Vapor-compression Refrigeration System

The most commonly used method of cooling is with vapor-compression cycles, because it is fairly easy to
construct a cooling device employing this method and the cost is low. In fact, conventional refrigerators use this
method of cooling to keep your leftovers and drinks chilled! Air conditioners also employ a vapor-compression
cycle to cool the ambient air temperature in a room.

Basically, vapor-compression refrigeration employs a heat engine run backwards, so heat energy is taken from a
cold reservoir and deposited into a hot reservoir. By the Second Law of Thermodynamics, heat energy does not
spontaneously transfer from a cold to a hot reservoir. In order to have heat transfer in that direction (and not
from from hot to cold, as the system is naturally inclined to do), it is necessary to do work on the system.

Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

This refrigeration cycle is approximately a Rankine cycle run in reverse. A working fluid (often called
the refrigerant) is pushed through the system and undergoes state changes (from liquid to gas and back). The
latent heat of vaporization of the refrigerant is used to transfer large amounts of heat energy, and changes in
pressure are used to control when the refrigerant expels or absorbs heat energy.
However, for a refrigeration cycle that has a hot reservoir at around room temperature (or a bit higher) and a
cold reservoir that is desired to be at around 34°F, the boiling point of the refrigerant needs to be fairly low. Thus,
various fluids have been identified as practical refrigerants. The most common include ammonia, Freon (and other
chlorofluorocarbon refrigerants, aka CFCs), and HFC-134a (a non-toxic hydrofluorocarbon).

Stages of the Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

The Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle is comprised of four steps. The conceptual figure of the process shows
the T-s and P-h diagram changes during each part.

Compressor: Of the reciprocating, rotary, and centrifugal compressors, the most popular among domestic or
smaller power commercial refrigeration is the reciprocating. The reciprocating compressor is similar to an
automobile engine. A piston is driven by a motor to "suck in" and compress the refrigerant in a cylinder. As the
piston moves down into the cylinder (increasing the volume of the cylinder), it "sucks" the refrigerant from the
evaporator. The intake valve closes when the refrigerant pressure inside the cylinder reaches that of the pressure
in the evaporator. When the piston hits the point of maximum downard displacement, it compresses the
refrigerant on the upstroke. The refrigerant is pushed through the exhaust valve into the condenser. Both the
intake and exhaust valves are designed so that the flow of the refrigerant only travels in one direction through the
system.

Condenser: The condenser removes heat given off during the liquefication of vaporized refrigerant. Heat is given
off as the temperature drops to condensation temperature. Then, more heat (specifically the latent heat of
condensation) is released as the refrigerant liquefies. There are air-cooled and water-cooled condensers, named
for their condensing medium. The more popular is the air-cooled condenser. The condensers consist of tubes with
external fins. The refrigerant is forced through the condenser. In order to remove as much heat as possible, the
tubes are arranged to maximize surface area. Fans are often used to increase air flow by forcing air over the
surfaces, thus increasing the condenser capability to give off heat.

Evaporator: This is the part of the refrigeration system that is doing the actual cooling. Because its function is to
absorb heat into the refrigeration system (from where you don't want it), the evaporator is placed in the area to be
cooled. The refrigerant is let into and measured by a flow control device, and eventually released to the
compressor. The evaporator consists of finned tubes, which absorbs heat from the air blown through a coil by a
fan. Fins and tubes are made of metals with high thermal conductivity to maximize heat transfer. The refrigerant
vaporizes from the heat it absorbs heat in the evaporator.

Flow control device (expansion valve): This controls the flow of the liquid refrigerant into the evaporator. Control
devices usually are thermostatic, meaning that they are responsive to the temperature of the refrigerant.

All variables are in units of per unit mass.

Variable Description Metric Units English Units

h1, h2, h3, h4, hi Enthalpies at stages i kJ/kg Btu/lbm

QL Heat into the system kJ/kg Btu/lbm

QH Heat out of system kJ/kg Btu/lbm

work work into the system kJ/kg Btu/lbm

b coefficient of performance -- --

Thermodynamics

From stage 1 to stage 2, the enthalpy of the refrigerant stays approximately constant, thus

h1 ~ h2.

From stage 2 to stage 3, heat is put into the system, thus

QL = h3 – h2 = h3 – h1.

