1.

Fossil fuels provide both energy and raw materials such

as ethylene, for the production of other substances

x Construct word and balanced equations of chemical reactions as they are

encountered

methane  oxygen h

eat
o carbon dioxide  water
CH 4(g)  2O 2(g) h
eat
o CO 2(g)  2H 2 O (g)
CH 4(g)  O 2(g) h
eat
o C (s)  2H 2 O (g)
carbon dioxide  water e
nergy
o glucose  oxygen
6CO 2(g)  6H 2 O (l) e
nergy
o C 5 H 12 O 6(aq)  6H 2 O (l)
ethane m
o ethylene  hydrogen
C 2 H 6(g) m
o C 2 H 4(g)  H 2(g)
ethene  chlorine a
ddditon
o1,2  dichloroethane
C 2 H 4(g)  Cl 2(g) a
ddition
o C 2 H 4 Cl 2(g)
hexene  bromine a
ddition
o1,2  dibromohexane
C 6 H 12(l)  Br2(g) a
ddition
o C 6 H 12 Br2(l)
ethane  Bromine a
ddition
o1  bromoethane  hydrogen bromide
C 2 H 4(g)  Br2(g) a
ddition
o C 2 H 5 Br(g)  HBr(g)
ethylene c
atalyst
o polyethylene
n (C 2 H 4 ) c
atalyst
o n (...  C 2 H 4  ...)
sucrose  water e
nzyme
o glucose  fructose
C12 H 22 O11(aq)  H 2 O (l) e
nzyme
o C 6 H12 O 6(aq)  C 6 H 12 O 6(aq)
glucose e
nzyme
o ethanol  carbon dioxide
C 6 H 12 O 6(aq) e
nzyme
o 2C 2 H 5 OH (l)  2CO 2(g)
ethanol  oxygen h
eat
o water  carbon dioxide
C 6 H 5 OH (l)  3O 2(g) h
eat
o 3H 2 O (l)  2CO 2(g)

1
x Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of the fractions
from the refining of petroleum

Petroleum consists of crude oil and natural gas. Crude oil is a complex mixture of
long, straight branched and cyclic hydrocarbons while natural gas is composed of
methane and ethane. Ethylene is obtained from crude oil.

Petroleum is separated into crude oil and natural gas, then smaller hydrocarbons by
fractional distillation. Fractional distillation separates the ‘fractions’ based on their
boiling points.

The refinery gas fraction (C1 to C4) has the lowest boiling point (<20˚C). LPG is
manufactured from this fraction. Higher boiling points include light petrol (C5 to C10),
naphtha (C5 to C9), kerosene (C10 to C16) and diesel oil (C14 to C20)

Fractional distillation of crude oil (blue = ethylene source):

C1 to C4 gases- LPG
20˚C

C5 to C9 –Naphtha
70˚C

C5 to C10- Light petrol (gasoline)

120˚C

C10 to C16- Kerosene

170˚C

C14 to C20- Diesel Oil

270˚C

Crude Oil

C20 to C50- Lubricating Oil

C20 to C50- Fuel Oil

600˚C

> C70- residue for bitumen & roofing

2
Ethylene is manufactured from LPG, naphtha or gas by the process of cracking.
Cracking breaks down long chain hydrocarbons into smaller chain alkenes and
alkanes. There are two types of cracking: thermic and catalytic.

Thermic cracking involves the use of metal coils called pyrolysis coils. The coils are
heated to high temperatures under high pressures (7000kPa) and the presence of
steam. Ethylene and hydrogen gas can be produced by the cracking of ethane:

C 2 H 6(g) h
eat
o C 2 H 4(g)  H 2(g)

Catalytic cracking involves the use of a zeolite (catalyst, used inside a tall column
called a cat cracker. Use of a catalyst reduces energy savings as less heat (and no
oxygen) is required. The inside of the cat cracker is porous structure that maximises
surface area. Long-chain hydrocarbons are pre-heated and sprayed into the base where
the cracking process occurs.

x Identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its double bond, is
readily transformed into many useful products

Ethylene is highly reactive due to its double bond. Ethylene readily undergoes
addition reactions where a double bond is broken and other atoms ‘added in’ at the
double bond. Addition reactions include:
- Addition of hydrogen (hydrogenation) turns alkenes into alkanes
- Addition of halogens to form haloalkanes
- Addition of water (using concentrated H+ catalyst) to form ethanol
- Polymerisation of ethylene to form polyethylene

Addition reactions with ethylene:

Reactant Addition Reaction Product
H2 C2H 4  H 2 o C2H6 Ethane
Br2 C 2 H 4  Br2 o C 2 H 4 Br2 1,2-dibromoethane
H2O C 2 H 4  H 2 O o C 2 H 4 OH ethanol
HBr C 2 H 4  HBr o C 2 H 4 OH bromoethane

Useful products using ethylene as feedstock include:

Chemical Reaction Product Formed Uses
Polymerisation of LDPE Cable coating; film and sheeting
ethylene/haloethenes HDPE Water piping; appliances
PVA (Polyvinyl acetate) Adhesives
PVOH (Polyvinyl alcohol) Adhesives; film
PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) Water piping; roofing
oxidation 1,2-diethandiol Antifreeze
Acetic acid Solvent, antifreeze
halogenation Chloroethane; bromoethane Solvent; refrigerant
hydration ethanol Cosmetics, disinfectants; solvents

3
 x Identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to compare the
reactivities of appropriate alkenes with the corresponding alkanes in bromine
water

Experiment: Comparing the reactivity of alkanes and alkenes

Aim: To compare the chemical reactivity of an unknown alkane and alkene with
bromine water and potassium permanganate.

Equipment: 4 test tubes test tube rack

Safety glasses unknown alkane and alkene (A and B)
Br2(aq) 0.01 mol/L KMnO4(aq) acidified with
H2SO4(aq)
Procedure:
1/ Place 25ml (or a fixed amount) of A into 2 test tubes. Repeat with B for the
two remaining test tubes. Place test tubes in test tube rack.

2/ Put three drops of KMnO4 solution into one sample of A and B. Observe and
record results.

3/ Put three drops of bromine water into one sample of A and B. Place samples in
UV light (sunlight). Observe and record results.

Safety: Wear safety glasses at all times. Avoid inhaling any vapours from A and B.
Bromine water is poisonous and should be handled with care, as should the
acidified potassium permanganate solution. If contact with skin occurs wash
immediately with plenty of water.

Results:
Sample Reaction with Br2(aq) Reaction with acidified Hydrocarbon
KmnO4(aq) (alkane/alkene)
A Br2(aq) decolourises KmnO4(aq) decolourises alkene
B No reaction. No reaction. alkane

Hexene  Bromine water 

o1,2  dibromohexane
C 6 H 12(aq)  Br2(aq) 
o C 6 H 12 Br2(l)

H H H H H H H H H Br Br
H
H C C C
C C C C
+ Br2 H C C C
C C C C H
H
H H H H H H H H H H H

When bromine is dissolved in an organic solvent (water, in this case), the final
addition product is always a dibromoalkane (C2NBr2).

Conclusion: Alkenes are more reactive than their corresponding alkanes.

4
x Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are made

n (CH 2 CH 2 ) c
atalyst
o n (...  CH 2 CH 2  ...) where n 500  50000

In the presence of a catalyst, the monomer ethene polymerises to form polyethylene.

