiln, and
explain its operation. Because it is
experimental the Dedza kiln is small.
Anyone who wishes to build a bigger kiln
should seek further advice.

Background
In Malawi lime burning is often a
seasonal, dry weather, activity for small Figure 1: The construction of the
farmers who use traditional ‘box’ kilns. experimental klin, Dedza, Malawi.
These are rectangular structures with Photo credit: Practical Action / Kelvin Mason
walls of limestone boulders bonded with
mud mortar. A typical box kiln would be
about 4m long, 2.5m wide and 1.5m high. These kilns are charged with alternate layers of
firewood (usually indigenous hardwood)
and limestone to a level above the height
of the walls. Traditional kilns use a lot of
fuel, mainly because of their shape and a
great deal of heat is lost through the top.
Firewood is very scarce in lime burning
areas in Malawi and deforestation is a
major problem. Box kilns generally do
not produce good quality lime because to
do so would use a lot of firewood and
cost too much.

Design Figure 2: Malawian box kiln

The Dedza kiln was designed to test a Photo credit: Practical Action / Kelvin Mason
more efficient and environmentally
benign option for small-scale lime
burners. The kiln has been fired with softwood, charcoal, briquettes of waste material, and
combinations of these fuels. The kiln is relatively low-cost and easy to operate. Because it
can also be used as a continuous kiln, it has the potential for lime burners to expand their
operations. It is an intermediate stage
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between traditional production and relatively capital intensive technology. Such a kiln could
represent a step away from seasonal lime burning towards a more full-time approach which
does not, however, need a big investment or major changes in operating practice.

The kiln is ‘tall and slim’ to reduce heat losses from the top. It is insulated to reduce heat
losses from the sides. Although a kiln with a round section would be more energy efficient,
this kiln is square because it is easier to build and to load when burning wood. Construction
is simple and uses inexpensive local materials; built using mainly common bricks and as little
cement as possible. Even though using these materials and this design requires a cash
outlay, whereas a traditional kiln does not; nevertheless, the design described was developed
to minimise materials costs. An oil drum is used as a chimney to increase draught and take
smoke away from the loading area.

Design Considerations
• Foundation
Well burned bricks laid in mortar, 3:1 (river sand: hydrated lime).
• Fireboxes, firebars
Refractory bricks (fire bricks) laid with fireclay mortar.
• Outer skin, buttresses and inner skin
Common bricks laid in mud mortar, 2:1 (dambo1 sand: river sand)
• Reinforced ring beams and capping slab
Reinforced concrete beams as shown on drawing. Capping slab 1 brick thick. Mortar for
beams and slab, 4:2:1 (20 mm aggregate: sand: cement).
• Insulation skin
Hand-made insulation bricks in mud mortar, 2:1 (dambo sand: river sand).
• Mortar

1 dambo – a valley that is normally dry or only seasonally flooded

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External pointing and mortar for top five brick courses is 3:1 (river sand: hydrated lime).
• Chimney
The chimney is a 200 litre oil drum. The chimney is removable for loading the kiln. It has an
angle-iron frame which rests on the capping slab. Draught could be increased by extending
the chimney with a second drum. Alternatively a chimney could be fabricated from mild steel
sheet or built in brick. If chimney height is increased, then more secure fixing will be required
and a loading door will be needed in order to charge the kiln.

• Kiln height
The height of the kiln is similar to the gable of a single-storey house: a height builders will be
comfortable working with. Being under 4 metres high means that no special foundations are
needed on soil with good load-bearing characteristics.
• Unloading
Limestone burned at Dedza breaks up into powder as it changes to quicklime. Hence,
unloading is achieved by raking quicklime via the output port and removing it from the
fireboxes. Where quicklime remains in virtually stone size pieces, a larger output port with a
steel door should be considered.
• Fire brick spacing
The spaces between fire bricks in the top of the fireboxes (which is also the firing chamber
floor - See detail on elevation A–B, page 6) are determined by stone size and type and
should be adjusted as experience is gained. At Dedza, using stone with a diameter of 45 to
60 mm which burns to a powder, the spaces are set at about 80 mm.

Construction Details
Construction details, given in the following drawings, are for the experimental Dedza kiln
incorporating minor improvements.
• Foundations
With a firm and rocky subsoil, as would be expected in lime producing areas, a foundation
between 60 and 80 centimetres deep will be adequate. The foundation platform should cover
the full square area of kiln and buttresses.
• Loading ports
The loading port shown midway up the kiln on elevation B-C is for the initial loading to reduce
the work in loading the lower half of the kiln. For a kiln built in a hillside with a ramp for
loading or if an efficient hoist is used then it may not be very advantageous to include the
midway loading port.