From stage 3 to stage 4, work is put into compressor, thus

 work = h4 – h3.

From stage 4 to stage 1, heat is given off through the condenser, thus

QH= h4 – h1.

The coefficient of performance describes the efficiency the evaporator to absorb heat in relation to the work put
in, thus

b = refrigeration effect / work input = QL/ work = (h3 – h1) / (h4 – h3).

Some of the Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle Problems that may affect this value are:

COMPRESSOR LEAKAGE/FAILURE

The failure of an industrial refrigeration compressor can be expensive affair to the company and damaging to the
manufacturer’s reputation. Often, manufacturers will tear down returned compressors in search faults. Over years
of studies, some common reasons for compressor failure have been identified to include lubrication problems,
overheating, slugging, flood back and contamination.

FOULING – EVAPORATOR AND CONDENSER

Fouling is any insulator hinders transfer between the water and the refrigerant.

It could result from algae growth, sedimentation, scale formation or slime. As this problem increases head
pressure, it can lead to increased energy use by the compressor. What is the best practice?

Keep the evaporator surface and condenser tubes clean. Water treatment practices need to be on point to keep
this problem at bay.

MOTOR COOLING

The motor is easily the highest energy consumer in the vapor compression cycle. Most times when efficiency drops
in this device, it is because of a cooling problem. Many issues could lead to this- blocked air filters, dirty air
passages etc. Regular checks of the chiller logs should unearth any anomaly, specifically the comparison between
amperage and voltage.

LIQUID LINE RESTRICTION

If you are a refrigeration technician and you encounter low evaporator pressure, one of the areas to check is the
liquid line, specifically for any form of restriction. Many other symptoms could point to the problem that affects
the system enthalpy as shown by the following examples:

1. Abnormally high discharge temperature

2. Low current draw
3. High superheats
4. Low condensing pressures
5. Local frost close to the restriction
6. Bubbles in sight glass
In commercial cooling, liquid line restriction can degrade cooling capacity of the system by as much as 50%.
Diagnosis of this problem does not to be fancy, as an experienced technician can tell something is not okay by just
checking the system history or checking visually. If you are not acquainted with the system, you may need to
conduct a few tests to pinpoint the issue.

The first one is temperature drop test, which is done at all points likely to develop restriction. You could
also perform a freeze test if finding the exact point becomes troublesome. This test comes in handy when you
suspect several components such as evaporator, feeder tubes and metering device.

Thermal imaging has to be the most advanced and reliable method of identifying liquid line restriction. It gives real
time results that help you identify the problem as shown by temperature changes.z

STEAM JET REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

In steam jet refrigeration systems, water can be used as the refrigerant. Like air, it is perfectly safe. These
systems were applied successfully to refrigeration in the early years of this century. At low temperatures the
saturation pressures are low (0.008129 bar at 4°C) and the specific volumes are high (157.3 m3/kg at 4°C). The
temperatures that can be attained using water as a refrigerant are not low enough for most refrigeration
applications but are in the range which may satisfy air conditioning, cooling, or chilling requirements. Also, these
systems are used in some chemical industries for several processes, e.g. the removal of paraffin wax from
lubricating oils. Note that steam jet refrigeration systems are not used when temperatures below 5°C are required.
The main advantages of this system are the utilization of mostly low-grade energy and relatively small amounts of
shaft work.

Steam jet refrigeration systems use steam ejectors to reduce the pressure in a tank containing the return
water from a chilled water system. The steam jet ejector utilizes the energy of a fast-moving jet of steam to
capture the flash tank vapor and compress it. Flashing a portion of the water in the tank reduces the liquid
temperature. Figure 3.66 presents a schematic arrangement of a steam jet refrigeration system for water cooling.
In the system shown, high-pressure steam expands while flowing through the nozzle 1. The expansion causes a
drop in pressure and an enormous increase in velocity. Due to the high velocity, flash vapor from the tank 2 is
drawn into the swiftly moving steam and the mixture enters the diffuser 3. The velocity is gradually reduced in the
diffuser but the pressure of the steam at the condenser 4 is increased 5-10 times more than that at the entrance of
the diffuser (e.g. from 0.01 bar to 0.07 bar).