Various types of polyethenes with branched or linear chains can be produced by high-
or low-pressure methods.

x Analyse information from secondary sources such as computer simulations,

molecular model kits or multimedia resources to model the polymerisation
process

Polyethylene:

H H H H H H
H H
polymerisation …
C C C C C
C C C C …
n H H H H H H H H

Polyvinyl chloride:

H H H Cl H H
H H
polymerisation
C C … C C C
C C C C …
n H Cl H Cl H H H Cl

Polystyrene:

H H H H H H
H H
polymerisation …
C C C C C
C C C C …
n H H H H

5
x Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example of a
commercially and industrially important polymer

Steps in polyethylene production:

1) Ethylene is compressed, cooled and pumped under high pressure onto a

fluidised bed reactor containing polyethylene powder

2) Ethylene gas is pumped up below the bed, making it behave like a liquid.

3) Initiation- For HDPE, a transition metal (Zeigler-Natta) catalyst initiates the

reaction under low pressures. For LDPE a peroxide containing an O-O bond is
added. The peroxide breaks ethylene’s double bond, forming ethylene free
radicals which are highly reactive. LDPE forms under high pressures.

4) Propagation- monomers join and Polyethylene forms at the interface of the

catalyst. The length of the polymer chain will depend on the reaction time.

5) When complete chains form, the process is terminated. Polyethylene is cooled

and separated from ethylene.

6) The polyethylene is mixed with additives such as plasticisers that alter the
properties (e.g. flexibility, softness, reduce friction, colour). It is extruded,
moulded or pelletised, dried and packaged.

Low cooking pressures form hard HDPE, consisting of tightly packed, linear chains.
Dispersion forces are strong, so it is rigid, strong and opaque with a crystalline
structure.

High cooking pressures temperatures form softer LDPE, consisting loosely arranged
branched chains. The side chains inhibit efficient packing of the chains, so dispersion
forces are weaker and the chains slide along eachother easily. This makes LDPE soft,
flexible and transparent.

6
 x Identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the meaning of this
term

Polyethylene is produced in an addition reaction called polymerisation in which

monomers of ethylene join together to form long molecules i.e. polymers. During
this process, ethylene’s double bond is broken via heat, pressure and a catalyst.
NO other products except the polymer are formed.

x Identify the following as commercially significant monomers:

-vinyl chloride
-styrene
by both their systematic and common names

x Describe the uses of the polymers made from the above monomers in terms of
their properties

Monomers Polymers
Common Systemic Name Properties Uses
Name Name
Ethylene ethene LD polyethylene -Low density -glad wrap
-Soft -disposable food bags
-Flexible
-transparent
HD polyethylene -High density -Water piping
-Durable -Hula hoops
-rigid -Bottle caps
Vinyl chloride chloroethene polyvinylchloride -Fire retardant -Roofing
-Weather - -Tiling
resistant -Water pipes
Styrene ethenylbenzene polystyrene -Insulator -Plastic toys
-Very light -disposable cups
-Mouldable -Plastic cutlery
-Transparent -housing insulation
-forms foam
when gas is
added

How does the structure of polystyrene relate to its use?

Polystyrene is chemically unreactive, rigid and strong which lends it well to use in
electronics, appliances and containers for food, chemicals and solvents. This chemical
stability is due to strong intramolecular forces. Polystyrene is a fully saturated
molecule, containing only single bonds.

Polystyrene is also highly flexible due to weak Van Der Waals forces between the
polymer chains. This flexibility means it is used for plastic toys, as well as food
packaging.

7
The combination of the strong intramolecular forces and weak intermolecular forces
means the polymer chains slide along eachother, making polystyrene flexible and
stretchable. This ability to be easily deformed means it is readily softened with the
addition of heat. Because of this, polystyrene can be extruded into CD cases, licence
plates and other objects that require a fairly strong, rigid plastic and manufactured into
foam for as housing insulation and packaging.

The weak intermolecular forces also allow it to be combined with other polymers and
compounds to produce copolymers with enhanced properties e.g. high-impact
polystyrene for use in signs, appliances, electrical goods and furniture.

Plasticisers are additives that increase the flexibility of the polymer. Plasticised
polystyrene is used in many medical products, flexible roof tiles and rainwear.

2. Some scientists research the extraction of materials from

biomass to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels

x Discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds presently obtained
from the petrochemical industry

Petrochemicals are derived from compounds in petroleum or natural gas. Australia’s

reserves are limited- petroleum reserves will last bout 10 years and natural gas, 100
years. These fuels take millions of years to accumulate.

Over 95% of fossil fuels are used as fuel for transport and less than 5% is used for
plastics. Even less than this is recycled.

If energy and material needs are to be met in the future, alternative sources will be
required as fossil fuels are used up.

x Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer

Condensation polymers form when two monomers bond with the elimination of a
small molecule such as water between functional groups as the polymer chain forms.

Each monomer has AT LEAST two functional groups (one at either end of the
molecule) that condenses out the small molecule. Common function groups include
alkanol (OH), carboxylic acid (COOH) and amine (NH2).

8
 x Describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is formed

Polyesters are condensation polymers formed when a diol or glycol monomer (two
OH functional groups) bonds with a dialkanoic acid monomer (two OH functional
groups AND an COOH group). The polymer formed is known as a dimer molecule.
The -OH from the acid and the H from the –OH (alcohol) functional group combine
to form water. The bond that forms between the monomers is called an ester linkage
(-OCO-).

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is an example of a polyester:

H H O O

HO C OH + C C

n H H n OH OH

Ethylene glycol Terephthalic acid

The OH from the acid and the

H from the glycol form the
water molecule. Ester linkage
in red

O O
H H O

… O C C O C C … +
n H H
n H H
Water
PET “dimer” molecule

Polyesters are used to make plastic bottles, LCD’s, film insulation, tarpaulins and
wiring insulation.

Polyamides and polypeptides (aka proteins) are condensation polymers formed when
a diamine (two NH2 functional groups) monomer (two OH functional groups) bonds
with a dialkanoic acid monomer (two OH functional groups AND an COOH group).
The bond that forms between the monomers is called a peptide bond (-CONH-).

Polyamides are synthetics such as nylon and are commonly used in textiles,
automotives, carpet and sportswear due to their extreme durability and strength.

Polypeptides or proteins form from amino acid monomers and are naturally occurring
e.g. wool, silk.

9
 Nylon 6,6 is an example of a polyamide:

H H H H H H O H H H H O

C N C C C C
C C C
N C C C C
+
n H H H H H H n OH H H H H OH
1,6-diaminohexane Hexanedioic acid

The OH from the acid and the

H from the diamine form the
water molecule. Peptide bond
in red

H H H H H H O H H H H O O

… N C C C
C C N C C C C
C C C … +
n H H
n H H H H H H H H
Water
Nylon 6,6 “dimer” molecule

General structure of a diol/glycol monomer : HO  (CH 2 ) n  OH

General structure of a dialkoinic acid monomer : HOOC  (CH 2 ) n  COOH
General structure of a diamine monomer : H 2 N  (CH 2 ) n  NH 2

Remember, for the water molecule that condenses out, the -OH functional group
comes from the acid (COOH) while the H comes from the glycol (OH) or amine
(NH2) functional groups.

10
 x Describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example of a
condensation polymer found as a major component of biomass

Beta-glucose (C6H12O6) monomers are cyclic polyalcohols. Cellulose is a

condensation polymers consisting of 2000-10 000 beta-glucose monomers joined in a
chain. A three-carbon and four-carbon chain are present in a β-glucose monomer.
These carbon chains have hydrogen and OH- groups attached.

When two beta-glucose molecules react though two alcohol (-OH) groups, a water
molecule is condensed put and an O molecule links the two glucose monomers. The
bond formed is called a beta-1,2-glycosidic bond (C-O-C). Continued condensation
produces cellulose.
6
Beta-glucose molecule: CH2OH
-OH group is above ring
C5 O plane in β-glucose
H OH

C4 C1
OH
HO H
C3 C2

H OH

Cellulose is a flat, linear and rigid molecule:

Beta-1,4-glycosidic bond in red

CH 2 O H CH 2 O H
O O O O

… OH O OH O OH O OH …
OH CH 2 O H OH OH CH 2 O H OH

The bulky -CH2OH groups (attached to C5) alternate sides of adjoining glucose
molecules.