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• Fireboxes
Except where the fireboxes pass under the kiln walls, the bricks spanning the top of the
fireboxes form part of the floor of the kiln chamber. These bricks are adjusted to give the
maximum space for the fire to enter the chamber without allowing the unburned limestone to
fall through the gaps. The fixing of these bricks is exactly the same as for the firebars to allow
for easy replacement. There are 2 fireboxes and they run right through the kiln with the same
cross section as shown in the drawing (Elevation A–B). The fireboxes are built with standard
“heavy” firebricks.

• Firebars
Firebar spacing is approximately 100 millimetres. The “firebars” are standard firebricks which
rest on the bottom pairs of protruding bricks in each firebox. The size of the gaps between
the firebars can be adjusted depending on the fuel but for firewood we used gaps of about 25
cm. Small pieces of brick bedded in a very low clay content mortar are placed on the
protruding bricks between the firebars to keep them in one place (See Elevation A–B). Gaps
should be left at the ends of the firebars to allow for expansion and for easy replacement
when the firebars break.
• Insulation
If the kiln builder can, using local clay, mould and fire insulation bricks for the kiln him/herself,
rather than buy them in from outside, this would save significantly on costs. For insulation
bricks, a few tests will show the maximum combustible material which can be added to clay
while still producing a brick strong enough to handle. Sieved sawdust is an ideal combustible,
but cereal husks or other chopped vegetable matter can also be used. Firing insulation bricks
needs a long soak at top temperature with a clean and smokeless flame.
• Ring beams
The ring beams are cast as the wall is being built. When the correct course is reached the
outside 1⁄2 brick is left out all the way round and shuttering fixed level with the top of the
course. A single 6mm round bar, bent to shape and hooked together at the ends, is used for
reinforcement. It is placed in the middle of the brick vertically (in profile) and approximately
1⁄4 way across the brick from the outside wall horizontally (in section), as shown in the detail
in Elevation B–C. Provided the concrete is kept damp for the next 10 days, kiln building can
continue 24 hours after placing the concrete.
• Capping slabs
The capping slab ties in the final brick courses and prevents bricks being dislodged when

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working at the top of the kiln.

Infrastructure and Accessories

• The buttress on side B-C is a constant rectangular section built to the full height of the
kiln. It is used to hold the loading platform which is otherwise supported by timber poles.
Depending on the site of a particular kiln, this structure may not be needed – for example
where a kiln is built into a hillside.
• The loading platform has a safety handrail made from wooden poles.
• A hoist is used to lift limestone and fuel to the top of the kiln. At other sites a ramp may
be a more suitable option.
• Access to the loading door and inspection holes is provided by a portable ladder. A
second, strong ladder is used to gain access to the loading platform.

Construction programme
For planning purposes the following programme can be used as a guide. It assumes a team
of 2 skilled builders, 4 assistants and 1 carpenter.

Day Action
1 Site clearance, excavation of foundations,
setting out.
2 – 3 Build foundations to about 150 mm above
ground. Make ladders.
4 – 5 Build fireboxes.
6 – 8 Build outer, insulation and inner skin, plus
buttresses to course 12.
9 – 10 Prepare shuttering and reinforcing. Cast first
concrete beam.
11 – 12 Build to course 24. Prepare scaffolding.
13 Prepare shuttering and reinforcing. Cast
second concrete beam.
14 – 15 Build to course 33.
16 Prepare shuttering and reinforcing. Cast third
concrete beam.
17 Build to course 42.
18 Prepare shuttering and reinforcing. Cast
fourth concrete beam.
19 – 20 Build stepped courses to course 48. Cast
reinforced concrete cap.
21 – 23 Point outside mortar joints of kiln. Erect poles for
platform.
24 – 25 Point inside of kiln (mud mortar). Begin
wooden platform.
26 -28 Prepare bricked area outside fireboxes.
Complete wooden platform.

Costing
In 1996 the total cost of building the kiln was 18,355 Malawi Kwacha (approximately £730)
excluding design, supervision and material transport costs. This was made up of MK 11 455
for materials and MK 6 900 for labour. Transport costs for materials may be a significant
factor at some sites.

