Exercise 5.2?

(b) Verify that if E >> E0, then E E0/2 and if E << E0, (E – E )/E
2 E/E0. (c) Which approximation should be used for a 6 MeV gamma ray? Verify
numerically.5.4An electron–positron pair is produced by a gamma ray of 2.26 MeV.
What is the kinetic energy imparted to each of the charged particles?5.5Estimate
the thickness of paper required to stop 2 MeV alpha particles, assuming the paper
to be of density 1.29 g/cm3, about the same electronic composition as air (i.e.,
Mair ≈ Mpaper), density 1.29 × 10–3 g/cm3.5.6The element lead, M = 207.2, has a density
of 11.35 g/cm3. Find the number of atoms per cubic centimeter. If the total gamma
ray cross section at 3 MeV is 14 barns, what are the linear attenuation coefficient
and the half-thickness?5.7The range of beta particles of maximum energy greater
than 0.8 MeV is given roughly by the relation(a) Using this formula, find what
thickness of aluminum sheet (density 2.7 g/cm3) is enough to stop the betas from
phosphorus-32 (see Table 3.2). (b) Repeat the calculation using the Katz–Penfold
relation of Equation (5.2).5.8A radiation worker’s hands are exposed for 5 seconds to
a 3 × 108 cm–2 s–1 beam of 1 MeV beta particles. Find the range in tissue of density
1.0 g/cm3 and calculate the amounts of charge and energy deposition in C/cm3
and J/g. Note that the charge on the electron is 1.60 × 10–19 C. For tissue, use the
equation in Exercise 5.7.5.9Calculate the energy gain by an electron struck head-on
by an alpha particle of energy 4 MeV; see Exercise 4.19. How many such collisions
would it take to reduce the alpha particle energy to 1 MeV?5.10At a certain time
after the Big Bang, high-speed photons collided to form electrons and positrons.
Assuming energies of 0.51 MeV each, what temperature is implied?5.11Find the
percentage reduction through 1.5 cm of lead from a 137Cs-produced gamma-ray
flux.5.12Find the maximum and minimum photon energies of 50 keV X-rays passing
through a thin aluminum foil and making no more than one collision.5.13Compare
the percent energy change of 10 keV and 10 MeV photons scattered at 90°. What
conclusion do these results suggest?5.14(a) Find the fractional energy loss for a
20-keV X-ray scattered from an electron at angle 180° and compare with 2E/E0. (b)
Find the final energy for a 10-MeV gamma ray scattered from an electron at 180°
and compare with E0/2.5.15Revisit Exercise 4.19 for the case of u2 = 0 with m2 << m1.
Verify that the final energy of m2 is E2 = 4E1 m2/m1 where E1 is the initial energy of
m1.5.16Determine the kinetic energy (in MeV) at which the following particles can
be considered relativistic: (a) electron, (b) proton, (c) neutron, and (d) deuteron.
 Exercise 5.2? (b) Verify that if E >> E0, then E E0/2 and if E << E0, (E – E )/E
2 E/E0. (c) Which approximation should be used for a 6 MeV gamma ray? Verify
numerically.5.4An electron–positron pair is produced by a gamma ray of 2.26 MeV.
What is the kinetic energy imparted to each of the charged particles?5.5Estimate
the thickness of paper required to stop 2 MeV alpha particles, assuming the paper
to be of density 1.29 g/cm3, about the same electronic composition as air (i.e.,
Mair ≈ Mpaper), density 1.29 × 10–3 g/cm3.5.6The element lead, M = 207.2, has a density
of 11.35 g/cm3. Find the number of atoms per cubic centimeter. If the total gamma
ray cross section at 3 MeV is 14 barns, what are the linear attenuation coefficient
and the half-thickness?5.7The range of beta particles of maximum energy greater
than 0.8 MeV is given roughly by the relation(a) Using this formula, find what
thickness of aluminum sheet (density 2.7 g/cm3) is enough to stop the betas from
phosphorus-32 (see Table 3.2). (b) Repeat the calculation using the Katz–Penfold
relation of Equation (5.2).5.8A radiation worker’s hands are exposed for 5 seconds to
a 3 × 108 cm–2 s–1 beam of 1 MeV beta particles. Find the range in tissue of density
1.0 g/cm3 and calculate the amounts of charge and energy deposition in C/cm3
and J/g. Note that the charge on the electron is 1.60 × 10–19 C. For tissue, use the
equation in Exercise 5.7.5.9Calculate the energy gain by an electron struck head-on
by an alpha particle of energy 4 MeV; see Exercise 4.19. How many such collisions
would it take to reduce the alpha particle energy to 1 MeV?5.10At a certain time
after the Big Bang, high-speed photons collided to form electrons and positrons.
Assuming energies of 0.51 MeV each, what temperature is implied?5.11Find the
percentage reduction through 1.5 cm of lead from a 137Cs-produced gamma-ray
flux.5.12Find the maximum and minimum photon energies of 50 keV X-rays passing
through a thin aluminum foil and making no more than one collision.5.13Compare
the percent energy change of 10 keV and 10 MeV photons scattered at 90°. What
conclusion do these results suggest?5.14(a) Find the fractional energy loss for a
20-keV X-ray scattered from an electron at angle 180° and compare with 2E/E0. (b)
Find the final energy for a 10-MeV gamma ray scattered from an electron at 180°
and compare with E0/2.5.15Revisit Exercise 4.19 for the case of u2 = 0 with m2 << m1.
Verify that the final energy of m2 is E2 = 4E1 m2/m1 where E1 is the initial energy of
m1.5.16Determine the kinetic energy (in MeV) at which the following particles can
be considered relativistic: (a) electron, (b) proton, (c) neutron, and (d) deuteron.

5.9 5.9

Computer exercises
Computer exercises
5.A.The ESTAR, PSTAR,
5.A.The
andESTAR,
ASTARPSTAR,
programs
and(Berger
ASTAR etprograms
al., 2005)(Berger
from NIST*
et al., 2005) from NIST*
compute stopping compute
power andstopping
range tables
power
forand
electrons,
range tables
protons,
for electrons,
and alphaprotons,
particles,and alpha particles,
respectively. Similar
respectively.
to Figure 5.6,
Similar
maketoa Figure
graph comparing
5.6, make athe graph
continuous
comparing slowing
the continuous slowing
down range of these down
particles
rangeinof(a)
these
graphite,
particles
(b) silicon,
in (a) graphite,
(c) dry air,
(b) (d)
silicon,
Pyrex(c)glass,
dry air, (d) Pyrex glass,
(e) polyethylene, and (f ) tissue.5.B.Use the compilations of X-ray mass attenuation
and energy-absorption coefficients available from NIST† to create a graph of
both μ/ and μen/ for each of the following: (a) Pb, (b) lead glass, (c) cadmium
telluride, (d) water, and (e) SiO2 (see Figure 11.2 for an example using tissue).5.C.The
XCOM program (Berger et al., 2010) from NIST‡ calculates photon cross sections for
scattering, photoelectric absorption, and pair production. Akin to Figure 5.8, create
a plot of photon mass coefficients for (a) iron, (b) water, (c) dry air, (d) ordinary
concrete, and (e) soft tissue. Elemental compositions of the last three mixtures can
be found at http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/XrayMassCoef/tab2.html.
(e) polyethylene, and (f ) tissue.5.B.Use the compilations of X-ray mass attenuation
and energy-absorption coefficients available from NIST† to create a graph of
both μ/ and μen/ for each of the following: (a) Pb, (b) lead glass, (c) cadmium
telluride, (d) water, and (e) SiO2 (see Figure 11.2 for an example using tissue).5.C.The
XCOM program (Berger et al., 2010) from NIST‡ calculates photon cross sections for
scattering, photoelectric absorption, and pair production. Akin to Figure 5.8, create
a plot of photon mass coefficients for (a) iron, (b) water, (c) dry air, (d) ordinary
concrete, and (e) soft tissue. Elemental compositions of the last three mixtures can
be found at http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/XrayMassCoef/tab2.html.
and calculate the amounts of charge in coulombs (C) and energy deposition
in C/cm3 and J/g. Note that the charge on the electron is 1.60 × 10−19 C. For
tissue, use the equation in Exercise 5.7.
 and calculate the amounts of charge in coulombs (C) and energy 5.9 deposition
in C/cm3 and J/g. Note that the charge on the electron is 1.60 × 10−19 C. For
tissue, use the equation in Exercise 5.7.
Calculate the energyCalculate
gain bythe
an electron
energy gain
struck
by an
head-on
electronby struck
an alpha
head-on
particleby5.10
an alpha particle
of energy 4 MeV. Howof energy
many4such
MeV.collisions
How many would
suchit collisions
take to reduce
wouldtheit take
alphato reduce the alpha
particle energy to 1particle
MeV? energy to 1 MeV?
At a certain time after
At athe
certain
Big Bang,
time after
high-speed
the Big photons
Bang, high-speed
collided tophotons
form elec-
collided to form elec-
trons and positrons.trons
Assuming
and positrons.
energiesAssuming
of 0.51 MeV
energies
each, of
what
0.51
temperature
MeV each, what temperature
is implied? is implied?
particle with some atom high in the atmosphere, the nuclear debris produced
undergoes successive interactions with atoms further down in the atmosphere. In
such collisions π-mesons are created and they decay into muons and -rays. Muons
continue moving down to sea level before they decay. On the other hand, the
gamma rays produce electron-positron pairs which in turn radiate more -rays. The
huge number of electrons created in this way are called extensive air showers. The
secondary radiation led to the discovery of new particles, including the positron and
various mesons. The collision of secondary neutrons with the atmospheric nitrogen
produces carbon-14 (14C) which combines with oxygen to form radioactive 14CO2.
This provides a clock for the familiar technique of radioactive dating.
 particle with some atom high in the atmosphere, the nuclear debris produced
undergoes successive interactions with atoms further down in the atmosphere. In
such collisions π-mesons are created and they decay into muons and -rays. Muons
continue moving down to sea level before they decay. On the other hand, the
gamma rays produce electron-positron pairs which in turn radiate more -rays. The
huge number of electrons created in this way are called extensive air showers. The
secondary radiation led to the discovery of new particles, including the positron and
various mesons. The collision of secondary neutrons with the atmospheric nitrogen
produces carbon-14 (14C) which combines with oxygen to form radioactive 14CO2.
This provides a clock for the familiar technique of radioactive dating.

The total number ofTheprimary

total number
cosmic of rays
primary
strikingcosmic
the Earth's
rays striking
atmosphere
the Earth's
is roughly
atmosphere is roughly
104 m−2 s−1. Although
104 they
m−2 swere
−1. Although
discovered
theyinwere
1911,discovered
the origininof1911,
cosmictherays
origin
stillof cosmic rays still
remains a mystery remains
to astrophysicists
a mystery(Hayakawa,
to astrophysicists
1963; Ginzburg
(Hayakawa, and1963;
Syrovatskii,
Ginzburg and Syrovatskii,
1964). In older theories
1964).about
In older
the theories
origin ofabout
cosmictherays
origin
it was
of cosmic
suggestedraysthat
it was
theysuggested that they
underwent multiple underwent
scatteringmultiple
within clouds
scattering
of magnetized
within cloudsplasma
of magnetized
in interstellar
plasma in interstellar
space and so were space
accelerated
and sotowerehighaccelerated
energies. Present-day
to high energies.
speculation
Present-day
considers
speculation considers
the sources to be violently
the sources
active
to celestial
be violently
objects
active
such
celestial
as supernova
objects such
explosions,
as supernova explosions,
rapidly spinning neutron
rapidly stars
spinning
and white
neutrondwarfs.
stars The
and components
white dwarfs.ofThe thecomponents
primary of the primary
cosmic rays includecosmic
nuclei,rays
electrons
includeand
nuclei,
electromagnetic
electrons andradiation.
electromagnetic radiation.