Many of the alcohol groups form strong hydrogen bonds between the chains,
accounting for its long, strong fibres, insolubility and resistance to chemical attack.

Hydrogen
bonding

11
Biomass refers to biological material derived from recently living organisms.
Cellulose is a major component of biomass. Most dry plants consist of 50% cellulose.
Approximately 5.0 x 1011 tonnes of cellulose is produced each year by plants.

x Identify that cellulose contains the basic carbon-chain structures needed to

build petrochemicals and discuss its potential as a raw material

The structure of cellulose can be modified using other chemicals to make synthetic
biopolymers such as cellophane, rayon fibres and cellulose acetate films. Unlike
conventional polymers, biopolymers are biodegradable.

Cellulose is used to make water-soluble adhesives for wallpaper. It is used as an

additive in processed foods (e.g. thickeners, stabilizers, emulsifiers, anti-caking
agents). Such derivatives include methyl-, carboxymethyl- and microcrystalline
cellulose

Cellulose can also be converted into biofuels such as cellulosic ethanol. This involves
the use of acid hydrolysis or enzymes to convert the cellulose chains into glucose
monomers. Fermentation by yeast produces ethanol.

Most petrochemicals such as plastics, solvents and refrigerants are manufactured from
ethylene derived from petroleum. Cellulose has the potential to replace petroleum as a
feedstock for petrochemicals because of its long carbon chain structure. Cellulosic
ethanol can be dehydrated using concentrated sulphuric acid to form ethylene.

12
 x Use available evidence to gather and present data from secondary sources
and analyse progress in the development and use of a named biopolymer.
This analysis should name the specific enzyme(s) used or organism used to
synthesise the material and an evaluation of the use or potential use of the
polymer produced related to its properties

Biopolymer: Plantic

Organism and processes used Property Uses/potential uses

1) Non-gm maize bred with Water soluble, Environmental-friendly

high amylose %. Biodegradable, non-toxic packaging material

2) Maize is wet milled, starch

extracted and dried.
Thermoplastic Moulded for use in:
3) Chemical reagent added to Food trays/containers/cups
reduce cooking temperature and automobile parts, toys, medical
enhance physical properties. equipment, aerospace, home
Additives e.g. plasticisers can appliances
be added at this stage or other computer components
polymers added to form Relative durability Direct contact with high moisture
copolymers. foods

4) The material is extruded into Low cost (relative to Disposable food packaging
sheets or granules before being petrochemicals) Cheap toys
sold to other companies. Freeze-thaw stability Frozen food packaging
sealable, printable and Home appliances
laser etchable Personal music players
Mobile phone casing
Anti-static Coatings, bags, packaging, gloves

Compatibility with More durable plastics, weather

conventional plastics resistant applications e.g. roofing,
Sources: water piping
http://www.plantic.com.au/our-
technologies/plantic-
advantages/

http://www.wisegeek.com/what-
is-plantic.htm

13
3. Other resources, such as ethanol, are readily available
from renewable resources such as plants

x Describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the need for a
catalyst in this process and the catalyst used

x Describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the production of

ethanol and identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst
used

x Process information from secondary sources, such as molecular model kits,

digital technologies or computer simulations to model:
-the addition of water to ethylene
-the dehydration of ethanol

Ethylene and ethanol are easily interchanged by the addition of water (hydration) and
removal of water (dehydration).

Dilute phosphoric acid or heated ceramics are used as catalysts to hydrate ethylene,
producing ethanol. The reaction is an exothermic addition reaction.

Hydration of ethylene to form ethanol:

H H
H H O
Dilute H+ catalyst
C C + H C C OH
H H
H H H H

ethylene  water H

 catalyst
o ethanol
C 2 H 4(g)  H 2 O (l) H
 catalyst
o C 2 H 5 OH (l)

Concentrated acid or phosphoric acid is used to dehydrate ethanol, producing

ethylene. This reaction is exothermic so the temperature of the system must not
exceed 180˚C, or the ethylene yield is reduced.

Dehydration of ethanol to form ethylene and water:

H H H H
O
H C C OH Concent. H+ catalyst C C +
H H H
H H H

ethanol H
 catalyst
o ethylene  water
C 2 H 5 OH (l) H
 catalyst
o C 2 H 4(g)  H 2 O (l)

14
Countries rich in natural gas e.g. Persian gulf or petroleum reining and cracking
facilities e.g. Singapore, can make ethanol via hydration of ethylene

Countries rich in land, water and climates suitable for growing crops that can be used
to produce ethanol e.g. Brazil, USA can make ethylene via dehydration of ethanol
derived from the fermentation of starch crops.

x Describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent for polar and
non-polar substances

The ethanol molecule contains a hydrophilic ‘head’ (-OH) that dissolves polar and
ionic substances. Ethanol is completely miscible in water due to hydrogen bonding
between the molecules.

The short hydrophobic hydrocarbon chain, (CH3CH2) dissolves non-polar molecules

such as longer chain alkanols. Thus, ethanol can dissolve both polar and non-polar
substances.

Industrially, and in consumer products, ethanol is the 2nd most important solvent after
water. It is the least toxic of all the alcohols, being toxic in moderate amounts.

Ethanol is widely used as a solvent for many medicines, toiletries, food flavourings
and colourings that are insoluble in water. Once the non-polar material is dissolved in
the ethanol, water can be added to prepare a mostly water solution.

H H

“Water fearing” C chain H C C OH “Water loving” OH head

dissolves non-polar dissolves polar and ionic
substances H H substances

x Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be called a
renewable resource

Ethanol combusts in air, releasing carbon dioxide, water and heat. Because the
ethanol molecule contains an oxygen atom, combustion is nearly always complete.
There is little formation of carbon monoxide and carbon which form during the
incomplete combustion of other hydrocarbons e.g. petrol, octane.

However, it has a lower heating value than petrol- 30MJ/kg compared to 27MJ/kg for
petrol. It is used as a petrol extender (e.g. gasohol/petranol = 10-20% ethanol) ,
where it assists the fuel to burn more efficiently.

15
Ethanol can be called a renewable resource because it can be produced by
fermentation of plant material. The products of its reaction, carbon dioxide and water
are reactants needed by plants to photosynthesise.

x Process information from secondary sources to summarise the processes

involved in the industrial production of ethanol from sugar cane

Industrial production of ethanol from sugar cane:

sugar cane

Crush and grind

Hydrolyse with dilute

acid e.g. H2SO4 at
100˚C for 2 hours

filter

Cellulose + lignin Filtrate (Sugar solution)

residue

Sugar solution is acidic.