Table of costs
Item Quantity/Size Cost (MK)
Common (red) bricks 7 000 1 750.00
Locally made insulation 1 000 2 000.00
bricks
Fire bricks (refractories) 250 3 750.00
Fireclay mortar 3 x 50 kg 450.00
Cement 4 x 50 kg 400.00
Hydrated lime 12 x 50 kg 960.00

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Brickforce2 1 roll 55.00

(2.5mm steel mesh wire)
Dambo sand 5 m3 250.00
River sand 5 m3 250.00
Reinforcing bar 6mm round x 55m 220.00
200 litre oil drum 1 250.00
(ends removed)
Angle iron 40mm x 40mm x 3mm x 6m 240.00
(chimney frame)
Poles (platform, 20 x 5m x Ø120mm 400.00
handrail & scaffold)
Timber 12 x 3m planks 480.00
(scaffold & platform)
Total materials 11 455.00
Labour 6 900.00
Grand total 18 355.00

Operation
When used for batch burning, the kiln is loaded with alternate layers of firewood and
limestone. The size of limestone should be determined by local conditions. Slightly larger
stones can be used in the mid section of the kiln where it is hottest. Once limestone at the
top of the kiln is red hot and the charge has subsided, it is possible to top up the kiln with
small limestones to make use of this heat. The kiln is left to burn out and, when it is cool,
quicklime is removed from the bottom loading door and from the fireboxes.

In continuous production, quicklime is removed every thirty minutes or so. At Dedza quicklime
is raked to fall through to the fireboxes. Mixed fuel and limestone is loaded into the top of the
kiln every two or three hours. Though they are expensive, refractory bricks might be
considered for the inner skin when the kiln is used continuously as they will last much longer.

If firewood or charcoal is chosen as a fuel, then lime burners must consider planting trees to
provide for the future and counter environmental damage. Alternatives to firewood have been
tried. Charcoal does work well. Briquettes of waste material soaked in waste oil burn well but
produce unpleasant smoke before they catch fire. Waste oil ‘dripped’ into the inspection holes
also produces a lot of smoke and doesn’t work well. However, a system of spraying oil into
the kiln at mid height could work. Blowing sawdust into the kiln is also possible, but this
requires an electricity supply. Using coal would certainly work.

2 Brickforce – special flat-profile steel reinforcement mesh for brick masonry; usually sold as
such by name

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In both batch and continuous operation the loading port and output port are sealed with bricks
and mud mortar during firing.

Capacity and output

A traditional box kiln would typically have a capacity of more than 15 cubic metres. The
experimental Dedza kiln has a capacity of only 3 cubic metres. This could be increased to 12
cubic metres if the sides of the internal shaft were doubled in length to 2 metres. When used
for batch burning the Dedza kiln would be suitable for rapid production of small quantities of
good quality lime. Fully charged it holds 1620 kilograms of limestone and about 1400
kilograms of dry pine firewood. So the output should be 900 kg of quicklime, giving around
1190 kg of hydrated lime.

Efficiency and fuel use

The efficiency of traditional box kilns varies, but results obtained in Malawi suggest it is
typically less than 10%. As a batch kiln the experimental Dedza kiln has achieved 15%
efficiency producing much higher quality lime. In continuous operation the experimental kiln
has achieved similar efficiencies and product quality. Scaling up the design to 12 cubic
metres would be expected to improve performance. Interestingly, this research indicates the
way to further improve performance would be to develop small, continuous vertical shaft kilns
(VSKs).

Reference and further reading

Batch Kilns:
• Lime Production: A traditional kiln at Bou Noura, Algeria, Practical Action Technical
Brief
http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/product_info.php?cPath=27_66&products_
id=244
• Lime Production: Traditional batch techniques in Chenkumbi, Practical Action
Technical Brief
http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/product_info.php?cPath=27_66&products_
id=246
• Lime Production: Traditional batch techniques in Patarrá, Costa Rica, Practical
Action Technical Brief
http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/product_info.php?cPath=27_66&products_
id=245
• Lime Production: Traditional batch techniques in Sri Lanka, Practical Action