The nuclear component

The nuclear
of the component
primary cosmic of the
rays
primary
comprises
cosmic
(at rays
the top
comprises
of the (at the top of the
atmosphere) aboutatmosphere)
90% protons, about
9% He,
90%1% protons,
heavier9%nuclei,
He, 1%
andheavier
almostnuclei,
zero and almost zero
anti-nuclei. Comparing
anti-nuclei.
the distribution
Comparing of the
elements
distribution
in cosmic
of elements
rays withinthe
cosmic
distri-rays with the distri-
bution throughoutbution
the Universe,
throughout
the two
the are
Universe,
rather similar.
the two However,
are rather there
similar.
areHowever,
very there are very
important differences,
important
for example,
differences,
the relative
for example,
abundances
the relative
of H andabundances
He are much
of H and He are much
lower in cosmic rays,
lower
while
in cosmic
Li, Be, Brays,
andwhile
odd ZLi,nuclei
Be, Bare
andmuch
odd Zmore
nuclei
abundant
are much more abundant
in cosmic rays. It isinassumed
cosmic rays.
that they
It is assumed
are produced
that they
by transmutation
are producedduring
by transmutation
the during the
passage of heavierpassage
nuclei through
of heavier
thenuclei
interstellar
through
medium.
the interstellar
The abundances
medium.ofThe
theabundances of the
nuclei at the end ofnuclei
the periodic
at the endtable
of are
the greatly
periodicenhanced
table arein
greatly
cosmic enhanced
rays—a fact
in cosmic rays—a fact
that has to be considered
that hasintotheories
be considered
on the origin
in theories
of cosmic
on therays.
origin of cosmic rays.

The energy spectrum Theofenergy

a nuclear
spectrum
componentof a nuclear
extends component
smoothly from
extends
about
smoothly
10 MeVfrom about 10 MeV
to 1020 eV (more than
to 10
1320 decades
eV (moreinthan
energy13 decades
and 32 decades
in energy
in and
intensity).
32 decades
The mean
in intensity). The mean
particle energy of the
particle
galactic
energy
cosmic-ray
of the galactic
spectrum cosmic-ray
is about spectrum
1 Gev, andisthe
about
number
1 Gev, and the number
density of these particles
densityinofinterstellar
these particles
spaceinisinterstellar
about 10−3space
m−3, almost
is aboutequal
10−3 to
m−3the
, almost equal to the
energy density of the
energy
electromagnetic
density of theradiation
electromagnetic
and that of
radiation
the magnetic
and that
fields.
of theThemagnetic fields. The
energy spectrum falls
energy
off more
spectrum
gently
falls
than
off the
more thermal
gentlydistribution;
than the thermal
intensity
distribution;
at intensity at
energy E is proportional
energytoE approximately
is proportionalEto −2.6approximately
. E−2.6.

Low energy cosmicLowraysenergy

entering
cosmic
the solar
rays system
enteringare
theconvected
solar system
awayare
from
convected
the Sunaway from the Sun
by the solar wind. At
by lower
the solar
energies
wind.solar
At lower
flares
energies
contribute
solarmost
flaresofcontribute
the particles,
most of the particles,
which tend to maskwhich
the galactic
tend tocontribution.
mask the galactic
During
contribution.
periods of During
maximum periods
sunspot
of maximum sunspot
activity, solar flares sporadically “contaminate” the solar system with these low ener-
gy particles. The tracks and induced radioactivity that these particles have been found
to produce just below the surface of samples of Moon rock, indicate that flares have
been a Half-lives and decay characteristics of cosmic-ray produced radionuclides
regular feature of solar activity for at least millions of years. Solar-flare particles
have a steeply falling energy spectrum and diffuse out of the solar system in a few
days. Almost all the elements from hydrogen up to nickel have been detected. The
experimental relative abundances of these emitted nuclei bear a strong resemblance
to those found in the solar atmosphere in which they originated. There is evidence
for preferential emission of heavy nuclei relative to the light ones.
 activity, solar flares sporadically “contaminate” the solar system with these low ener-
gy particles. The tracks and induced radioactivity that these particles have been found
to produce just below the surface of samples of Moon rock, indicate that flares have
been a Half-lives and decay characteristics of cosmic-ray produced radionuclides
regular feature of solar activity for at least millions of years. Solar-flare particles
have a steeply falling energy spectrum and diffuse out of the solar system in a few
days. Almost all the elements from hydrogen up to nickel have been detected. The
experimental relative abundances of these emitted nuclei bear a strong resemblance
to those found in the solar atmosphere in which they originated. There is evidence
for preferential emission of heavy nuclei relative to the light ones.

During the passageDuring

through
thethe
passage
atmosphere,
througha the
number
atmosphere,
of nuclear
a number
reactionsoftake
nuclear reactions take
place, which are responsible
place, which
forare
theresponsible
production for
of athe
wide
production
variety ofofradionuclides
a wide variety of radionuclides
(see Table 2.3). (see Table 2.3).

Table 2.3. Half–lives

Table
and2.3.
decay
Half–lives
characteristics
and decay
of cosmic–ray
characteristics
produced
of cosmic–ray
radionuclides
produced radionuclides

Radionuclide Radionuclide
Half-life Main radiation Half-life
10Be 10Be 1.6×106 years 555 keV 1.6×106 years
26Al 26Al 7.2×105 years + 1.17 MeV; 1.81 MeV,
7.2×10
5115 years
keV
36Cl 36Cl 3.00×105 years 714 keV 3.00×105 years
80Kr 80Kr 2.13×105 years K x-ray 2.13×105 years
14C 14C 5730 years 156 keV 5730 years
32Si 32Si 650 years 210 keV 650 years
39Ar 39Ar 269 years 565 keV 269 years
3H 3H 12.33 years 18.6 keV 12.33 years
22Na 22Na 2.60 years +0.545, 1.82 MeV; 1.275
2.60MeV,
years
511 keV
36S 36S 87.4 days 167 keV 87.4 days
7Be 7Be 53.3 days E.C., 477 keV 53.3 days
37Ar 37Ar 35.0 days K-x-ray, Bremsstrahlung
35.0
to 0.81
days
MeV
33P 33P 25.3 days 248 keV 25.3 days
32P 32P 14.28 days 1.710 MeV 14.28 days
28Mg 28Mg 21.0 hours 0.459, 1.35, 0.31, 0.95,
21.00.40
hours
MeV
24Na 24Na 15.02 hours 1.389 MeV; 1.369, 2.754
15.02 hours
MeV
38S 38S 2.83 hours 3.0, 1.88 MeV; 1.6,
2.83
2.17
hours
MeV
31Si 31Si 2.62 hours 1.48 MeV; 1.26 MeV2.62 hours
16F 16F 109.8 minutes + 0.635 MeV; 511 keV 109.8 minutes
39Cl 39Cl 56.2 minutes 1.91 to 3.45 MeV; 0.246,
56.2 minutes
1.27, 1.52 MeV
38Cl 38Cl 37.29 minutes + 4.91 MeV; 1.6, 2.1737.29
MeVminutes
34mCl 34mCl 31.99 minutes + 2.48 MeV; e− 0.142 MeV;
31.99 minutes
1.17, 2.12, 3.30 MeV; 511 keV
Table 2.4 lists all isotopes which occur in the four heavy element decay series. The
table also lists a selection of other important radioisotopes which occur naturally or
are formed by either fission or irradiation.
 Table 2.4 lists all isotopes which occur in the four heavy element decay series. The
table also lists a selection of other important radioisotopes which occur naturally or
are formed by either fission or irradiation.

Table 2.4. Data on Table

some 2.4.
of the
Data
principal
on someradioisotopes
of the principal radioisotopes

Element Element
Isotope Mass No. Type of Decay Isotope
Half Life
Mass No. T
Californium Californium
252 + fission 252
2.638y
Berkelium Berkelium
247 247
1380y
Curium Curium
248 248
3.39×105y
246 246
4730y
245 245
8500y
244 244
18.11y
243 243
28.5y
242 242
162.8d
Americium Americium
243 243
7380y
242 242
16.02h
242m 242m
152y
241 241
432.2y
Plutonium Plutonium
244 244
8.26×107y
242 242
3.763×105y
241 ( ) 241
14.4y
240 240
6537y
239 239
24065y
238 238
87.74y
236 236
2.851y
Neptunium Neptunium
240 240
7.4m (meta stable) 65m
239 239
2.355d
238 238
2.117d
237 237
2.14×106y
235 235
3.96. 1d
Uranium Uranium
240 240
14.1h
238 238
4.468×109y
237 237
6.75d
236 236
2.3415×107y
235 235
7.038×108y
234 234
2.445×105y
233 233
1.585×105 y
232 232
72 y
Protactinium Protactinium
234m 234m
1.17m
234 234
6.7 h
233 233
27.0 d
231 231
3.276×104y
Thorium Thorium
234 234
24.1 d
232 232
1.405×1010y
231 231
25.52 h
 230 230
7.7×104 y (Ionium)
229 229
7340 y
228 228
1.9138 y
227 227
18.718 d
Actinium Actinium
228 228
6.13h
227 ( ) 227
21.773 y
225 225
10 d
Radium Radium
228 228
5.75 y
227 227
1600 y
225 225
14.8 d
224 224
3.66 d
223 223
11.434 d
Francium Francium
223 223
21.8 m
221 221
4.8 m
Radon (or Emanation)Radon
222(or Emanation) 222
3.8235 d
220 220
55.65 s
219 219
3.96 s
218 218
35 ms
Astatine Astatine
218 218
2 s ( 94%)
217 217
32.3 ms
216 216
300 ms
215 215
0.1 ms
211 , EC, 211
7.214 h (EC c 55%)
Polonium Polonium
218 ( ) 218
3.05 m ( 99.9%)
216 216
0.15 s
215 ( ) 215
1.78×10−3 s (almost all
214 214)
213 213
164.3 μs
212 212
4.2 μs
211 211
0.305 μs
210 210
516 ms
138.38 d
Bismuth Bismuth
214 ( ) 214
19.9 m
213 ( ) 213
45.65 m
212 ( ) 212
60.55 m
211 ( ) 211
2.14m
210 ( ) 210
5.012 d
209 – 209
stable –
Lead Lead
214 214
26.8 m
212 212
10.64 h
211 211
36.1 m
210 210
22.3 y
209 209
3.253 h
208 – 208
stable –
207 – 207
stable –
206 – 206
stable –
Thallium Thallium
210 210
1.3 m
 209 209
2.2 m
208 208
3.07 m
207 207
4.77 m
206 206
4.20 m
205 – 205
stable –
204 204
3.779 y
203 – 203
stable –
Europium Europium
155 155
4.96 y
154 154
8.8 y
Samarium Samarium
147 147
1.06×1011 y
(naturally occurring)
Promethium Promethium
147 147
2.6234 y
Praseodymium Praseodymium
144 144
17.28
Cerium Cerium
144 144
284.3 d
141 141
32.51 d
Lanthanum Lanthanum
140 140
40.2 h
Barium Barium
140 140
12.79 d
Caesium Caesium
137 137
30.0 y
136 136
13 d
135 135
2.3×106y
134 134
2.062 y
132 positron, EC, 132
6.5 d p
Iodine Iodine
132 132
78 h
131 131
8.04 d
129 129
1.7×107y
125 EC 125
60.14 d E
Tellurium Tellurium
132 132
79 h
129m 129m
34 d
125m 125m
58 d
Antimony Antimony
125 125
2.77 y
124 124
60.2 d
Silver Silver
110m 110m
249.9 d
Rhodium Rhodium
106 106
29.9 s
Rutheniu m Rutheniu
106 m 106
368.2 d
103 103
39.28 d
Technetium Technetium
99 992.13×105 y
Molybdenum Molybdenum
99 9966.69 h
Niobium Niobium
95 9535.15 d
Zirconium Zirconium
95 9563.98 d
Yttrium Yttrium
91 9158.51 d
90 9064.0 d
Strontium Strontium
90 9029.12 y
89 8950.5 d
Rubidium Rubidium
87 874.7×1010y
(naturally occurring)
Zinc Zinc65 65243.9 d
Nickel Nickel
63 6396 y
Cobalt
 Cobalt
60 605.271 y
58 positron, , EC 5870.8 d p
57 57270.9 d
Iron Iron60 601×105y
59 5944.529 d
55 EC, x-ray emission 552.7 y E
Manganese Manganese
54 EC, 54312.5 d E
Chromium Chromium
51 EC, 5127.704 d E
Calcium Calcium
45 45163 d
Potassium Potassium
40 401.28×109y
(naturally occurring)
Chlorine Chlorine
36 363.01×105 y
Sulphur Sulphur
35 3587.44 d
Phosphorus Phosphorus
33 3325.4 d
32 3214.29 d
Sodium Sodium
22 positron 222.602 y p
Carbon Carbon
14 145730 y
Hydrogen Hydrogen
3 3 12.35 y (Tritium)
various mesons. The collision of secondary neutrons with the atmospheric nitrogen
produces carbon-14 (14C) which combines with oxygen to form radioactive 14CO2.
This provides a clock for the familiar technique of radioactive dating.
 various mesons. The collision of secondary neutrons with the atmospheric nitrogen
produces carbon-14 (14C) which combines with oxygen to form radioactive 14CO2.
This provides a clock for the familiar technique of radioactive dating.