Hydrolyse (more acid) Neutralise with i.e.
calcium hydroxide
[Ca(OH)2]

Filter to remove
calcium sulfate i.e.
gypsum (CaSO4)

Ferment using
yeast/bacteria

Ethanol mixture Carbon dioxide

By-products and wastes

Distillation to produce i.e. solid lignin can be
pure ethanol used as fuel for the plant

16
x Process information from secondary sources to summarise the use of ethanol
as an alternative car fuel, evaluating the success of current usage
Ethanol as a fuel
Advantages Disadvantages
Renewable resource- from crops such as Large areas of land required to grow
corn, sugar cane and wheat crops
High cost of:
x distillation
x removing water from fuel to
prevent fuel injection problems
and corrosion.
Reduction of: Some ethanol based –fuels are more
x Greenhouse gases e.g. CO2, NO2, SO2 volatile, leading to increase in
x Carbon monoxide (ethanol combustion emission of toxic organic compounds
is more complete than other fuels)
x High-octane antiknock and octane Combustion produces toxic organic
rating additives used to replace c ompounds which must be removed
tetraethyl lead in petrol b y catalytic converters in the
vehicle’s exhaust system
Spills are more easily biodegraded/diluted Spills are difficult to contain and
to non-toxic concentrations recover- ethanol mixes with water

Evaluation of current success of ethanol as a fuel:

Australia currently produces less than 30 million gallons of ethanol from crop
sources. It is considered unviable at present and legislation imposes a 10% cap on
ethanol-gasoline blends because most vehicle engines cannot tolerate it

Ethanol has proved most successful in Brazil with 6500 million gallons produced/year
from sugar cane. Brazil’s usage of ethanol is due to its few oil reserves and high
pollution rates. In Brazil, ethanol comprises 50% of gasoline fuel sales/year and it is
mandatory for fuel blends to contain minimum 20% ethanol. The latest innovation
within the Brazilian flexible-fuel technology is the development of flex-fuel
motorcycles, costing US $2700.

The USA is the world leader in ethanol fuels, producing over 9000 million
gallons/year. Its usage is due to increasing environmental concerns and the need for
renewable fuels and comprises about 10% total gasoline fuel sales/year. The US uses
corn to produce ethanol which is much less efficient than sugarcane and wastes
valuable food.

17
x Describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted
Suitable conditions for fermentation:
-A suitable microorganism capable of fermenting sugars into ethanol e.g. yeast, E
Coli. Bacteria
-Water
-suitable temperature (25-32˚C for yeast)
-low oxygen concentrations
-small amounts of yeast nutrients e.g. phosphate salt
-Less than 15% alcohol concentration by volume. Once this is exceeded, the yeast
dies.

x Solve problems, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to carry out the
fermentation of glucose and monitor mass changes

Experiment: Fermentation of Glucose

Aim: To plan and perform an experiment to investigate the mass changes during the
fermentation of glucose

Hypothesis: The loss in mass of the reaction mixture, consisting of water, glucose
and yeast will increase gradually initially before increasing rapidly and then reaching
an optimal.

Equipment: 2 x 500mL conical flasks Sachet of yeast

Rubber stopper with tube attached 500mL beaker
Water Stirring rod
Glucose Electronic scale

Procedure:
1/ Add 50g glucose to a beaker and dissolve thoroughly in 500mL water using a
stirring rod.

2/ Weigh one empty conical flask and rubber stopper.

3/ Place 500mL of glucose solution into the flask.

4/ Add 1.0g yeast to mixture and shake gently to dissolve.

5/ Weigh the flask, stopper and yeast-glucose-water mixture.

6/ Place the other end of the rubber tubing into another flask filled with water.
This is to provide an anaerobic condition for the yeast to multiply.

7/ Reweigh the flask, stopper and yeast-glucose-water mixture at set intervals,

preferably every hour until the weight does not change anymore. Record the
results in the table below.

18
 Glucose, yeast water
water mixture

Results:
Mass of empty flask= 232.68g
Mass of flask + rubber stopper + mass of water-glucose-yeast mixture= 724.30g
Mass of water-glucose-yeast mixture= 724.30g-232.68g = 491.62g

Time (days) 0 1 2 3
Mass lost (g) 0 - - 1.5

Discussion:
The results obtained indicate that the yeast did not react with the glucose mixture.
This is probably because the yeast was not properly dissolved or it had expired.

To increase the reliability of the results obtained and to help observe any trends, a
data logger should be used to record the readings, preferably at intervals of 1 hour for
several days, rather than over a single interval of three days as was done. This would
allow a trend to be observed when the mass lost is plotted against time on a x-y graph.

To take the investigation further, the several variables could be changed:

-conduct the experiment under controlled temperatures, both above and below room
temperature
-alter the ratio of glucose to water
-alter the ratio of yeast to glucose-water solution used

Conclusion: It was found that the mass changes during fermentation did not change
significantly. However, this simply indicated that the fermentation process did not
begin most likely because the yeast was not dissolved properly or it had expired.

19
x Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process present information
from secondary sources by writing a balanced equation for the fermentation
of glucose to ethanol

x Present information from secondary sources by writing a balanced equation

for the fermentation of glucose to ethanol

Waste from sugar cane is rich in sucrose (C12H22O11) but uneconomic to separate. If
water and yeast are added, the sucrose reacts with the water to produce glucose and
fructose (C6H122O6):

sucrose  water 
o glucose  fructose
C12 H 22 O12(aq)  H 2 O (l) 
o C 6 H 12 O 6(aq)  C 6 H 12 O 6(aq)

Fermentation can then occur:

glucose/fructose f
ermentation
o ethanol  carbon dioxide
C 6 H 12 O 6 (aq) f
ermentation
o 2C 2 H 5 OH (l)  2CO 2(g)

x Define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and calculate the value
for ethanol from first-hand data

The molar heat of combustion is the heat released when 1 mole of a substance is
completely combusted to form products in their normal states (solids, liquids, gases)
at 100kPa and 25˚C.

20
x Identify data sources, choose resources and perform a first-hand
investigation to determine and compare heats of combustion of at least three
liquid alkanols per gram and per mole

Experiment: Comparing the heats of combustion of alcohols

Aim: To design and perform an experiment to determine the heat of combustion of

ethanol and cyclohexanol.

Hypothesis: It is expected that cyclohexanol will have a greater heat of combustion

than ethanol. The accepted heats of combustion of cyclohexanol and ethanol are 3811
kJ/mol and 1364 kJ/mol-1 respectively.

Equipment: ethanol bosshead and clamp glass funnel

cyclohexanol retort stand 250mL beaker
100g water thermometer matches
Electronic scale spirit burner

Procedure:
1) Place ethanol into empty spirit burner using glass funnel and weigh.

2) Weigh 100g water and place in beaker.

3) Set up equipment as shown below:

Beaker containing
water

Retort stand & Spirit burner with

clamp alkanol

4) Measure starting temperature of water

5) Light spirit burner and wait until water temperature has

increased by 20˚C. Quickly extinguish the flame using the cap
of the spirit burner.

6) Calculate the change in temperature of the water and change in mass of

ethanol + spirit burner.

7) Repeat steps 1-6 for cyclohexanol.

21
 8) Repeat experiment at least three times for each alkanol. Average results to
calculate the heats of combustion of each alkanols per gram and per mole.
Results:
Ethanol
Trial No. Mass Starting Finish ΔT Starting Finish Mass of
water, m temp water temp (˚C) m a s s o f m a s s o f a lcohol
(kg) (˚C) water alcohol + alcohol+ combusted,
(˚C) spirit spirit M (g)
burner burner
(g) (g)
1 0. 1 21. 5 45.0 23.5 283.80 283.07 0.73
2 0. 1 21. 5 46.0 24.5 283.07 282.37 0.70
3 0 . 1 2 2 . 0 4 5 . 0 2 3 . 0 2 8 2 . 1 7 2 8 1 . 5 2 0.65
Average 0. 1 n/a 23.6 n/a 0.69