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Technical Brief
• Lime Production: Improved techniques at Nicoya, Costa Rica, Practical Action
Technical Brief
• Small-scale Traditional Lime Binder and Traditional Mortar Production for
Conservation of Historic Masonry Buildings, by John J Hughes et al, International
Building Lime Symposium, Orlando, Florida, March 2005
Web: http://www.nationallime.org/IBLS05Papers/Hughes%20(new).pdf
(Report on the design and operation of a small experimental lime kiln in Scotland in a
collaboration between the University of Paisley, Heriot-Watt University, the Scottish
Lime Centre and other organisations)
• MEDISTONE Newsletter, No. 2, August 2006
Web: http://www.pons-
asini.de/Restaurierung/medistone/MEDISTONE%20Newsletter02%20august%2006.
pdf
(On pages 4 & 5 there is a brief description of traditional lime production in Morocco)

Continuously Operated Kilns:

• How to Build a Small Vertical Shaft Lime Kiln, Practical Action Technical Brief
• Lime Kiln Design: Small & Medium Scale Oil Fired Lime Kilns Practical Action
Technical Brief
Web:
http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/product_info.php?cPath=27_66&products_
id=243
• Lime Production: Improved techniques at Chenkumbi, Malawi, 4 tonnes per day,
mixed feed, forced air vertical shaft kiln, Practical Action Technical Brief
• The Small-scale Vertical Shaft Lime Kiln: A Practical Guide to Design, Construction
and operation, Kelvin Mason, ITDG Publishing ISBN 1 85339 465 3, 1999
Available from:
Practical Action Publishing
The Schumacher Centre for Technology & Development
Bourton-on-Dunsmore
Rugby
Warwickshire CV23 9QZ
United Kingdom
Tel +44 (0)1926 634501
Fax +44 (0)1926 634502
E-mail: [email protected]
Or order online from Development Bookshop
Web: http://developmentbookshop.com/product_info.php?products_id=442
• Small Scale Production of Lime for Building, John Spiropoulos, Friedr. Vieweg &
Sohn, Braunschweig / Wiesbaden, Germany
Web: http://80.237.211.43/basin/publications/books/lime.pdf
• Design and installation of vertical mixed-feed lime kiln guide : Part 1 Lime stone
Section 1 Masonry type shaft & Section 2 RCC type shaft, IS1849, Part 1, Section 1
(1990) & Section 2 (1991), Bureau of Indian Standards
Contact Bureau of Indian Standards for other relevant standards on gypsum
Bureau of Indian Standards
Manak Bhavan
9 Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg
New Delhi-2
Ph: 23238821
E-mail: [email protected]
Web: http://www.bis.org.in/bis/start.htm (to search catalogue)
(These standards describe design and construction of the small vertical shaft lime
kiln developed by the Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC) that is the
most widely used type of small-scale kiln in the developing world)
• Vertical-shaft Kiln Technology, UN Habitat, 1993
order from:
United Nations Shop
UN Headquarters

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New York
Tel & fax: +1 212 963 8321
E-mail: [email protected]
or
United Nations Shop
UN Office in Geneva
Palais des Nations
Geneva
Tel & fax: +41 22 917 0817
E-mail: [email protected]
or order online at:
Web: http://www.unhabitat.org/pmss/getPage.asp?page=bookView&book=1540

Documents that are relevant for kilns for both batch and continuous production:
• How to Calculate the Energy Efficiency of Your Lime Burning Process, Practical
Action Technical Brief
http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/product_info.php?cPath=27_66&products_
id=231
• Brick and Lime Kilns in Ecuador: An example of woodfuel use in Third World small-
scale industry, Alfredo Barriga et al, Energy, Environment and Development Series –
No. 13, Stockholm Environment Institute, 1992
http://www.sei.se/climate/EED_series/13_EED.pdf
• Small-scale Lime Burning: A practical introduction, Intermediate Technology
Publications, London, 1985 (currently out of print)

This technical brief was originally produced for basin, Building Advisory Service and
Information Network and was prepared by Chris Stevens of Paragon Ceramics Ltd. (PO Box
54, Dedza, Malawi) and Kelvin Mason, a consultant to ITDG (now Practical Action). It was
reviewed and updated by Otto Ruskulis in March 2008.

Practical Action would like to thank the lime burners who assisted with the design and
building of this kiln.

basin, Building Advisory Service and Information Network.

Website: http://www.basin.info/

For further information contact:

Practical Action
The Schumacher Centre for Technology & Development
Bourton-on-Dunsmore, Rugby, CV23 9Z, United Kingdom
T +44 (0)1926 634400
F +44 (0)1926 634401
E [email protected]
W www.practicalaction.org
This Technical Brief is possible thanks to the collaboration of DFID-UK and The Tony Bullard Trust.

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