The total number of Theprimary

total number
cosmic ofrays
primary
strikingcosmic
the Earth’s
rays striking
atmosphere
the Earth’s
is roughly
atmosphere is roughly
104 m− 2 s− 1. Although
104 m they
− 2 swere
− 1. Although
discoveredtheyinwere
1911,discovered
the origininof1911,
cosmictherays
origin
stillof cosmic rays still
remains a mystery remains
to astrophysicists
a mystery(Hayakawa,
to astrophysicists
1955; Ginzburg
(Hayakawa, and1955;
Syrovatskii,
Ginzburg and Syrovatskii,
1964). In older theories
1964).about
In olderthe theories
origin ofabout
cosmictherays
origin
it was
of cosmic
suggestedraysthat
it was
theysuggested that they
underwent multiple underwent
scatteringmultiple
within clouds
scattering
of magnetized
within cloudsplasma
of magnetized
in interstellar
plasma in interstellar
space and so were accelerated
space and sotowere highaccelerated
energies. Theto high
present-day
energies.
speculation
The present-day
consid-speculation consid-
ers the sources to be
ersviolently
the sources active
to celestial
be violently
objects
active
such
celestial
as supernova
objects such
explosions,
as supernova explosions,
rapidly spinning neutron
rapidly stars
spinningand white
neutrondwarfs.
stars The
and components
white dwarfs.ofThe thecomponents
primary of the primary
cosmic rays includecosmic
nuclei,rayselectrons
includeand
nuclei,
electromagnetic
electrons andradiation.
electromagnetic radiation.

The nuclear component

The nuclear
of the component
primary cosmicof the
rays
primary
comprises
cosmic
(at rays
the top
comprises
of the (at the top of the
atmosphere) aboutatmosphere)
90% protons, about
9% He,
90%1% protons,
heavier9% nuclei
He, and
1% heavier
almost nuclei
zero anti-
and almost zero anti-
nuclei. Comparingnuclei.
the distribution
Comparing of the
elements
distribution
in cosmic
of elements
rays withinthe
cosmic
distribution
rays with the distribution
throughout the Universe,
throughout the two
the are
Universe,
rather similar.
the two However,
are rather there
similar.
areHowever,
very im- there are very im-
portant differences,portant
e.g., thedifferences,
relative abundances
e.g., the relative
of H and
abundances
He are muchof H lower
and Hein are much lower in
cosmic rays, while cosmic
Li, Be, Brays,
andwhile
odd ZLi,nuclei
Be, Bare
andmuch
odd Zmore
nuclei
abundant
are much in more
cosmicabundant in cosmic
rays. It is assumedrays.
that they
It is assumed
are produced
that they
by transmutation
are producedduring
by transmutation
the passageduring
of the passage of
heavier nuclei through
heavier
thenuclei
interstellar
through
medium.
the interstellar
The abundances
medium.ofThe the abundances
nuclei at theof the nuclei at the
end of the periodicend
table
of are
the greatly
periodic enhanced
table areingreatly
cosmicenhanced
rays—a fact
in cosmic
that has
rays—a
to be fact that has to be
considered in theories
considered
on the origin
in theories
of cosmic
on therays.
origin of cosmic rays.

The energy spectrumTheofenergy

a nuclear
spectrum
component
of a nuclear
extends
component
smoothly from
extends
about
smoothly
10 MeVfrom about 10 MeV
to 1020 eV (> 13 decades
to 1020in
 eVenergy
(> 13 decades
and 32 decades
in energy
in and
intensity).
32 decades
The mean
in intensity).
particle The mean particle
energy of the galactic
energy
cosmic-ray
of the galactic
(GCR) spectrum
cosmic-ray is (GCR)
about spectrum
1 Gev, andisthe
about
number
1 Gev, and the number
density of these particles
densityinofinterstellar
these particles
spaceinisinterstellar
about 10− 3space m− 3,isalmost
aboutequal
10− 3 m− 3, almost equal
to the energy density
to the
of the
energy
electromagnetic
density of theradiation
electromagnetic
and that radiation
of the magnetic
and that of the magnetic
fields. The energy spectrum
fields. Thefalls
energy
off more
spectrum
gently falls
than
off the
more thermal
gentlydistribution;
than the thermal distribution;
intensity at energyintensity
E is proportional
at energytoE approximately
is proportionalEto –2.6approximately
. The GCR interactions
E–2.6. The GCR interactions
with atmospheric nitrogen
with atmospheric
and oxygen nitrogen
produce and many
oxygen
different
produceisotopes
manyindifferent
the upper
isotopes in the upper
atmosphere. An example
atmosphere.
is production
An exampleof 7Be
is which
productionis soonof afterwards
7Be which isattached
soon afterwards
to attached to
small aerosol particle
small
andaerosol
transported
particletoand
lower
transported
atmosphere to lower
(Yoshimori,
atmosphere
2005). (Yoshimori, 2005).

Low energy cosmicLow raysenergy

enteringcosmic
the solar
rays system
enteringaretheconvected
solar system
awayarefrom
convected
the Sunaway from the Sun
by the solar wind. Atby lower
the solar
energies
wind.solar
At lower
flaresenergies
contribute
solarmost
flaresofcontribute
the particles,
most of the particles,
which tend to maskwhichthe galactic
tend tocontribution.
mask the galactic
Duringcontribution.
periods of During
maximum periods
sunspot
of maximum sunspot
activity, solar flaresactivity,
sporadically
solar “contaminate”
flares sporadically the “contaminate”
solar system with the these
solar system
low with these low
energy particles. Theenergy
tracks
particles.
and induced
The tracks
radioactivity
and induced
that these
radioactivity
particlesthat
havethese
beenparticles have been
found to produce justfoundbelow
to produce
the surface
just of
below
samples
the surface
of Moon of rock
samples
indicate
of Moon
that rock indicate that
flares have been a regular
flares havefeature
beenofa solar
regular
activity
feature
forof
at solar
least activity
millionsforof at
years.
leastThe
millions of years. The
solar-flare particles have a steeply falling energy spectrum and diffuse out of the
solar system in a few days. Almost all the elements from hydrogen up to nickel have
been detected. The experimental relative abundances of these emitted nuclei bear a
strong resemblance to those found in the solar atmosphere in which they originated.
There is evidence for preferential emission of heavy nuclei relative to the light ones.
 solar-flare particles have a steeply falling energy spectrum and diffuse out of the
solar system in a few days. Almost all the elements from hydrogen up to nickel have
been detected. The experimental relative abundances of these emitted nuclei bear a
strong resemblance to those found in the solar atmosphere in which they originated.
There is evidence for preferential emission of heavy nuclei relative to the light ones.

During the passageDuring

through
thethe
passage
atmosphere,
througha the
number
atmosphere,
of nuclear
a number
reactionsoftake
nuclear reactions take
place, which are responsible
place, which
forare
theresponsible
production for
of athe
wide
production
variety ofofradionuclides,
a wide variety of radionuclides,
see Table 1.3 and Hayakawa
see Table 1.3
(1969)
andand
Hayakawa
Lal and(1969)
Petersand(1967).
Lal and Peters (1967).

Table 1.4 lists all isotopes

Table 1.4
which
lists occur
all isotopes
in thewhich
four heavy
occurelement
in the four
decay
heavy
series.
element
The decay series. The
table also lists a selection
table also
of other
lists a important
selection ofradioisotopes
other important
whichradioisotopes
occur naturally
which
or occur naturally or
are formed by either arefission
formed orbyirradiation.
either fission or irradiation.
5.7
 The range of beta
5.7 particles
The of range
maximumof betaenergy
particlesbetween
of maximum 0.8 andenergy
3.0 MeV between 0.8 and 3.0 MeV
is given roughly by the Feather
is given (1938)
roughlyrelation(a)
by the Feather
Using(1938)this formula,
relation(a)findUsing this formula, find
what thickness of aluminum what thickness
sheet (density of aluminum
2.7 g/cm3sheet ) is enough
(density to2.7 g/cm
stop the3) is enough to stop the
betas from phosphorus-32 betas(seefromTable
phosphorus-32
3.2). (b) Repeat (see
theTable
calculation
3.2). (b)using
Repeat thethe calculation using th
Katz-Penfold relation ofKatz-Penfold
Eq. (5.2). relation of Eq. (5.2).
5.8 A radiation worker’s
5.8 hands
A radiation
are exposed worker’s
for 5 s
hands
to a are
3 × 10
exposed
8/(cm2for
 s) beam
5 s to of
a 3 × 108/(cm2 s) beam of
1 MeV beta particles. Find 1 MeV
the range
beta particles.
in tissue of Find
density
the range
1.0 g/cm
in tissue
3 andof calculate
density 1.0 g/cm3 and calcula
the amounts of charge and the amounts
energy deposition
of charge in andC/cmenergy
3 and deposition
J/g. Note thatin C/cm
the 3 and J/g. Note that th
charge on the electron ischarge
1.60 × 10on the
–19 C.electron
For tissue,
is 1.60 × 10
use the–19 equation
C. For tissue,
in Exercise
use the equation in Exercis
5.7. 5.7.
5.9 Calculate the 5.9energy gainCalculate
by an electron
the energy struck
gainhead-on
by an electron
by an alpha
struckparticle
head-on by an alpha particle
of energy 4 MeV; see Exercise
of energy 4.19.4 MeV;
How manysee Exercise
such collisions
4.19. How would
manyit such
take tocollisions would it take t
reduce the alpha particle reduce
energy thetoalpha
1 MeV? particle energy to 1 MeV?
5.10 At a certain time
5.10after the
AtBig
a certain
Bang,time high-speed
after thephotons
Big Bang, collided
high-speed
to formphotons
elec- collided to form ele
trons and positrons. Assuming
trons and energies
positrons. of 0.51 MeV
Assumingeach, energies
whatoftemperature
0.51 MeV each, what temperatur
is implied? is implied?
5.11 Find the percentage
5.11 reduction
Find thethrough
percentage 1.5 cmreduction
of lead through
from a gamma-ray
1.5 cm of lead flux from a gamma-ray flu
produced by (a) 137Cs, (b) produced
40K, and by (c) (a)
99Mo.
137Cs, (b) 40K, and (c) 99Mo.