Cyclo-hexanol
Trial No. Mass Starting Finish ΔT (˚C) Starting Finish Mass of
water, m temp water temp mass of mass of alcohol
(kg) (˚C) water alcohol alcohol+ combusted,
(˚C) + spirit spirit M (g)
burner burner
(g) (g)
1 0. 1 21. 0 41.0 20.0 279.09 278.38 0.71
2 0. 1 21. 5 42.0 20.5 278.38 277.86 0.52
3 0. 1 24. 0 44.0 20.0 277.88 277.40 0.48
Average 0. 1 n/a 20.2 n/a 0.57
Calculations:
Alcohol ΔH (mCΔT) Heat of combustion per Heat of combustion per mole (kJmol-
gram (kJg-1) 1
)
ethanol m= 0.1 kg ΔH= 9.86 kJ Heat of combustion/mole
ΔT= 23.6˚C M = 0.69 g = ΔH kJg-1 x molar mass of Ethanol
C= 4.18 kJkg-1K-1 = 14.3 kJg-1 x 46.068 gmol-1
Heat of combustion/gram = 659 kJmol-1
ΔH= mCΔT = ΔH/M
= 0.1x4.18x23.6 = 9.86/0.69
= 9.86 kJ = 14.3 kJg-1

Cyclo- m= 0.1 kg ΔH= 8.44kJ Heat of combustion/mole

hexanol ΔT= 20.2˚C M = 0.57 g = ΔH kJg-1 x molar mass of
C= 4.18 kJkg-1K-1 cyclohexanol
Heat of combustion/gram = 14.8 kJg-1 x 100.156 gmol-1
ΔH =mCΔT = ΔH/M = 1482 kJmol-1
=0.1x4.18x20.2 = 8.44/0.57
=8.44 kJ = 14.8 kJg-1

22
 Experimental and accepted heats of combustion (kJ/mol) vs Molecular Mass

4500

4000

Experim ental and accepted heats of 3500

com bustion (kJ/m ol)
3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Mole cula r Ma ss (g)

Discussion: The results obtained for the heats of combustion of cyclohexanol and
ethanol were 659 kJmol-1 and 1482 kJmol-1 respectively. The accepted values from
the SI data book give the heat of combustion of 1364 kJmol-1 and 3811 kJmol-1 for
ethanol and cyclohexanol respectively. These experimental values were less than half
of the accepted values for their heats of combustion. Compared to the accepted values
for molar heat of combustion, the cyclohexanol and ethanol had fuel efficiency of
38.9 % and 48.3 % respectively.

These large differences in experimental and accepted values were mainly due to the
fact that not all of the heat produced during the combustion of the alcohols actually
heated the water. Most of the heat would have dissipated into the surrounding air and
some would have been absorbed by the heating equipment. The fact that the
experiment was performed was performed on a cool day would also have contributed
to the inaccurate values. The electronic scales used to measure the masses were only
accurate to 0.01g . Since relatively small amounts of water and alkanols were used in
the experiment, this could also have affected the results. Another reason may be due
to incomplete combustion of the fuels- ethanol burns much more efficiently, however,
why is why the fuel efficiency was significantly higher than for cyclohexanol. The
experiment was performed three times for each alcohol and the results averaged to
calculate the values. If the experiment were performed several more times and the
results averaged, a more reliable value may have been obtained. However, the main
reason for the large difference in values was due to not all the heat actually heating
the water i.e. heat was lost to the surroundings. The equipment should be insulated to
prevent this heat loss to obtain more accurate results.

Ideally, the experiment should be performed using a bomb calorimeter to measure the
heat enthalpy. A bomb calorimeter allows the experiment to be performed in a much
more controlled environment to give much more accurate results.

Conclusion: It was found that cyclohexanol had a greater heat of combustion than
ethanol, but both readings were well below the accepted values for the heats of
combustion.

23
x Identify the IUPAC nomenclature for straight-chained alkanols from C1 to
C8

For straight chain alkanols, the number of carbon atoms in a chain is the same prefix
as for alkanes, alkenes and alkynes. The middle syllable, ‘an’ indicates the molecule
is saturated and suffix ‘ol’ represents the -OH functional group. A number is used to
denote the placement of the -OH group. Use the smallest number possible. No number
is required for methanol or ethanol as OH- group is on the end carbon atom.

4. Oxidation-reduction reactions are increasingly important

as a source of energy

x Explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of electron

transfer

Reactions of metals usually involve transfer of electrons. Metals can be arranged in an

activity series:

Metal Ion Reactivity Extraction

K K+ Reacts with water electrolysis

Na Na+
Li Li+
Sr Sr2+
Ca Ca2+
Mg Mg2+ Reacts with dilute
Al Al3+ acids
Zn Zn2+ Smelting with coke
Cr Cr2+
Fe Fe2+
Cd C d2 +
Co C o2 +
Ni Ni2+
Sn Sn2+
Pb Pb2+
Cu C u2 + Highly unreactive Heat or physical
Ag Ag+ extraction
Hg Hg2+
Au Au3+
Pt Pt2+

24
Active metals will displace less active metals from solution. For example, zinc will
displace copper when placed in solution containing copper ions- zinc releases
electrons to become ions and copper ions gain electrons and precipitates out as solid
copper metal:

o Zn 2  2e 
Zn 

. Cu 2  2e  
o Cu
Cu 2 (aq)  Zn (s) 
o Zn 2 (aq)  Cu (s)

x Identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in solution by

other metals to the relative activity of metals

Metals higher in the activity series will displace metal ions in a solution when the
metal is placed in the metal ion solution. The more reactive metal forms a metal ion
by losing one or more electrons to form a cation. The general equation for this is:

o M n   ne 
M

Where M is the more reactive metal and n is the number of electrons transferred

Metal reactions can be related to the activity series:

-metals from K to Ca react with water, forming hydrogen gas
-metals from K to Pb react with dilute acids, forming hydrogen gas
-metals from Al to Ni require water in the form of steam before reacting

x Account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of their loss or
gain of electrons

Substances that cause reduction are called reductants and undergo oxidation i.e. they
lose electrons easily (e.g. K, Ba)

Substances that cause oxidation are called oxidants and undergo reduction i.e. they
gain electrons easily e.g. permanganate ion, MnO4-) and dichromate ion, Cr2O72-.

Oxidation state rules:

-Oxidation involves an increase in oxidation number
-Reduction involves a decrease in oxidation number
-uncombined elements have an oxidation state of 0
-ions have an oxidation state equal to their charge (e.g. oxidation state of copper ion,
Cu2+ is +2)
-oxygen in compounds have charge -2 in oxides and -1 in peroxides
-hydrogen in compounds have +1 charge with non-metals and -1 with metals
-compounds and polyatomic ions have a charge equal to the sum of the oxidation
states

25
 Memory Aid:
OIL RIG
Oxidation Is loss
Reduction Is Gain

x Describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction reactions

x Define the terms anode, cathode, electrode and electrolyte to describe
galvanic cells
x Outline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the direction of electron
flow

Redox reactions take place when electrons are transferred from one reactant to
another. An example of a redox reaction is placing zinc metal into copper sulphate
solution.

The half equations for this reaction are:

o Zn 2 (aq)  2e
Zn (s) 
Cu 2 (aq)  2e  
o Cu (s)

The net reaction is:

Zn (s)  Cu 2 (aq) 
o Zn 2  Cu (s)

Electrons are transferred from zinc to copper- zinc is oxidised (loses electrons) and
copper is reduced (gains electrons) to precipitate out as a solid.

It is possible to make redox reactions occur through a circuit to generate an electric

current- the device used is called a voltaic or galvanic cell.

-In a galvanic cell, the oxidant and reductant solutions are separated by a connecting
wire (to carry electrons) and a salt bridge (carries charged ions in solution).
-A galvanic cell is composed of two half-cells: a reductant half-cell and an oxidant
half cell.
-Each half-cell consists of a metal electrode and a solution of a salt of the metal. The
arrangement ensures the electrons move from the reductant through the external
circuit to the oxidant (rather than directly from reductant to oxidant), thus producing
electricity.

Galvanic cells are devices in where chemical reactions occur to generate electricity

Electrodes are the conductors of a cell which connect to the external circuit

The anode is the -ve terminal. It is the electrode where electrons flow into the circuit.
Oxidation occurs at the anode.