This pressure value corresponds to the condensing temperature of 40°C. This means that the mixture of
high-pressure steam and the flash vapor may be liquefied in the condenser. The latent heat of condensation is
transferred to the condenser water, which may be at 25 °C. The condensate 5 is pumped back to the boiler, from
which it may again be vaporized at a high pressure. The evaporation of a relatively small amount of water in the
flash tank (or flash cooler) reduces the temperature of the main body of water. The cooled water is then pumped
as the refrigeration carrier to the cooling-load heat exchanger.
 An ejector was invented by Sir Charles Parsons around 1901 for removing air from steam engine
condensers. In about 1910, the ejector was used by Maurice Leblanc in the steam ejector refrigeration system It
experienced a wave of popularity during the early 1930s for air conditioning large buildings. Steam ejector
refrigeration cycles were later supplanted by systems using mechanical compressors. Since that time, development
and refinement of ejector refrigeration systems have been almost at a standstill as most efforts have been
concentrated on improving vapor compression cycles (Aphornratana et al., 2001).

Furthermore, another typical gas-driven ejector is shown schematically in Figure 3.67a. High-pressure
primary fluid (P) enters the primary nozzle, through which it expands to produce a low-pressure region at the exit
plane (1). The high-velocity primary stream draws and entrains the secondary fluid (S) into the mixing chamber.
The combined streams are assumed to be completely mixed at the end of the mixing chamber (2) and the flow
speed is supersonic. A normal shock wave is then produced within the mixing chamber’s throat (3), creating a
compression effect, and the flow speed is reduced to a subsonic value. Further compression of the fluid is achieved
as the mixed stream flows through the subsonic diffuser section (b).

Figure 3.67b shows a schematic diagram of an ejector refrigeration cycle. It can be seen that a boiler, an
ejector and a pump are used to replace the mechanical compressor of a conventional system. High-pressure and
high-temperature refrigerant vapor is evolved in a boiler to produce the primary fluid for the ejector. The ejector
draws vapor refrigerant from the evaporator as its secondary. This causes the refrigerant to evaporate at low
pressure and produce useful refrigeration. The ejector exhausts the refrigerant vapor to the condenser where it is
liquefied. The liquid refrigerant accumulated in the condenser is returned to the boiler via a pump whilst the
remainder is expanded through a throttling valve to the evaporator, thus completing the cycle. As the working
input required to circulate the fluid is typically less than 1 % of the heat supplied to the boiler, the COP may be
defined as the ratio of evaporator refrigeration load to heat input to the boiler as follows:
 Recently, Aphornratana et al. (2001) have developed a new jet ejector refrigeration system using R-ll as
the refrigerant as shown in Figure 3.68. All vessels in the systems were constructed from galvanized steel. The
boiler was designed to be electrically heated, two 4 kW electric heaters being located at the lower end. At its
upper end, three baffle plates were welded to the vessel to prevent liquid droplets being carried over with the
refrigerant vapor. The evaporator design was similar to that of the boiler. A single 3 kW electric heater was used to
simulate a cooling load. A water-cooled plate type heat exchanger was used as a condenser. Cooling water was
supplied at 32°C. The boiler was covered with a 40 mm thickness of glass wool with aluminum foil backing. The
evaporator was covered with a 30 mm thickness of neoprene foam rubber. A diaphragm pump was used to
circulate liquid refrigerant from the receiver tank to the boiler and the evaporator. The pump was driven by a
variable speed 1/4 hp motor. One drawback of using the diaphragm pump is cavitation of the liquid refrigerant in
the suction line due to pressure drop through an inlet check-valve. Therefore a small chiller was used to sub-cool
the liquid R-11 before entering the pump. Figure 3.68c shows a detailed schematic diagram of the experimental
ejector. The nozzle was mounted on a threaded shaft, which allowed the position of the nozzle to be adjusted. Two
different mixing chambers with throat diameter of 8 mm were used: in mixing chamber no.l, the mixing section is
constant area duct: in mixing chamber no.2, the mixing section is convergent duct.

Aphornratana et al.’s experiments showed that an ejector-refrigeration system using R-11 proved to be
practical and could provide reasonably acceptable performance. It can provide a cooling temperature as low as -
5°C. The cooling capacity ranged from 500 to1700 W with COP ranging from 0.1 and 0.25.