5.12 Find the resultant

5.12 maximumFind the andresultant
minimum maximum
photon energies
and minimum of incident
photon energies of incident
50-keV X-rays passing through
50-keV X-rays
a thin aluminum
passing throughfoil anda making
thin aluminum
no morefoil than
and making no more tha
one collision. one collision.
5.13 Compare the 5.13
percent energy
Compare changethe ofpercent
10 keVenergy
and 10 MeV
changephotons
of 10 keV scattered
and 10 MeV photons scattere
at 90°. What conclusionatdo90°. these
What results
conclusion
suggest? do these results suggest?
5.14 (a) Find the fractional
5.14 energy (a) Findlosstheforfractional
a 20-keVenergy
X-ray scattered
loss for afrom20-keV an X-ray
electronscattered from an electro
at angle 180° and compare at angle
with 180°
2E/E0and. (b)compare
Find the with final 2E/E
energy
0. (b)
forFind
a 10-MeV
the final energy for a 10-Me
gamma ray scattered from gammaan electron
ray scattered
at 180°fromand an compare
electron with
at 180°
E0/2.and compare with E0/2.
5.15 Revisit Exercise5.15
4.19 forRevisit
the caseExercise
of u2 = 04.19with
for mthe
2  case
 m1. of
Verify
u2 = 0
thatwith
the m final
2   m1. Verify that the final

energy of m2 is E2 = 4 E1energy

m2/m1 of where
m2 isE1E2is = 4
theEinitial
1m2/menergy
1 whereof E1mis1.the initial energy of m1.
5.16 Determine the5.16 kinetic energy
Determine
(in MeV)
the kinetic
at which energy
the following
(in MeV)particles
at whichcan the be
following particles can b
considered relativistic: (a)considered
electron, relativistic:
(b) proton, (a)(c) neutron,
electron, (d)(b) deuteron,
proton, (c) (e) neutron, (d) deuteron, (e)
triton, and (f ) alpha. triton, and (f ) alpha.
5.17 Confirm the consistency
5.17 Confirm
betweenthe theconsistency
two expressionsbetween of Eq.
the (5.1)
two expressions
when con- of Eq. (5.1) when con
sidering that E ,avg   E ,max
sidering
/3. that E ,avg   E ,max/3.
5.18 Compute the 5.18 mass attenuation
Computecoefficient
the mass for attenuation
U3O8 at 1.25 MeV
coefficientgiven for Uthat
3O8 at 1.25 MeV given that

μ/ for uranium and oxygen μ/ for areuranium

0.06370and andoxygen
0.05697 cm
are 0.06370
2/g, respectively.
and 0.05697 cm2/g, respectively.
5.19 Compute the 5.19 half-thickness
Compute
of gamma
the half-thickness
rays from Cs-137 of gammafor shielding
rays from com-Cs-137 for shielding com-
posed of (a) lead, (b) iron,posed
(c) concrete,
of (a) lead,and(b)(d)
iron,
water.
(c) concrete, and (d) water.
5.20 Find the range5.20in (a) airFind
and (b)
thetissue
rangeof inan(a) alpha
air and particle
(b) tissue
emitted
of anby alpha
Po-210.particle emitted by Po-210
Tissue has a similar effective
Tissueatomic
has a mass
similaraseffective
air (i.e., M
atomic
tissue ≈ M
massair),as
butaira (i.e.,
densityMtissue ≈ Mair), but a densi
more like water. more like water.
5.21 5.21
Use Eq. (4.17) and the data of Table A.5 to compute the −13.6 eV electron
ionization energy of hydrogen.
Use Eq. (4.17) and the data of Table A.5 to compute the −13.6 eV electron
ionization energy of hydrogen.
travel in the same direction (state). As is clear from these diagrams, absorption is the
time reverse of emission.
travel in the same direction (state). As is clear from these diagrams, absorption is the
time reverse of emission.
be larger than the rate of absorption. In the context of the present work, stimulated
emission is only of interest as the mechanism required to produce sources of
photons in optical measurement instrumentation, and we will only discuss it further
when we analyze such optical instruments and their characteristics and limitations.
 be larger than the rate of absorption. In the context of the present work, stimulated
emission is only of interest as the mechanism required to produce sources of
photons in optical measurement instrumentation, and we will only discuss it further
when we analyze such optical instruments and their characteristics and limitations.

The Feynman diagram The Feynman

on the right-hand
diagram on sidethe
of right-hand
Figure 1.1 showsside oftheFigure
absorption
1.1 shows the absorption
process. Ni+1 photonsprocess.
in oneNi+1initial
photons
state in
of one
the field
initialinteract
state ofwith
the an
fieldelectron.
interactOne with an electron. One
of the photons is absorbed.
of the photons This leaves
is absorbed.
Ni photonsThis in
leaves
the final
Ni photons
state ofinthethefield,
final state of the field,
which in this case iswhich
identical
in this
to case
the initial
is identical
state. Note
to thethatinitial
thestate.
absorption
Note that diagram
the absorption
is diagram is
precisely the time-reversed
preciselydiagram
the time-reversed
of the emission
diagramprocess.
of theItemission
can be shown
process.thatItthe
can be shown that the
equations of QED,equations
like their classical
of QED, electrodynamics
like their classicalcounterpart,
electrodynamics
are symmetrical
counterpart, are symmetrical
in time. The resultsinunder
time. time
The results
reversalunder
musttimetherefore
reversal be must
identical.
therefore
Givenbe ouridentical.
pre- Given our pre-
vious analysis of thevious
stimulated
analysisemission
of the stimulated
probability,emission
the corresponding
probability, the probability
corresponding probability
of absorption of a photon
of absorption
from aofstate
a photon
of thefrom
field athat
state contains
of the field
Ni + 1that
photons
contains is Ni + 1 photons is
therefore (Ni + 1)p.therefore
After absorbing
(Ni + 1)p.
theAfter
photon,
absorbing
the electron
the photon,
will gain
theeither
electronkinetic
will gain either kinetic
energy if it is already
energy
movingif it freely
is already
in space
movingor potential
freely in energy
space orif potential
it is bound energy
to a if it is bound to a
nucleus. Note thatnucleus.
the probability
Note thatof absorption
the probability
of a photon
of absorption
per initial
of a photon
photon in per initial photon in
the field is constanttheand field
equal
is constant
to p. Thus,andgiven
equala to
medium
p. Thus,with given
a uniform
a medium density
with of
a uniform density of
bound absorbing electrons
bound absorbing
which is electrons
much larger which
thanis the
much number
largerofthan
photons,
the number
the of photons, the
number of photonsnumber will decayof photons
exponentially
will decay
sinceexponentially
the number of since
electrons
the number
in the of electrons in the
medium will be to medium
a first approximation
will be to a firstunchanged.
approximation
This isunchanged.
often referred Thistoisasoften
the referred to as the
Beer–Lambert law.Beer–Lambert law.
Semiconductor radiation detectors typically consist of a semiconductor dielectric
material sandwiched between two electrodes. An electric field is established in the
dielectric by applying high voltage across the electrodes. Gamma ray interactions
produce free electron-hole pairs which drift in opposite directions in the electric
field. As they drift, they induce charge on the electrodes, which is measured using a
charge-sensitive preamplifier. The amplitude of the charge pulse, or pulse-height, is
proportional to the energy deposited by the gamma ray. Consequently, a histogram
of pulse heights, known as a pulse-height spectrum, measured for many interactions
provides information about the energy distribution of the incident gamma rays.
 Semiconductor radiation detectors typically consist of a semiconductor dielectric
material sandwiched between two electrodes. An electric field is established in the
dielectric by applying high voltage across the electrodes. Gamma ray interactions
produce free electron-hole pairs which drift in opposite directions in the electric
field. As they drift, they induce charge on the electrodes, which is measured using a
charge-sensitive preamplifier. The amplitude of the charge pulse, or pulse-height, is
proportional to the energy deposited by the gamma ray. Consequently, a histogram
of pulse heights, known as a pulse-height spectrum, measured for many interactions
provides information about the energy distribution of the incident gamma rays.

For example, a diagram

For example,
of a high-purity
a diagramgermanium
of a high-purity
(HPGe) germanium
detector is (HPGe)
shown in detector is shown in
Fig. 6a along with aFig.
photograph
6a along with
of anaHPGe
photograph
crystal of
in an
Fig.HPGe
6b. The
crystal
closed-end
in Fig. 6b.
coaxial
The closed-end coaxial
geometry is designedgeometry
to minimize
is designed
trapping
to minimize
of carrierstrapping
as they drift
of carriers
to the electrodes.
as they drift to the electrodes.
To minimize noiseTo due
minimize
to leakagenoise
current,
due tothe
leakage
HPGecurrent,
must bethe
operated
HPGe atmust
verybelow
operated at very low
temperatures. The temperatures.
requirement for Thecooling
requirement
adds tofor
thecooling
mass and
addscomplexity
to the mass of and
the complexity of the
design for space applications.
design for space applications.
FIGURE 6. (a) Schematic diagram of a coaxial HPGe spectrometer and gam-
ma ray interactions; (b) photograph of a HPGe cystal; (c) diagram of a scintilla-
tion-based spectrometer with neutron interactions; and (d) assembly diagram for
a boron-loaded plastic scintillator for a flight experiment, including the mechanical
structure (including packaging designed to withstand the vibrational environment
during launch).
 FIGURE 6. (a) Schematic diagram of a coaxial HPGe spectrometer and gam-
ma ray interactions; (b) photograph of a HPGe cystal; (c) diagram of a scintilla-
tion-based spectrometer with neutron interactions; and (d) assembly diagram for
a boron-loaded plastic scintillator for a flight experiment, including the mechanical
structure (including packaging designed to withstand the vibrational environment
during launch).

(Part b courtesy of (Part

AMETEK,
b courtesy
Advanced
of AMETEK,
Measurement
Advanced
Technology,
Measurement
Inc., ORTEC
Technology, Inc., ORTEC
Product Line, 801 South
ProductIllinois
Line, Avenue,
801 South
Oak
Illinois
Ridge,Avenue,
TN 37830).
Oak Ridge, TN 37830).
FIGURE 7. GammaFIGURE ray spectra
7. Gamma
acquired raybyspectra
HPGe acquired
(black) andby BGO
HPGe(red)(black)
spectrom-
and BGO (red) spectrom-
eters. To improve visualization,
eters. To improve
the spectrum
visualization,
for BGO
the spectrum
has been formultiplied
BGO has bybeen
100. multiplied by 100.
The source was moderated
The sourceneutrons,
was moderated
with energyneutrons,
distribution
with energy
similardistribution
to a planetary
similar to a planetary
leakage spectrum, leakage
incidentspectrum,
on an ironincident
slab. Gamma
on anrays
ironfrom
slab. natural
Gammaradioactivity
rays from natural
in radioactivity in
the environment are thealso
environment
visible (from
areKalso
at 1461
visible
keV(from
and Th
K atat1461
2615keV keV).
andA Th
gamma
at 2615 keV). A gamma
ray at 2223 keV fromrayneutron
at 2223 capture
keV from with
neutron
H (fromcapture
polyethylene
with H (from
in thepolyethylene
moderator) isin the moderator) is
a prominent feature a prominent
in the HPGefeature
and BGOin thespectra.
HPGeMajorand BGO
gammaspectra.
raysMajor
from neutron
gamma rays from neutron
interactions with Feinteractions
that are resolved
with Fe
bythat
the are
HPGeresolved
spectrometer
by the HPGe
are labeled:
spectrometer
(1) 7646-
are labeled: (1) 7646-
and 7631-keV doublet
and from
7631-keV
neutron
doublet
capture;
from(2)
neutron
their single
capture;
escape
(2) their
peaks;single
(3) 6019-
escape peaks; (3) 6019-
and 5921-keV gamma
and rays
5921-keV
from neutron
gamma rays
capture;
from(4)
neutron
their single
capture;
escape
(4) their
peaks;single
and escape peaks; and
(5) 846.7 keV gamma
(5) 846.7
ray from
keVneutron
gammainelastic
ray fromscattering.
neutron inelastic scattering.