26
The cathode is the +ve terminal. It is the electrode where electrons are drawn from
the circuit. Reduction occurs at the cathode.

Electrolytes are substances that conduct electricity when in solution or molten.

Movement of charges:
Electrons flow
1/ One electrode liberates electrons from
through external
the metal electrode into the external
circuit
circuit

Electrode Movement of - Electrode

2/ Electrons flow through the external reaction ve charges reaction
circuit via a wire to the other electrode liberates absorbs
electrons Movement of electrons
3/ The reaction at the other electrode use (anode) (Cathode)
+ve charges
these electrons

4/ Ions move through the connecting salt

bridge to maintain electrical neutrality.

Electron flow

Zn anode (-ve) SO42

- Cu cathode (+ve)
Salt
bridge
Na2SO4

Zn2 Cu2
+
+
Oxidation Reduction

In the example above, a Zn(s) anode (-ve electrode) is placed in a solution containing
SO42- ions. Oxidation takes place at the anode- Zn(s) is transformed into Zn2+ and 2e-
. Zn2+ moves into the solution and the electrons travel through the connecting wire to
the copper cathode (+ve electrode).

Reduction takes place at the cathode- the electrons travelling through the wire join
with Cu2+ ions in solution to form solid copper metal on the copper cathode.

A salt bridge is a U-shaped tube with a porous plug a either end that connects the two
solutions to form a complete circuit. It allows negative charges (SO42- in this case) to

27
move from the reductant to the oxidant cell, neutralising unbalanced charges in the
solutions.

If the redox reaction is allowed to continue, substantial amounts of electricity can be

generated and chemical changes occur:
-copper metal is deposited on the copper electrode
-Zinc electrode dissolves (confirmed by weighing)
-Copper ions in solution decrease (blue solution lightens in colour)
-Zinc ions increase

Electricity produced can be used to turn electric motors, produce heat, light globes.

x Solve problems and analyse information to calculate the Eø of named

electrochemical processes using tables of standards potentials and half-
equations

oxidant + electron/s reductant Eø Volts

+ –
Li +e Li –3.04
K+ + e– K –2.94
2+ –
Ca +e Ca –2.87
+ –
Na +e Na –2.71
Mg2+ + 2e– Mg –2.36
3+ –
Al + 3e Al –1.68
H2O + e– ½H2(g) + OH– –0.83
2+ –
Zn + 2e Zn –0.76
2+ –
Fe + 2e Fe –0.44
C d2 + + 2e– Cd –0.40
2+ –
Ni + 2e Ni –0.24
2+ –
Pb + 2e Pb –0.13
H+ + e– ½H2(g) 0.00
+ –
Cu2 +e Cu 0.34
– -
½O2(g)+H2O +e 2OH 0.40
Cu+ + e– Cu 0.52
– -
½I2(aq) +e I 0.62
3+ – 2+
Fe +e Fe 0.77
Ag+ + e– Ag 0.80
– -
½Br2(aq) +e Br 1.10
½O2(g)+2H+ + 2e- H2O 1.23
– -
½Cl2(aq) +e Cl 1.40
– -
½F2(g) +e F 2.89
The strongest reductant has the most negative value for its reduction half-equation. It
is the most easily oxidised. Lithium metal is the strongest reductant and weakest
oxidant

The strongest oxidant has the most positive value for its reduction half-equation. It is
most easily reduced. Fluorine gas is the strongest oxidant and weakest reductant

28
Calculating a potential Eø:
The table shows the values for the reduction potentials. To find the oxidation
potential, simply switch the sign.

Calculating EMFTotal:

1) Look at the two reduction half equations. The one with the more positive value
will occur as shown.

2) The other half-reaction will be pushed in the opposite direction (oxidation)

and the potential standard sign is flipped.

3) Add the two standard potentials.

To see if a reaction will occur spontaneously:

1) Write both reduction half-equations.

2) Look up the standard potentials in the table above
3) The half-reaction with the more positive value will occur as shown and the other
half-reaction and its standard potential will be reversed (oxidation).
4) Add the two standard potentials. If the total voltage is positive, the reaction will
occur spontaneously.

o Ag  Sn 2  H 2 O occur
Example: Does the reaction Ag 2 O  H   Sn 
spontaneously?
1
H  (aq)  e   o H 2(g)
2
θ θ
EMF E Hg 0.00V

o Sn 2 (aq)  2e 
Sn (s) 
EMF θ E θ Sn (0.14) 0.14V

1  1
Ag 2 O (s) H 2 O (l)  e  
o Ag (s)  OH  (aq)
2 2
θ θ
EMF E Ag 2O 0.34V

EMFθ Total 0.00  0.14  0.34 0.48V

EMFTotal is positive. Therefore, the reaction will occur spontaneously.

29
 x Gather and present information on the structure and chemistry of a dry cell
or lead-acid cell and evaluate it in comparison to one of the following:
-Vanadium redox cell, fuel cell, Liquid junction photovoltaic device
In terms of:
-chemistry
-cost and practicality
-impact on society
-environmental impact
Lead-acid cell
Voltage 1 2 V (s i x 2 V cells arranged in series)

Anode (-) Porous Pb sheet

Anode half- Pb (s)  SO 4

2
(aq) o PbSO 4(s)  2e 

equation
Cathode (+) Lead sheet coated in Lead oxide, Pb(IV)O2
Cathode half- 2
PbO 2(s)  SO 4 (aq)  4H   2e  
o PbSO 4(s)  2H 2 O (l)
equation
Overall equation PbO 2(s)  2H 2 SO 4
2
(aq) o 2PbSO 4(s)  2H 2 O (l)

Electrolyte Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 (35% w/w) (6 molL-1)
Reaction At the anode, lead ions combine with sulfate ions. Lead sulfate precipitates on
the cathode and water is formed as a by-product.
Additional Info. -Electrodes have grids to increase surface area
Battery life limited by:
-over time, cathode (PbSO2) is disintegrated by electrolyte (H2SO4), affecting
recharging ability
-Corrosion of Pb anode by electrolyte
-internal short circuiting due to corrosion

As battery is used, electrolyte density drops from 1.26g/cm3 to 1.1g/cm3 as H+

ions are used. A battery hydrometer is used to measure the charge level of the
battery.
Cost and Advantages Disadvantages
practicality -Able to be recharged via -Pb content of batteries is expensive.
suitable transformer -overcharging can produce explosive H2
-Works in range of temperatures -Heavy and bulky
-Low energy density compared to other
rechargeable cells
-electrolyte is liquid and highly acidic
Impact on -Provides high surge current required by car motors. Useful as a battery in
society remote locations.
-Can be recharged by connecting to solar panels or generators.
-Can be used for emergency lighting.
Environmental -Recycled to retrieve the lead.
impact -Lead is highly toxic to the environment, causing anaemia in humans. The
electrolyte is very acidic and dangerous if split.
-Lead-acid cells are sealed to prevent volatile acid fumes from causing
corrosion.

30
 Oxygen-hydrogen fuel cell (PEMFC)
Voltage 0.7 V

Anode (-) Platinum catalyst on graphite coated, ridged paper

Anode half-equation o 2H   2e 
H 2(g) 
Cathode (+) Platinum catalyst on graphite coated, ridged paper
Cathode half-equation O 2(g)  4H   4e  
o 2H 2 O (l)
Overall Equation 2H 2(g)  O 2(g)  4H  
o 2H   2H 2 O (l)
Electrolyte Solid Fluorocarbon polymer with sulfonic acid groups
Reaction (The reaction is the opposite of electrolysis i.e. oxygen and
hydrogen bond to form water and electrical energy) Hydrogen
gas is pumped in at the anode and is oxidised to form protons
and electrons. Oxygen gas is delivered to the cathode side.
Oxygen molecules react with the protons permeating through
the polymer electrolyte membrane and the electrons arriving
through the external circuit to form water molecules
Additional Info. -The fuels (reductant and oxidant) must be constantly
replenished from a reservoir outside the cell.
-First developed in 60’s and 70’s for use in spacecraft
-Anode and cathode material are the same
-Pure H2 must be used or Platinum catalyst is inactivated
Cost and practicality Advantages Disadvantages
-Little thermal -Expensive to produce and maintain
shielding is required (H2 fuel is costly)
as it operates at only -Contaminated by sulphur containing
85˚C compounds
-Ideal for commercial
applications e.g.
transport

Impact on society -Developing technology; no short-term impacts

-Operating hours (50 000+), efficiency and instant start-up
mean it may replace fossil fuel energy sources in the future.
Environmental impact -No toxic materials are used and produces only water as by-
product.
-Hydrogen is used as a fuel, so storage may be a risk

Evaluation of the PEMFC:

Lead-acid cells have proved crucial to the development of modern society in terms of industry, electrical
energy and transportation. They do have risks associated with handling and disposal to the environment
due to toxic lead and sulphuric acid. They also degrade over time with increased usage and produce waste
heat. Despite drawback, it has proved to be one of the most useful devices because of its practicality in a
variety of situations and its cost. The PEMFC is a relatively new technology that has the potential to
replace lead-acid cells as well as having many other applications. It utilises oxygen and hydrogen gas as

31
fuels, whilst producing only water as a by-product, has a low operating temperature and in excess of 50
000 operating hours. However, it is impractical to use at current times because of the expensive materials
used, its design and usage (hydrogen fuel must be very pure for it to function properly & must be stored
very carefully) and because society is already adapted to rely on the lead-acid cell. In the future, with the
increased need to find cleaner sources of energy, the PEMFC may well prove very useful to society.

Similarities in chemistry between lead acid and PEMFC:

Both produce water as a by-product
Both are can be used many times and are rechargeable
Both can produce explosive H2
Differences in chemistry between:
lead acid PEMFC
Voltage uses six 2V cells Uses single 0.7V cell
arranged in series
Anode Lead sheet Platinum catalyst on graphite coated paper
Cathode Lead dioxide coated lead
sheet
Electrolyte concentrated (aqueous) solid polymer
sulphuric acid
Recharging connect to a power Fuels (oxygen and hydrogen gas) are
source e.g. transformer replenished from an external reservoir
Energy density Relatively low High
Degrades with use? Yes No
Requires warm-up Yes No. Operates at a low 85˚C
and/or cooling?
Cost and Practicality:
Production and Cheaper and easier than Much more expensive to buy and
maintenance costs PEMFC. Can degrade maintain. Fuels need constant
with incorrect usage replenishment and must be very pure
Operating hours Much less operating Operating hours 50 000+
hours, depending on
usage and handling
Size and weight Heavy and bulky Small and light
(relative to output)
Impact on society:
Current/future starting-up vehicles, A relatively new technology, it may be
Applications small portable used in vehicles, mobile phones, power
equipment, installations, domestic power, military,
lighting & ignition, portable power, landfill treatment
industry, useful as
emergency battery in If costs can be lowered, PEMFC may
remote locations, eventually replace lead-acid cells in
transport ,
Environmental impact:
Toxic materials Involves toxic lead and No toxic materials, but storage of
sulphuric acid explosive H2 is a risk
Waste Heat High Low

32
5. Nuclear Materials
x Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the
conditions under which a nucleus is unstable

An isotope is defined as atoms of the same element with the same atomic number but
different mass number.
An isotope of an element, E, is represented by AEZ, where
A, mass number: the number of protons + neutrons
Z, atomic number: the number of protons

Isotopes of the same element have the same atomic number (Z). The spontaneous
emission of radiation by certain elements is called radioactivity. For some elements,
all isotopes are radioactive while for other, only a few are radioactive.

The radioactivity comes from emissions from the nucleus of an isotope. We can use
the terms unstable nuclei to describe radioactive isotopes and stable nuclei to describe
non-radioactive isotopes.

The stability of the nucleus is related to the force that holds the nucleus together,
called the strong nuclear force. The strong nuclear force is what keeps all the protons
and neutrons together in a nucleus even though they should normally repel due to like
charges. Nuclear stability is determined by the ratio of neutrons to protons (n:p). In
general:

-stable light elements (Z from 1-20) have a n:p ratio of 1:1

-stable heavy elements (Z from 73-83) have a n:p ratio of 1.5:1

For elements with Z>83 (bismuth), there are NO stable isotopes.

Radioactive isotopes emit radiation in the form of particles or rays from their nucleus.
This decay can occur in a single step or a series of steps e.g. uranium.

The time for the radioactivity level of a given amount of radioactive isotope to be
halved is called its half-life. Each radioactive isotope has a characteristic half-life.

Effect of electric field on radiation:

β
++++++++++++

γ
_____________ α
α particles have +ve charge, so are deflected
towards the negative plate. β particles have
–ve charge, so are deflected towards the
positive plate. γ rays are unaffected. 33
Types of nuclear decay:
Nuclear Radiation type Further Info. Example
Decay
Alpha (α) Helium nuclei Ejected from Uranium-238 decays into
emission ( 24 He) , positively heavy, unstable thorium-234
charged nuclei to remove 238
o 42 He 23940Th
92 U 
surplus protons and
neutrons
Beta Beta particles Occurs when n:p Tritium decays into helium-3
(β)emission [high-speed ratio is too high 3
1H o 01 e  32 He
electrons ( 10 e) or due to excess
neutrons. Electron
positrons (e  ) ].
emission is called
Released from (β-) while positron
nucleus when a emission is (β+).
neutron decays
into a proton and
electron
Gamma (γ) High-frequency Removes excess Gamma emission from cobalt-60
emission EMR energy without as it undergoes beta decay into
particle Nickel-60
rearrangement 60
27 Co o 01 e 6208 Ni  γ
Often accompanies
α and β
emissions
Electron Inner shell Occurs when n:p Arsenic-73 undergoes electron
capture electrons are ratio is too low due capture to form Germanium-73
captured and to excess protons 73 0
o 3723 Ge
33 As 1 e 
proton is converted
into a neutron
Uranium A series of Alpha Uranium-238 and - (Net equation) Uranium 235
natural decay and beta emissions 235 decay in a decays into lead-208.
series series of emissions 238
o 20862 Pb  8( 42 He)  6( 01 e)
92 U 
into a stable lead
isotope

Nuclear decay results in an atom of one type, called the ‘parent’ nuclide transforming
to an atom of a different type, named the ‘daughter’ nuclide.

x Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced

Commercial radioisotopes are those with an atomic number LESS than 92 i.e.
radioisotopes smaller than uranium. Commercial isotopes are used in medical and
industry purposes.
There are two means of producing radioisotopes: nuclear reactors and cyclotrons (a
type of particle accelerator). The radioactive properties required determine whether a
nuclear reactor or a cyclotron is used to produce a radioisotope.

34
Nuclear reactors allow the uranium chain decay to occur safely, releasing neutrons
slowly at a controlled rate. Target atoms are bombarded with neutrons to produce
neutron-rich radioisotopes are produced at the nuclear reactor (acronym: NRN) via
neutron bombardment. Particle accelerators such as cyclotrons produce neutron-
deficient radioisotopes (acronym: NDC) via bombarding the atom with neutrons or
other particles e.g. protons, electrons

The Australian nuclear society and technology organisation (ANSTO) produces

commercial radioisotopes for use in industry, medicine and research. ANSTO
operates the research reactor called HIFAR (High Flux Australian Reactor) at Lucas
Heights (Sydney) and the National Medical Cyclotron near Royal Prince Alfred
Hospital (NSW).