(HPGe spectrum courtesy

(HPGe spectrum
of S. Garner,
courtesy
J. Shergur,
of S. Garner,
and D. Mercer
J. Shergur,
of Los
andAlamos
D. Mercer of Los Alamos
National Laboratory).
National Laboratory).
neutrons are detected by the 10B(n, )7 Li reaction. The recoiling reaction products
(alpha particle and 7Li ion) produce ionization equivalent to a 93 keV electron,
which makes a well-defined peak in the pulse height spectrum. The area of the
peak depends on the flux of incident thermal and epithermal neutrons. Thermal
neutrons can be filtered out by wrapping the scintillator in a Cd foil, which strongly
absorbs neutrons with energies below about 0.5 eV. Thus, the combination of a
bare and Cd-covered scintillator can be used to separately measure contributions
from thermal and epithermal neutrons. Above about 500 keV, light is produced by
recoiling protons from neutron elastic scattering with hydrogen in the scintillator.
Fast neutrons (greater than about 500 keV) can be detected by a prompt pulse
from proton recoils followed a short time later by a second pulse, corresponding to
neutron capture of the moderated neutron by 10B. This characteristic, double-pulse
time signature can be used to identify, and separately measure, fast neutron events.
 neutrons are detected by the 10B(n, )7 Li reaction. The recoiling reaction products
(alpha particle and 7Li ion) produce ionization equivalent to a 93 keV electron,
which makes a well-defined peak in the pulse height spectrum. The area of the
peak depends on the flux of incident thermal and epithermal neutrons. Thermal
neutrons can be filtered out by wrapping the scintillator in a Cd foil, which strongly
absorbs neutrons with energies below about 0.5 eV. Thus, the combination of a
bare and Cd-covered scintillator can be used to separately measure contributions
from thermal and epithermal neutrons. Above about 500 keV, light is produced by
recoiling protons from neutron elastic scattering with hydrogen in the scintillator.
Fast neutrons (greater than about 500 keV) can be detected by a prompt pulse
from proton recoils followed a short time later by a second pulse, corresponding to
neutron capture of the moderated neutron by 10B. This characteristic, double-pulse
time signature can be used to identify, and separately measure, fast neutron events.

Scintillators are also

Scintillators
used routinely
are also
for gamma
used routinely
ray spectroscopy.
for gammaFor ray example,
spectroscopy.
a For example, a
pulse height spectrumpulseacquired
height spectrum
by a bismuth acquired
germanate
by a bismuth
(BGO) scintillator
germanateis(BGO) shown scintillator is shown
in Fig. 7. The sourcein was
Fig. exactly
7. The source
the same wasasexactly
measuredthe same
by theasHPGe
measured
spectrometer,
by the HPGe spectrometer,
and the two spectraand share
thesimilar
two spectra
peak share
features.
similar
Note,peak
however,
features.
thatNote,
the peaks
however,
mea- that the peaks mea-
sured by BGO are sured
considerably
by BGObroaderare considerably
than thosebroader
measured thanbythose
HPGe. measured
The width by HPGe. The width
of the peaks is caused
of the
by peaks
statistical
is caused
variations
by statistical
in the number
variations
of scintillation
in the number photons
of scintillation photons
produced in the BGO. produced
Similar indispersion
the BGO. Similar
occurs fordispersion
charge carriers
occurs for
(electrons
charge and
carriers (electrons and
holes) in the HPGeholes)
crystal;
in however,
the HPGethe crystal;
effecthowever,
is far lessthe
pronounced.
effect is farThe
lesspulse
pronounced. The pulse
height resolution as height
measured
resolution
by theasfull-width-at-half-maximum
measured by the full-width-at-half-maximum
(FWHM) of the (FWHM) of the
gamma ray peaks isgamma
much worse
ray peaks
for the
is much
BGO worse
than the forHPGe.
the BGO Thethan
ability
theofHPGe.
the HPGe
The ability of the HPGe
technology to resolvetechnology
individual to peaks
resolveis individual
coveted bypeaksthe planetary
is covetedspectroscopist;
by the planetary spectroscopist;
however, the addedhowever,
cost andthecomplexity
added cost of HPGe
and complexity
relative toofscintillation
HPGe relative technology
to scintillation technology
has made scintillators
has competitive
made scintillators
for some
competitive
missions.for some missions.

Other technologiesOther
that have
technologies
been flown thatfor
have
gamma
beenrayflownandfor
neutron
gammadetection
ray and neutron detection
include 3He ionization
include
chambers
3He ionization
(for thermal
chambers
and epithermal
(for thermalneutron
and epithermal
detection neutron
on detection on
Lunar Prospector) Lunar
and various
Prospector)
scintillators,
and various
including
scintillators,
Tl-dopedincluding
NaI on NEAR
Tl-doped
and NaI on NEAR and
Apollo and Tl-doped Apollo
CsI on
andPhobos.
Tl-dopedTheCsIDawnon Phobos.
missionThewill Dawn
fly a new
mission
compound
will fly a new compound
semiconductor technology
semiconductor
(CdZnTe),
technology
which has (CdZnTe),
significantly
whichimproved
has significantly
pulse height
improved pulse height
resolution relative resolution
to BGO and, relative
in contrast
to BGO to and,
HPGe, in contrast
can be operated
to HPGe, atcan
ambient
be operated at ambient
temperatures. temperatures.
In International Geophysics, 2004
 In International Geophysics, 2004

Exercises Exercises

Distance Scales Distance

in the Universe
Scales in the Universe
II.1 An amateur astronomer
II.1 Anwith
amateur
a smallastronomer
telescope sees
withaastar
small
that
telescope
is spectrally
sees a star that is spectrally
identical to the Sun, butidentical
1012 times
to fainter
the Sun,than
butthe
1012
Sun.
times
Shefainter
has nothan
equipment
the Sun. She has no equipmen
for measuring parallaxes,forbut
measuring
wishes toparallaxes,
estimate the
but parallax
wishes toof estimate
the star. the
Howparallax of the star. Ho
might she do it? might she do it?

The Big Bang The Big Bang

II.2 High-energy photons
II.2 are
High-energy
easy to detectphotons
from arean observatory
easy to detectin space,
from an but
observatory in space, but
infrared photons require infrared
more specialized
photons require
equipment
more such
specialized
as cooled
equipment
detec- such as cooled detec-
tors. An astronomer wishes
tors.to
Anmeasure
astronomer the total
wishesenergy
to measure
output the
of atotal
star energy
with output of a star with
a temperature of 10,000a Ktemperature
with an error of (due
10,000to “missed”
K with an photons
error (dueof to
long
“missed” photons of long
wavelength) of less thanwavelength)
1%; of the total
of less
incident
than 1%;flux.ofAccording
the total incident
to the Planck
flux. According to the Planc
function, to how long a function,
wavelength to must
how longhe observe
a wavelength
in order
must
to ensure
he observe
that he
in order to ensure that h
covers at least 99%; of the
covers
flux?atNote:
leastthis
99%; problem
of the flux?
is to Note:
be solved
this by
problem
numerical
is to be solved by numeric
integration on a computer.
integration
Attach your
on a printout.
computer. Attach your printout.
II.3 A gas in equilibrium
II.3 with
A gas
a Planckian
in equilibrium
radiationwithfield
a Planckian
is so hot radiation
that photonsfield is so hot that photons
with the most probable with
energytheare
most
capable
probable
of creating
energy electron-positron
are capable of creating
pairs.electron-positron pair
What is the temperatureWhatof the
is the
gas?temperature of the gas?
II.4 A gas in equilibrium
II.4 with
A gas
a Planckian
in equilibrium
radiation withfield
a Planckian
is hot enough
radiation
so that
field
only
is hot enough so that on
one photon in a milliononehas photon
enoughin energy
a million
to make
has enough
an electron.
energyCompare
to makethe an electron. Compare th
rate of pair production to
rate
that
of pair
in Problem
production
II.3. to that in Problem II.3.
II.5 A nuclear explosion
II.5 in space
A nuclear
produces
explosion
1030 free
in space
neutrons.
produces
After10130day,
freehow
neutrons. After 1 day, how
many of the neutrons havemany not
ofyet
thedecayed?
neutrons have not yet decayed?
II.6 Estimate the temperature
II.6 Estimate
at whichthethe
temperature
most-probable
at which
photon
the energy
most-probable
is just photon energy is just
sufficient to destroy a Dsufficient
nucleus by to photodisintegration.
destroy a D nucleus by photodisintegration.
II.7 How much energyII.7 is produced
How much by the
energy
nuclear
is produced
reaction by
2H the
+ 10nuclear
B → 12C?reaction
Give 2H + 10B → 12C? Give
the answer in MeV per event,
the answer
gramsinperMeV
gram,
per event,
and kWgrams
hr perper
tonne.
gram,Note:
and the
kW hr per tonne. Note: th
metric tonne is 1000 kg,metric
or 1 Mg.
tonne is 1000 kg, or 1 Mg.

Galaxy and Star Galaxy

Formation
and Star Formation
II.8 The derivationII.8
of the Jeans
Thecriterion
derivation
assumes
of the Jeans
dramatically
criterion
oversimplified
assumes dramatically
initial oversimplified initi
conditions. Give a qualitative
conditions.
discussion
Give aofqualitative
how the gasdiscussion
behaviorofmight
how the
be gas behavior might be
altered if the gas is dustyaltered
and opaque
if the gas
rather
is dusty
thanand
veryopaque
transparent,
ratheras
than
wasvery transparent, as was
assumed in the derivation. assumed in the derivation.
II.9 II.9
The M:L ratio of an assemblage
The M:L ofratio
stars
of is
anstrongly
assemblage
influenced
of starsbyis the
strongly
kindsinfluenced
of by the kinds o
stars found in it. Comparestarsthe
found
M:L ratios
in it. Compare
of a galaxy
thethat
M:Lconsists
ratios ofofaB-type
galaxy that consists of B-type
Main Sequence stars and Main
a galaxy
Sequence
that contains
stars andonly
a galaxy
M-typethatMain
contains
Sequence
only M-type Main Sequence
stars. Consult Figs. II.7 stars.
and II.10
Consult
for data.
Figs. II.7 and II.10 for data.
II.15
The O-type and
II.15
M-typeTheMS O-type
stars differ
and enormously
M-type MS stars
in mass,
differ luminosity,
enormously color
in mass, luminosity, colo
(temperature), and Main(temperature),
Sequence lifetime,
and Main
but all
Sequence
operate by
lifetime,
fusingbut
hydrogen
all operate by fusing hydroge
and giving off light. Suppose
and giving
a typical
off light.
MS star
Suppose
uses up a typical
(fuses) MS50%;star
of uses
its up (fuses) 50%; of its
hydrogen fuel to heliumhydrogen
over its MS
fuellifetime.
to helium
What
overfraction
its MS oflifetime.
that star's
What fraction of that star's
original mass is radiatedoriginal
off as light?
mass is radiated off as light?
ratio as a function of time and explain how it, along with the 208Pb/206Pb and
208Pb/207Pb ratios, can be used to provide three independent determinations

of the age of the mineral sample.c.When 208Pb is used in dating, what further
information is required beyond that given above?
ratio as a function of time and explain how it, along with the 208Pb/206Pb and
208Pb/207Pb ratios, can be used to provide three independent determinations

of the age of the mineral sample.c.When 208Pb is used in dating, what further
information is required beyond that given above?
of pulse heights, known as a pulse height spectrum, provides information about the
energy distribution of the incident gamma rays.
 of pulse heights, known as a pulse height spectrum, provides information about the
energy distribution of the incident gamma rays.

For example, a diagram

For example,
of a high-purity
a diagram germanium
of a high-purity
(HPGe) germanium
detector is (HPGe)
shown indetector is shown in
Figure 54.6(a) alongFigure 54.6(a)
with a photograph
along with
of ana HPGe
photograph
crystalofinan
Figure 54.6(b).
HPGe crystalThe in Figure 54.6(b). The
closed-end coaxialclosed-end
geometry iscoaxial
designedgeometry
to minimize
is designed
trappingto minimize
of carrierstrapping
as they of carriers as they
drift to the electrodes.
driftTo
tominimize
the electrodes.
noise To
dueminimize
to leakage
noise
current,
due to
theleakage
HPGe current,
must bethe HPGe must be
operated at cryogenic
operated
temperatures.
at cryogenic
The temperatures.
requirement for The
cooling
requirement
adds toforthecooling
mass adds to the mass
and complexity of and
the design
complexity
for space
of theapplications.
design for space applications.