The HIFAR reactor has been designed to produce a source of neutrons via the fission
of uranium-235. These neutrons can be used to bombard the nuclei of stable elements
to form radioisotopes. A stable element is placed in the core of the reactor where it
absorbs neutrons and is transformed into a radioactive daughter nuclide.

x Describe how transuranic elements are produced

Transuranic elements are all elements with an atomic number GREATER than 92 i.e.
elements larger than uranium. All are radioactive and have very short half-lives.

22 transuranic elements have been synthesised in particle accelerators or nuclear

reactors. The first was Neptunium, produced by bombarding Uranium-238 with
neutrons produced in nuclear fission reactors:
238 1
o 23992 U 
92 U  0 n  o 23993 Np 01 e

Most transuranic elements are produced in nuclear reactors via neutron or alpha
particle bombardment or in linear accelerators and cyclotrons via bombarding existing
transuranic elements with smaller nuclei.

For example, Iodine-123 is produced in a cyclotron by bombarding xenon-124 with

protons:
124 1
o12533 I  2( 01 n)  2( 01 e)
54 Xe  1 p 

Transuranic elements with Z>96 are all made by accelerating a small nucleus (such as
He, B or C) in a particle accelerator to collide with a heavy nucleus (often of a
previously made transuranic element) target.

x Identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect radiation

The properties of radiation are used to detect their levels. The key properties used to
detect radiation include the ability to:
-darken photographic film
-cause electron excitation in certain crystal lattices

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-Penetrate materials to different extents
-Cause ionisation in gases and vapours
-Be deflected by electric and magnetic fields

All types of radiation cause ionisation of atoms. High energy radiation is highly
ionising while low energy radiation is weakly ionising. Alpha radiation is strongly
ionising while beta is weakly ionising. Gamma rays are strongly penetrating but
weakly ionising.

Most radioactive emissions are ionising radiation and are usually detected by a
Geiger-Muller tube connected to a counter. The Geiger-Muller tube contains gas that
ionises and produces a small pulse of electricity each time it is ionised by radiation.
The counter counts the number of pulses.

Another device is a cloud chamber which contains a saturated alcohol vapour. The
ionisation of the alcohol molecules causes condensation that produces ‘visible tracks’.
Alpha particles form straight tracks; beta forms fainter zigzags; gamma rays produce
very faint tracks

Nuclear industry workers wear badges containing photographic film. The darkening
of the film is a measure of their radiation dose.

Low energy radiation that is too weak to ionise atoms is called non-ionising radiation
and can be detected by a scintillation counter. Non-ionising radioisotopes are mostly
used for experiments involving living organisms. The non-ionising radiation emitted
transfers energy to a solvent molecule and then to a fluorescent molecule that emits
light. The light is converted into an amplified electrical pulse and a counter counts the
pulses.

Geiger counter

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x Process information from secondary sources to describe recent discoveries of
elements

The transuranic elements (Z>92) are among the most recently discovered elements.
These elements are produced synthetically as the product of experiments using
nuclear reactors or particle accelerators via nuclear fusion or neutron bombardment.
Several of these elements (e.g. Americium, Curium) were produced in atomic bomb
detonations by the Manhattan project (a secret project conducted by the US during
WW2 to develop the atomic bomb).

The more recent, heavier elements have been produced by nuclear fusion of elements
in particle accelerators. The elements are collided together with high velocities,
causing fusion of the nuclei and forming new, unstable elements which decay rapidly.

Recent element First discovered in… Chemistry of reaction

& atomic
number
Unquadium, 1999, Dubna Russia by Produced via collision of calcium-48
Z=114 the Joint institute for ions into plutonium-244 using an ion
nuclear research (JLNR). accelerator:
244 48 292
94 Pu  20 Ca o 114 Uuq

Darmstadtium 4 atoms were detected in Nuclear fusion of lead-208 atoms with

Z=110 1994, Darmstadt, nickel-62 ions. A neutron is also
Germany by the GSI produced.
208 269 1
82 Pb  Nio 110 Ds  0 n

Uuq-292
Ca-48 Pu-244

Calcium-48 collides with Plutonium-244. Ununquadium-292!

Their nuclei fuse to form to form…

Ds-269
Ni-62 Pb-204 +

Nickel-62 collides with Lead-208. 1 neutron & Darmstadtium-269!

Their nuclei fuse to form to form…

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x Use available evidence to analyse benefits and problems associated with the
use of radioisotopes in identified industries and medicine
x Identify one use of a named radioisotope:
-in industry
-in medicine
x Use available evidence to analyse benefits and problems associated with the
use of radioactive isotopes in identified industries and medicine.

Radioisotope in medicine: Technetium-99m

Chemistry Metastable form of Tc-99 i.e. does not decay into another element.
It is a gamma emitter and decays into Tc-99. Half-life = 6 h

It is produced in nuclear reactors via bombardment of

molybdenum-98 to form molybdenum-99:
98 1
o 9492 Mo
42 Mo  0 n 

Which then undergoes beta decay to form technetium-99m…

99
o 10 e 9493Tc
41 Mo 

Why it is used? Has a range of medical applications. It is reasonably reactive and

can be combined with organic molecules that form compounds
which concentrate around organs of interest.

Has a very short half-life and is low-energy for a gamma emitter.

It is easily removed by the body. (85% of medical radioisotopes

used are Tc-99m.)
How it is used? Useful in medicine as a ‘tracer’ to detect and diagnose vascular,
bone, heart, thyroid disorders and brain tumours.

Technetium-99m is produced on site in a special ‘radioisotope

generator’ kit by dissolving in 0.9% w/v sodium chloride solution
before extraction for medical use. The generator contains heavy
shielding to protect against radiation. A dosage of the solution is
injected into a patient and Single proton emission computer
tomography (SPECT) is used to scan the patient and detect
abnormalities.
Benefits Unlikely to cause any long-term tissue damage because it is low
energy and is easily removed by the body.

The alternative, X-rays, are not as penetrating and require high

voltage and electricity.
Problems Radiation dosage given to patents must be carefully monitored and
regular health-checks required for those who work with Tc-99

Short half-life means it must be produced and used on-site

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Radioisotope in Industry: Strontium-90
Chemistry It is a beta emitter with a half-life of 28 years and decays into
Ytrrium-90. It is produced as a by-product of the fusion of uranium
and plutonium in nuclear reactors.

Half-life decay: 9308 Sr o 01 e 9309Yr

Why it is used? Long half-life means samples last long in industrial applications.

Beta particles are best for gauging thickness. Alpha is not

penetrating enough and gamma is too penetrating
How it is used? Used to gauge thickness in plastic and metal sheeting.
Correct
Radiation thickness
detector
Normal
radiation
levels Beta particles
emitted from
Radiation Sr-90 source
too high

Too thin

Heat generated from its decay can be used as an electricity source

in remote locations.

Benefits Long half-life means it can be used for long periods without need
for replacement
Problems Can contaminate foods such as milk. If ingested/inhaled, Sr-90
replaces calcium in bone, causing leukaemia

Long half-life means it remains in the environment for long

periods. It is difficult to remove waste nuclear material

Prolonged exposure may cause cancer.

Radioisotopes in Society:
Nuclear powers stations utilise the decay of U-235 to generate energy for electricity.
In industry, radioisotopes are used for detecting flaws in soldered joints. Gamma
emitters are used to sterilise food and medical instruments. Beta emitters can be used
as thickness gauges.

In medicine, gamma emitters are used to detect and diagnose diseases. Alpha and beta
emitters are used therapeutically to treat cancers. Some of these are generated in
particle accelerators while other are made in nuclear reactors.

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