FIGURE 54.6. (a) Schematic

FIGURE 54.6.diagram
(a) Schematic
of a coaxialdiagram
HPGe spectrometer
of a coaxial HPGeand gam-
spectrometer and gam-
ma ray interactions;
ma(b)ray
photograph
interactions;
of a(b)HPGe
photograph
crystal; of
(c) adiagram
HPGe crystal;
of a scintilla-
(c) diagram of a scintilla-
tion-based spectrometer
tion-based
with spectrometer
neutron interactions;
with neutron
and (d) interactions;
assembly diagram
and (d) assembly
for diagram for
a boron-loaded plastic
a boron-loaded
scintillator for
plastic
Dawn'sscintillator
Gammafor RayDawn's
and Neutron
GammaDetector,
Ray and Neutron Detector,
including the housing
including
and packaging
the housing designed
and packaging
to withstand
designed
the vibrational
to withstand
envi-
the vibrational envi-
ronment during launch.
ronment during launch.

Part (b) courtesy ofPart

AMETEK,
(b) courtesy
Advanced
of AMETEK,
Measurement
Advanced
Technology,
Measurement
Inc., ORTEC
Technology, Inc., ORTEC
Product Line, 801 South
ProductIllinois
Line, Avenue,
801 South
Oak
Illinois
Ridge,Avenue,
TN 37830.
Oak Ridge, TN 37830.

A hypothetical gamma
A hypothetical
ray interaction
gammais superimposed
ray interactiononis the
superimposed
diagram in on Fig-the diagram in Fig-
ure 54.6(a). Gammaure 54.6(a).
rays undergo
Gamma
threerays
types
undergo
of interactions:
three typespairofproduction,
interactions: pair production,
Compton scattering,
Compton
and photoelectric
scattering, effect.
and photoelectric
High-energyeffect.
gammaHigh-energy
rays (greater
gamma rays (greater
than 1.022 MeV) can undergo pair production, in which the gamma ray disappears
and an electron–positron pair is produced. The kinetic energy of the electron and
positron is absorbed by the medium. When the positron is annihilated by an elec-
tron, two back-to-back (511 keV) gamma rays are produced, which can undergo
additional interactions. In Compton scattering, a portion of the energy of the gamma
ray is transferred to an electron. The energy lost by the gamma ray depends on the
scattering angle. At low energies, the gamma ray can be absorbed by an electron via
the photoelectric effect. All these interactions vary strongly with the atomic number
(Z) and density of the detector material. High Z, high density, and a large sensitive
volume are desired to maximize the probability that all the energy of the incident
gamma ray is absorbed in the detector.
 than 1.022 MeV) can undergo pair production, in which the gamma ray disappears
and an electron–positron pair is produced. The kinetic energy of the electron and
positron is absorbed by the medium. When the positron is annihilated by an elec-
tron, two back-to-back (511 keV) gamma rays are produced, which can undergo
additional interactions. In Compton scattering, a portion of the energy of the gamma
ray is transferred to an electron. The energy lost by the gamma ray depends on the
scattering angle. At low energies, the gamma ray can be absorbed by an electron via
the photoelectric effect. All these interactions vary strongly with the atomic number
(Z) and density of the detector material. High Z, high density, and a large sensitive
volume are desired to maximize the probability that all the energy of the incident
gamma ray is absorbed in the detector.

A pulse height spectrum

A pulseforheight
a large
spectrum
volume for(slightly
a largelarger
volumethan(slightly
the crystal
larger
flown
than the crystal flown
on Mars Odyssey), coaxial
on MarsHPGeOdyssey),
detector
coaxial
is shown
HPGe in detector
Figure 54.7.
is shown
Theingamma
Figure 54.7.
rays The gamma rays
were produced by moderated
were produced neutrons,
by moderated
with an energy
neutrons,distribution
with an energy
similardistribution
to the similar to the
lunar leakage spectrum,
lunar leakage
incidentspectrum,
on an Fe slab.
incident
Well-defined
on an Fe slab.
peaksWell-defined
corresponding peaks corresponding
to neutron capturetoandneutron
inelastic
capture
scattering
and inelastic
with Fe appear
scatteringin the
withspectrum.
Fe appearForin the spectrum. For
example, the doublet
example,
labeledthe
Fe(1)
doublet
corresponds
labeled toFe(1)
gamma
corresponds
rays (7646to gamma
and 7631 keV)
rays (7646 and 7631 keV)
produced by neutronproduced
capturebywith
neutron
Fe. The
capture
peakswith
labeled
Fe. Fe(2)
The peaks
are shifted
labeled511 keV
Fe(2) are shifted 511 keV
lower in energy andlower
correspond
in energy toand
the escape
correspond
of oneto of
thethe
escape
511 keV
of one
gamma
of therays
511 keV gamma rays
produced by pair production
produced by in pair
the spectrometer.
production in The the spectrometer.
continuum that The
underlies
continuum the that underlies the
peaks is caused by peaks
external
is caused
Compton by external
scattering Compton
and the scattering
escape of gamma
and the rays
escapethatof gamma rays that
scattered in the spectrometer.
scattered in Gamma
the spectrometer.
rays from Gamma
neutron rayscapture
fromwithneutron
H andcapture
the with H and the
radioactive decay ofradioactive
K and Th aredecay
also
ofvisible.
K and Th are also visible.
FIGURE 54.7. Gamma ray spectra acquired in the laboratory by liquid nitro-
gen-cooled HPGe (black) and BGO (red) spectrometers. The BGO spectrometer is
part of Dawn's Gamma Ray and Neutron Detector (GRaND). To improve visualiza-
tion, the spectrum for BGO has been multiplied by 100. The source was moderated
neutrons, with energy distribution similar to a planetary leakage spectrum, incident
on an iron slab. Gamma rays from natural radioactivity in the environment are also
visible (from K at 1461 keV and Th at 2615 keV). A gamma ray at 2223 keV from
neutron capture with H (from polyethylene in the moderator) is a prominent feature
in the HPGe and BGO spectra. Major gamma rays from neutron interactions with
Fe that are resolved by the HPGe spectrometer are labeled: (1) 7646 and 7631 keV
doublet from neutron capture; (2) their single escape peaks; (3) 6019 and 5921 keV
gamma rays from neutron capture; (4) their single escape peaks; and (5) 846.7 keV
gamma ray from neutron inelastic scattering.
 FIGURE 54.7. Gamma ray spectra acquired in the laboratory by liquid nitro-
gen-cooled HPGe (black) and BGO (red) spectrometers. The BGO spectrometer is
part of Dawn's Gamma Ray and Neutron Detector (GRaND). To improve visualiza-
tion, the spectrum for BGO has been multiplied by 100. The source was moderated
neutrons, with energy distribution similar to a planetary leakage spectrum, incident
on an iron slab. Gamma rays from natural radioactivity in the environment are also
visible (from K at 1461 keV and Th at 2615 keV). A gamma ray at 2223 keV from
neutron capture with H (from polyethylene in the moderator) is a prominent feature
in the HPGe and BGO spectra. Major gamma rays from neutron interactions with
Fe that are resolved by the HPGe spectrometer are labeled: (1) 7646 and 7631 keV
doublet from neutron capture; (2) their single escape peaks; (3) 6019 and 5921 keV
gamma rays from neutron capture; (4) their single escape peaks; and (5) 846.7 keV
gamma ray from neutron inelastic scattering.

HPGe spectrum courtesy

HPGe spectrum
of S. Garner,
courtesy
J. Shergur,
of S. Garner,
and D. Mercer
J. Shergur,
of Los
andAlamos
D. Mercer of Los Alamos
National Laboratory.
National Laboratory.
Scintillators are also used routinely for gamma ray spectroscopy. For example,
a pulse height spectrum acquired by a bismuth germanate (BGO) scintillator is
shown in Figure 54.7. The source was exactly the same as measured by the HPGe
spectrometer, and the two spectra share similar peak features. Note, however, that
the peaks measured by BGO are considerably broader than those measured by
HPGe. For BGO, the width of the peaks is controlled by statistical variations in the
number of scintillation photons produced by full-energy gamma ray interactions.
Similar dispersion occurs for charge carriers (electrons and holes) produced in the
HPGe crystal; however, the effect is far less pronounced. Pulse height resolution is
determined by the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the gamma ray peaks,
which is often quoted for a standard gamma ray (e.g. the 1332 keV gamma ray
from 60Co). Spectrometers that produce narrower peaks have higher resolution
and, in principle, contain more detailed information about the incident gamma ray
spectrum and backgrounds.
 Scintillators are also used routinely for gamma ray spectroscopy. For example,
a pulse height spectrum acquired by a bismuth germanate (BGO) scintillator is
shown in Figure 54.7. The source was exactly the same as measured by the HPGe
spectrometer, and the two spectra share similar peak features. Note, however, that
the peaks measured by BGO are considerably broader than those measured by
HPGe. For BGO, the width of the peaks is controlled by statistical variations in the
number of scintillation photons produced by full-energy gamma ray interactions.
Similar dispersion occurs for charge carriers (electrons and holes) produced in the
HPGe crystal; however, the effect is far less pronounced. Pulse height resolution is
determined by the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the gamma ray peaks,
which is often quoted for a standard gamma ray (e.g. the 1332 keV gamma ray
from 60Co). Spectrometers that produce narrower peaks have higher resolution
and, in principle, contain more detailed information about the incident gamma ray
spectrum and backgrounds.

The ability of the HPGe

The ability
technology
of the to
HPGe
resolve
technology
individual
to peaks
resolveis individual
coveted bypeaks
the is coveted by the
planetary spectroscopist;
planetary
however,
spectroscopist;
the addedhowever,
cost andthe
complexity
added costof HPGe
and complexity
relative toof HPGe relative to
scintillation technology
scintillation
has madetechnology
scintillators
has competitive
made scintillators
for somecompetitive
missions.for
HPGe
some missions. HPGe
has been successfully
hasflown
been successfully
on three planetary
flown on missions
three planetary
(Table 54.1).
missions
A comparison
(Table 54.1). A comparison
between whole Moon between
spectrawhole
acquired
Moonbyspectra
Lunar acquired
Prospectorby(BGO),
Lunar Prospector
Chang'E-2 (BGO), Chang'E-2
(LaBr3), and Kaguya(LaBr
(HPGe)
3), and
is shown
Kaguyain(HPGe)
Figure 54.8.
is shown in Figure 54.8.

TABLE 54.1. SummaryTABLE of 54.1.

Planetary
Summary
Science of and
Planetary
Exploration
Science
Missions
and Exploration
with Gamma
Missions with Gamma
Ray and/or Neutron Ray
Spectrometers.
and/or Neutron Missions
Spectrometers.
prior to Apollo,
Missions
including
prior toLuna
Apollo,
andincluding Luna and
Ranger, are not listed
Ranger,
(for information
are not listedabout
(for information
these missions,
aboutseethese
Bibliography).
missions, see Bibliography).

Mission Coun- Launch

Mission Status Planet
Coun- Orbit Map-
LaunchGam- Neu-Status Results Planet O
try/Pro- Date(s) or try/Pro- ping
Date(s)ma Ray tron and/or or
gram Minor
gram Dura- Spec- Spec- Objec- Minor
Body tion1 trome- trome- tives2 Body
ter ter
Apollo US July
Apollo
26, Com- Moon
US Equator- 10.5 
July 26,NaI(Tl) None
Com- Maps of Moon E
15 and 1971
15 and pleted ial orbit days
1971 with pleted major ia
16 April
16 cover- (Apollo
April plastic and c
16, 1972 ing 15 16,
and1972 anticoin- radioac- in
20% of 16 cidence tive 2
the com- shield ele- th
lunar bined) ments, lu
surface includ- s
ing Fe,
Ti, and
Th
Venera 8 USSR March
Venera 8Com- Venus
USSR Not 42 min
March NaI(Tl) None
Com- Abun- Venus N
27, 1972 pleted applica- of data
27, 1972 pleted dances a
ble acquisi- of K, Th, b
(N/A): tion on and U; (N
descent the found d
mod- surface K/Th m
ule/lan- ratio u
der similar d
to that
of Earth
rocks
USSR USSR CsI(Tl) None
Phobos
II3
 noncon-
dens-
able
gasses;
and
global
maps of
major
and
radioac-
tive
elements
MESSEN- US, August
MESSEN-
Primary Mercury
US, Ellipti- 1 year
AugustHPGe, 6- PrimaryMapped Mercury E
GER NASA 3,GER
2004 mission NASA cal 3, 2004actively Li-loaded
primary mission glass and boron-loaded plastic scintc
elemen-
Discov- complet- Discov-polar mission cooled complet-tal p
ery ed; ery map- began with ed; composi- m
Pro- extend- Pro- ping in boron-loadedextend-
plastiction
anticoincidence
of shield p
gram ed gram orbit March ed the o
mission with of 2011 missionnorth- w
under- periap- under-ern p
way sis at way hemi- s
400 km sphere; 4
altitude detected a
at large a
&gt;60°  amounts of hydrogen, consistent w&
N N
lati- la
tude, tu
15,000  1
km k
apoap- a
sis s
Dawn US, Septem-
Dawn Com- Main-belt
US, Survey,
bodies 4 Vesta
5 Septem- CdZnTe 6- Com- Global
and 1 Ceres Main-belt bodies 4 VesS
NASA ber 27, pleted NASA high-, months
ber 27, and Li-loaded
pleted glass and boron-loaded plastic scinth
elemen-
Discov- 2007 Vesta Discov-and data2007 BGO Vesta tal ratios a
ery en- ery low-alti- acquisi- en- confirm lo
Pro- counter; en route
Pro-to Ceres
tude tion at counter;
Vesta
en route
as to Ceres tu
gram gram circular low the HED c
polar altitude parent p
map- (210  body; m
ping km) discov- p
orbits around ered o
Vesta; exten-
Ceres sive
plan- hydro-
ning gen
under- deposits
way on
Vesta,
consis-
tent with
exo-
genic
delivery
of
hydrat-
ed
minerals
by
carbona-
ceous
chon-
drites;
search
for water
ice and
evidence
for
aqueous
alter-
ation at
Ceres
Japan Moon
Japan None Moon
SELENE
(Kaguya)
1 Refers to the time
1 periods Refers
during
to the
which
timegamma
periodsray
during
and/or
which
neutron
gamma
dataray
were
and/or neutron data wer
acquired. acquired.
2 Objectives are2listed forObjectives
Mars Observer,
are listed
DawnforatMars
Ceres,
Observer,
and BepiColumbo.
Dawn at Ceres, and BepiColumbo.

3 Neutron and 3gamma ray Neutron

spectrometers
and gammawere ray
flownspectrometers
on Phobos I,were
whichflown
wason Phobos I, which was
launched on 7 July, 1988;
launched
however, onPhobos
7 July, 1988;
I was lost
however,
duringPhobos
the cruise
I wasphase
lost during the cruise phas
of the mission. The Marsof4the
andmission.
5 missions
The (USSR,
Mars 41973)
and 5flew
missions
identical
(USSR,
sodium
1973) flew identical sodium
iodide gamma ray spectrometers.
iodide gamma A fewray
gamma
spectrometers.
ray spectra
A few
weregamma
acquiredrayby
spectra were acquired b
Mars 5 while in an elliptical
Marsorbit
5 while
around
in anMars
elliptical
(apoapsis
orbit 32,560
around km,Marsperiapsis
(apoapsis 32,560 km, periaps
1760 km, and inclination1760
35°km,
to the
andequator).
inclination 35° to the equator).
4 The High Energy
4 Neutron TheDetector
High Energy
(HEND)Neutron
on Odyssey,
Detectorthe(HEND)
Lunar Explo-
on Odyssey, the Lunar Explo-
ration Neutron Detectorration
(HEND) Neutron
on LRO,Detector
the Dynamic
(HEND)Albedo
on LRO,of the
Neutron
Dynamic Albedo of Neutron
(DAN) instrument on MSL,(DAN) andinstrument
the gamma onand
MSL,neutron
and thespectrometers
gamma and neutron
on spectrometers on
BepiColumbo were provided
BepiColumbo
by the Russian
were provided
Federation.
by the Russian Federation.

FIGURE 54.8. Gamma FIGURE 54.8.

ray spectraGamma
acquiredraybyspectra
Lunar acquired
Prospectorby(BGO),
Lunar Prospector
Kaguya (BGO), Kaguya
(HPGe) and Chang'E-2(HPGe)(LaBr
and3) Chang'E-2
missions averaged
(LaBr3) missions
over the whole
averaged Moon.The
over thedata
whole Moon.The data
were acquired in their
wererespective
acquired inlow-altitude
their respective
orbits low-altitude
(see Table 54.1).
orbitsProminent
(see Table 54.1). Prominent
peaks, mostly of lunar
peaks,
origin,
mostly
areof
labeled.
lunar origin,
For Chang'E-2,
are labeled.
strong
For Chang'E-2,
contributionsstrong
fromcontributions from
lunar K were determined
lunar Kby were
subtracting
determined
the bybackground
subtracting produced
the background
by radioactive
produced by radioactive
contaminants within contaminants
LaBr3. The Kaguya
within LaBr
spectrum
3. The contains
Kaguya spectrum
some peaks contains
(e.g. reac-
some peaks (e.g. reac-
tions with Al) that have
tionsstrong
with Al)background
that have strong
contributions
backgroundfromcontributions
nearby structural
from nearby structural
materials. The relatively
materials.
low mass
The relatively
of housing lowmaterials
mass of housing
and boom materials
deployment
and boom
min- deployment min-
imized backgroundimized
contributions
background
for the
contributions
Lunar Prospectorfor theGamma
Lunar Prospector
Ray Spectrom-Gamma Ray Spectrom-
eter. The spectrumeter.
acquired
The spectrum
by Kaguyaacquired
has broader
by Kaguya
peaks has
thanbroader
that of the
peaksspectrum
than that of the spectrum
shown in Figure 54.7,
shown
whichin Figure 54.7,
was acquiredwhich
in thewas
laboratory.
acquiredThe in the
mechanical
laboratory.
(Stirling)
The mechanical (Stirling)
cryocooler used in cryocooler
flight operations
used indoes
flightnotoperations
cool the HPGe
does notcrystal
coolasthe
effectively
HPGe crystal
as as effectively as
liquid nitrogen and is also a source of microphonic noise. In addition, low-energy
tailing due to radiation damage accrued during flight is evident.
 liquid nitrogen and is also a source of microphonic noise. In addition, low-energy
tailing due to radiation damage accrued during flight is evident.

Lunar Prospector data

Lunar
areProspector
from the NASA
data are
Planetary
from theData
NASA
System;
Planetary
Kaguya
Datadata
System;
are Kaguya data are
courtesy of N. Hasabe,
courtesy
Research
of N. Institute
Hasabe, Research
for Science
Institute
and Engineering,
for ScienceWaseda
and Engineering, Waseda
University, Japan; Chang'E-2
University, data
Japan;
areChang'E-2
courtesy ofdata
M. are
Zhu,courtesy
Space Science
of M. Zhu,
Institute,
Space Science Institute,
Macau University ofMacau
Science
University
and Technology,
of ScienceChina.
and Technology, China.
the blue jets mechanism in the model (Surkov and Hayakawa, 2012) is related to
the collection of extra positive charge at the top of the thunderstorm cloud and the
increase of the vertical quasielectrostatic field (QE), which leads to electric breakdown
at high atmosphere altitudes and, as a result, to the generation of the blue-jet type
of TLE.
 the blue jets mechanism in the model (Surkov and Hayakawa, 2012) is related to
the collection of extra positive charge at the top of the thunderstorm cloud and the
increase of the vertical quasielectrostatic field (QE), which leads to electric breakdown
at high atmosphere altitudes and, as a result, to the generation of the blue-jet type
of TLE.

Taking into accountTaking

that cloud
into account
formationthat
andcloud
thunderstorm
formation and
activity
thunderstorm
can be described
activity can be described
as a consequence ofas cosmic
a consequence
factors such
of cosmic
as ionization
factors such
produced
as ionization
deep in the
produced
atmos-deep in the atmos-
phere at altitudes 5–15 km
phere at altitudes
(Stozhkov,5–15 km
2002; Svensmark
(Stozhkov,et2002;
al., 2016),
Svensmark
therefore
et al.,
one2016), therefore one
would understand would
that atmospheric
understandevents
that atmospheric
like at least events
some of like
TLEs
at least
are one
some of of TLEs are one of
the space weather the
phenomena—the
space weather result
phenomena—the
of a chain ofresult
processes
of a chain
startedofby
processes
space started by space
factors. factors.

Electric fields of theElectric

QE typefields
playofthe
thekey
QErole
typeinplay
the the
generation
key role of
inTLE
the generation
at high of TLE at high
altitudes—the sprite altitudes—the
type of TLEs.sprite
Different
type dependence
of TLEs. Different
on thedependence
altitude of the
on the
QE altitude of the QE
field and of the valuefieldofand
air electric
of the value
breakdown
of air electric
(both values
breakdown
decrease
(both
with
values
altitudes
decrease with altitudes
but by different laws)butdetermines
by differentaltitudes
laws) determines
where sprites
altitudes
are generated—in
where sprites arethe generated—in the
mesosphere at altitudes
mesosphere
of 70–80 km.
at altitudes
However,
of 70–80 km.
one shouldHowever,
also take
oneinto
should
account
also take into account
QE dependence onQE thedependence
atmosphereon conductivity,
the atmosphere
whichconductivity,
exponentiallywhich
decreases
exponentially
with decreases with
altitude. In its turnaltitude.
the atmosphere
In its turnconductivity
the atmosphere
dependsconductivity
on many depends
outside factors:
on many outside factors:
ionization by cosmic ionization
rays andby ionization
cosmic rays
by particles
and ionization
(electrons)
by particles
precipitated
(electrons)
from precipitated from
radiation belts, which
radiation
could belts,
be thewhich
key processes
could be for
thethe
keygeneration
processes for
of certain
the generation
TLE of certain TLE
types. types.

An alternate modelAn (or,

alternate
maybe amodel
complimentary
(or, maybeone)
a complimentary
of TLE generation
one) ofat high
TLE generation at high
altitudes is the model
altitudes
of “runaway
is the model
electrons,”
of “runaway
which iselectrons,”
a specific which
electricisdischarge
a specific electric discharge
(Gurevich et al., 1992;
(Gurevich
Gurevich
et al.,
and1992;
Zybin,
Gurevich
2001; Lehtinen
and Zybin,et al.,
2001;1997;
Lehtinen
Fullekrug
et al., 1997; Fullekrug
et al., 2011). This model
et al., 2011).
is based
This
on model
the assumption
is based onthat
thedischarge
assumptionelectrons
that discharge
are electrons are
the product of seedtheelectrons
productofofEAS
seedgenerated
electrons byof galactic
EAS generated
cosmic by
rays
galactic
of energy
cosmic rays of energy
around of ~ 1015 eV.around
A runaway
of ~ 10
electron
15 eV. Aavalanche
runaway electron
in interaction
avalanche
with in
airinteraction
generates with air generates
secondary electrons secondary
that are accelerated
electrons that
in the
areQE
accelerated
field, making
in thelower
QE field,
the discharge
making lower the discharge
breakdown value inbreakdown
the upper value
atmosphere
in the upper
(Colman
atmosphere
et al., 2010).
(Colman et al., 2010).

The direct result ofThe

thisdirect
kind ofresult
discharge
of this iskind
another
of discharge
high-altitude
is another
physical
high-altitude
event: physical event:
terrestrial gamma terrestrial
flashes (TGFs).gamma These
flashes
are transient
(TGFs). These
processes
are transient
in the X-ray
processes
and in the X-ray and
gamma ray bands gamma
of electromagnetic
ray bands ofradiation
electromagnetic
(with energies
radiationup to
(with
tensenergies
of MeV up to tens of MeV
and duration of 0.2–1 ms)
and duration
generated
of 0.2–1 ms)
in the process
generatedof bremsstrahlung
in the process ofemissions
bremsstrahlung emissions
of high-energy electrons
of high-energy
(Fishmanelectrons
et al., 1994;
(Fishman
Briggsetetal.,
al.,1994;
2010).Briggs
One of etthe
al., 2010). One of the
interesting phenomena
interesting
in thephenomena
runaway electronin thedischarge
runaway electron
is the production
dischargeof is the production of
electron-positron pairs,
electron-positron
the observation pairs,of the
which observation
proves theofexistence
which proves
of gamma
the existence of gamma
rays of energies above
rays MeV
of energies
in this above
process MeV(Briggs
in this
et process
al., 2011). (Briggs
The efficiency
et al., 2011). The efficiency
of optical emissionsof in
optical
TGF events
emissions
is notin checked
TGF events experimentally.
is not checked Moreover,
experimentally.
in the Moreover, in the
above review, it wasabove
shown review,
that some
it wasofshown
the UV that
optical
someevents
of the were
UV optical
observedevents
far were observed far
from thunderstorm lightning regions (Garipov et al., 2013; Morozenko et al., 2016).
It could demonstrate that TGFs and TLEs are events of different natures.
 from thunderstorm lightning regions (Garipov et al., 2013; Morozenko et al., 2016).
It could demonstrate that TGFs and TLEs are events of different natures.

So, looking for other So,models

lookingoffor
TLEother
generation,
models of one
TLE
maygeneration,
assume one onemore
may assume
model, one more model,
the “top-down” type, theto“top-down”
compare withtype,the
toabove
compare “bottom-up”
with the above
models.“bottom-up”
An example models.
of An example of
the “top-down” model the “top-down”
is the lightning-induced
model is the lightning-induced
electron precipitation electron
(LEP)precipitation
process (LEP) process
(Helliwell et al., 1973).
(Helliwell
This model
et al., 1973).
is basedThis
on model
the precipitation
is based onofthe electrons
precipitation
from of electrons from
radiation belts induced
radiation
by low-frequency
belts inducedelectromagnetic
by low-frequencywaveselectromagnetic
of the “whistler”
waves of the “whistler”
type generated by typelightning
generated
and spread
by lightning
out alongandmagnetic
spread outfield
along
lines.
magnetic
Resonance
field lines. Resonance
interaction of thoseinteraction
waves withofradiation
those wavesbelt with
particles
radiation
(interaction
belt particles
of the “wave-par-
(interaction of the “wave-par-
ticle” type) leads to ticle”
the changing
type) leads
of the
to the
pitch-angle
changingdistribution
of the pitch-angle
of “trapped”
distribution
particles
of “trapped” particles
and their coming to andthetheir
losscoming
cone, that
to the
is toloss
precipitation.
cone, that is to precipitation.

The precipitation ofThe

electrons
precipitation
of hundreds
of electrons
keV energy
of hundreds
could lead
keV to
energy
the increase
could lead
of to the increase of
the ionosphere D-layer
the ionosphere
conductivity D-layer
directlyconductivity
above the active
directlythunderstorm
above the active region
thunderstorm region
and to the changingand ofto
the
the
discharge
changingbreakdown
of the discharge
threshold,
breakdown
respectively.
threshold,
Experi-
respectively. Experi-
mental proof of themental
existence
proofof of
such
theaexistence
process isofthe
such EuroSprite
a processdatais the
onEuroSprite
pulses of data on pulses of
electromagnetic VLFelectromagnetic
radiation (3–30kHz)
VLF radiation
(Inan et(3–30kHz)
al., 1995). (Inan
It wasetestablished
al., 1995). that
It was established that
before sprite TLEs,before
there are
sprite
early
TLEs,
pulses
thereof are
radiation
early pulses
directlyofrelated
radiation
to the
directly
increase
related to the increase
of the conductivityofofthe
theconductivity
D-layer in a of size
theofD-layer
100 km,inexactly
a size of
in 100 km,
place of theexactly
sprite
in place of the sprite
(Neubert et al., 2008;
(Neubert
Inan etetal.,
al.,2010).
2008; Inan et al., 2010).

The investigation of
Theelectromagnetic
investigation ofradiation
electromagnetic
dynamicsradiation
in VLF anddynamics
in extremely
in VLF and in extremely
low frequency (ELF,low
0.3–3 kHz)
frequencybands
(ELF, accompanying
0.3–3 kHz) bands theaccompanying
generation of sprites
the generation of sprites
allowed the estimation
allowedof the
thevalue
estimation
of the current
of the value
momentum
of the current
of sprites—of
momentum several
of sprites—of several
hundreds of kA × km
hundreds
(Cummer of kA × km
et al., 2010),
(Cummer
large enough
et al., 2010),
to consider
large enough
as a factor
to consider
of as a factor of
space weather. space weather.

Direct spectrometricDirect
measurements
spectrometric of upper
measurements
atmosphere of upper
TLEs onatmosphere
the FOR- TLEs on the FOR-
MOSAT-2 satellite allowed
MOSAT-2 thesatellite
estimation allowed
of thetheelectric
estimation
field ofdeviations
the electricfromfield
average
deviations from average
values in place of TLE
values
for in
altitudes
place of40–60 km.
TLE for altitudes
Deviations40–60 km.
were foundDeviations
that werewere found that were
2.1–3.7 times larger2.1–3.7
than thetimes
discharge
larger than
threshold
the discharge
(Kuo et al., threshold
2005). These
(Kuo etelectric
al., 2005). These electric
field deviation ns were
field two
deviation
times ns larger
werethan
twoin times
ground-based
larger thanmeasurement.
in ground-based An measurement. An
analysis of sprite development
analysis of sprite
in thedevelopment
frame of theinplasmathe framechemistry
of the model
plasmaofchemistry
the model of the
sprite streamers (Sentman
sprite streamers
et al., 2008)
(Sentman
model et hasal.,
shown
2008)hundred
model has milliseconds
shown hundred delay milliseconds delay
time of the sprite optical
time ofemission
the spritetooptical
the beginning
emissionoftothe theelectric
beginningcurrent
of the
in the
electric current in the
lightning channel. lightning
At the maximum
channel.current
At the maximum
of 110 kA, current
it is accompanied
of 110 kA, by it isa accompanied
large by a large
deviation of the electric
deviation
fieldoffromthe the
electric
average
fieldvalue
from E/Nthe average
normalized valuetoE/N
the density
normalized to the density
of neutral gas N. Inofa neutral
direct experiment
gas N. In a on direct
the experiment
satellite FORMOSAT-2,
on the satellitethisFORMOSAT-2,
value was this value was
larger than 440 Td larger
(1 Townsend = 10
than 440 Td− 17 (1 V cm
Townsend = 10
2). In the results
− 17 V cmof2model
). In thecalculations
results of model calculations
(Evtushenko and Mareev,
(Evtushenko
2009)and it is Mareev,
up to 200 2009)
Td during
it is uphundreds
to 200 Tdofduring
ms. So, hundreds
the of ms. So, the
results of the present
results
experimental
of the presentstudyexperimental
of TLEs and the studyresults
of TLEs
of the
andmodeling
the results ofof the modeling of
physical and plasma-chemical
physical andprocesses
plasma-chemical
responsible processes
for TLEresponsible
generationfor show
TLEthatgeneration show that
the upper atmosphere discharges are accompanied not only by intensive emission
of photons in the UV band but also by bursts of radio emission in the VLF and ELF
bands as well as increases of quasistable fields.
 the upper atmosphere discharges are accompanied not only by intensive emission
of photons in the UV band but also by bursts of radio emission in the VLF and ELF
bands as well as increases of quasistable fields.

Following are someFollowing

comments arewe
some
havecomments
to make concerning
we have to the
make
series
concerning
of TLEs the series of TLEs
(multiple events) that
(multiple
we observed
events)on
that
MSUwe observed
satellites (see
on MSU
Section
satellites
3.3). (see Section 3.3).

From our point of From

view, theour origin
point of view,
TLEs thein series
originisof
anTLEs
openinquestion.
series is an Their
open question. Their
presence shows that presence
there isshows
a largethat
volume
thereofis atmosphere
a large volume thatofhas atmosphere
long-dura-that has long-dura-
tion flashing activity.
tionOneflashing
can suggest
activity.atOne
leastcanthree
suggest
hypotheses
at leastto three
explain
hypotheses
these to explain these
observations. First,observations.
it is the resultFirst,
of measurements
it is the result above
of measurements
very large thunderstorm
above very large thunderstorm
areas with ordinaryareas
lightning
with ordinary
and TLEs.lightning
Second, and the TLEs.
lightningSecond,
can produce
the lightning
electro-can produce electro-
magnetic waves, which
magneticare propagating
waves, which along
are propagating
magnetic field alonglines magnetic
and interacting
field lines and interacting
with magnetospheric with(radiation
magnetospheric
belts) electrons
(radiation (multiple
belts) electrons
“wave-particle”
(multipleprocesses).
“wave-particle” processes).
Then particles can Then
precipitate
particles
fromcantrapped
precipitate
regions fromandtrapped
thereforeregionscan modify
and therefore
the can modify the
atmosphere conductivity.
atmosphereAs a result,
conductivity.
this creates
As a result,
conditions
this creates
for further conditions
discharging
for further discharging
processes at higherprocesses
altitudes atover
higher
the large
altitudes
area.overAndthe
third,
largethearea.
lightning
And third,
produces
the lightning produces
runaway relativisticrunaway
electrons relativistic
that escape electrons
atmospherethat escape
and precipitate
atmosphere in the
andcon-
precipitate in the con-
jugate point (Lehtinen
jugate et point
al., 1998).
(Lehtinen
However,et al.,efficiency
1998). However,
of this mechanism
efficiency ofwas this mechanism was
checked in model calculations
checked in model (Lehtinen
calculations
et al., 1998)
(Lehtinen
and was et found
al., 1998)
to beandlowwas
(10%).
found to be low (10%).

Such multiple TLEsSuch

weremultiple
predicted
TLEs
in the
weremodel
predicted
calculation
in the (Pasco
model etcalculation
al., 2000),(Pasco
but et al., 2000), but
the observed TLE series
the observed
within aTLE
fewseries
minutes
within
(within
a few
thousands
minutes (within
of km!) thousands
show the of km!) show the
rather global nature
rather
of registered
global nature
processes
of registered
and more processes
broad separation
and moreinbroaddistance
separation in distance
then predicted by the
thenPasco
predicted
model.byTherefore,
the Pasco their
model.origins
Therefore,
requiretheir
further
origins
exam-
require further exam-
ination. For example,
ination.
thereFor
is aexample,
discussionthere
of the
is adevelopment
discussion ofofthe
TLEs
development
in regions of TLEs in regions
with large differences
withinlarge
the atmosphere
differences in conductivity.
the atmosphereThen,conductivity.
the developmentThen,ofthe development of
TLEs in the regionTLEs
with in
high
theconductivity
region with will
highcancel
conductivity
the electric
will field
cancel
inthe
thiselectric
area, field in this area,
but it will not in the
but
next
it will
area,
notseparated
in the next
from
area,
theseparated
first one by
froma region
the first
of one
smallby a region of small
conductivity. Such conductivity.
features of “resistive”
Such features
electrodes
of “resistive”
are usedelectrodes
in the construction
are used inofthe construction of
particle detectors when
particle
efficiency
detectors of when
detection
efficiency
in large
of areas
detection
is theinaim.
large areas is the aim.