Air Cycle Refrigeration System

Air refrigeration system is one of the earliest methods of cooling developed. It became obsolete for
several years because of it’s low coefficient of performance (C.O.P). Air cycle refrigeration systems belong to the
general class of gas cycle refrigeration systems, in which a gas is used as the working fluid. The gas does not
undergo any phase change during the cycle, consequently, all the internal heat transfer processes are sensible heat
transfer processes. Gas cycle refrigeration systems find applications in air craft cabin cooling and also in the
liquefaction of various gases.
The main characteristic feature of air-refrigeration system is that throughout the cycle the refrigerant remains in
gaseous state.

Types of Air- Refrigeration System :

1. Closed System
2. Open System

1.Closed System (or Dense Air Machine) :

In this system the air refrigerant is contained within the piping or components/parts of the system at all
times and with refrigerator usually pressure is above the atmospheric pressure.
A closed system has the following thermodynamic advantages :

(a.) It can work at suction pressure higher than atmospheric pressure. This reduces the volume in compressor and
expander .
(b.) The operating pressure ratio can be reduced, resulting in higher C.O.P.

Fig : Closed System

2. Open System :

In this system the refrigerator is replaced by the actual space to be cooled with the air expanded to
atmospheric pressure, circulated through the cold room and then compressed to the cooler pressure. The pressure
of operation in this system is inherently limited to operation at atmospheric pressure in the refrigerator.

In this system, the refrigeration is obtained by three basic steps viz, compression, cooling and expansion,
accompanied by expraction of work. The air after expansion is directly led to the conditioned space. It is therefore
necessary that air be expanded to one atmosphere pressure. This requires larger volumes to be handled. So the
size of the compressor and expander, now a days are not affected significantly since both of them are turbo-type.
This system, therefore has an advantages over closed system , in respect that it does not require a heat exchange
for refrigeration process. This saves weight and cost of the equipment .
Fig : 1.1. Open System

Fig : 1.2. PV and TS diagram of open system

ADVANTAGES OF CLOSED SYSTEM OVER OPEN SY STEM :

1. Compressor may be at high pressure, the sizes of expander and the compressor can be kept within
reasonable limits by using dense air.
2. In open system the air picks up moisture from products kept in refrigearated chamber,the moisture may
freeze during the expansion and is likely to choke the valves. Thus the drier in the open system is required
where as it does not happen in closed system.
3. Coefficient of performance is high.
4. In open system the expansion of the refrigerant can be varied only upto atmospheric pressure prevailing
in the cold chamber but for closed system there is no such restriction.

Absorption Refrigeration System

The vapor absorption refrigeration system comprises of all the processes in the vapor compression
refrigeration system like compression, condensation, expansion and evaporation. In the vapor absorption system
the refrigerant used is ammonia, water or lithium bromide. The refrigerant gets condensed in the condenser and it
gets evaporated in the evaporator. The refrigerant produces cooling effect in the evaporator and releases the heat
to the atmosphere via the condenser.

The major difference between the two systems is the method of the suction and compression of the
refrigerant in the refrigeration cycle. In the vapor compression system, the compressor sucks the refrigerant from
evaporator and compresses it to the high pressure. The compressor also enables the flow of the refrigerant
through the whole refrigeration cycle. In the vapor absorption cycle, the process of suction and compression are
carried out by two different devices called as the absorber and the generator. Thus the absorber and the generator
replace the compressor in the vapor absorption cycle. The absorbent enables the flow of the refrigerant from the
absorber to the generator by absorbing it.

Another major difference between the vapor compression and vapor absorption cycle is the method in
which the energy input is given to the system. In the vapor compression system the energy input is given in the
form of the mechanical work from the electric motor run by the electricity. In the vapor absorption system the
energy input is given in the form of the heat. This heat can be from the excess steam from the process or the hot
water. The heat can also be created by other sources like natural gas, kerosene, heater etc. though these sources
are used only in the small systems.

What is Absorption Refrigeration System?

The vapor absorption refrigeration system comprises of all the processes in the vapor compression refrigeration
system like compression, condensation, expansion and evaporation. In the vapor absorption system the refrigerant
used is ammonia, water or lithium bromide. The refrigerant gets condensed in the condenser and it gets
evaporated in the evaporator. The refrigerant produces cooling effect in the evaporator and releases the heat to
the atmosphere via the condenser.
The major difference between the two systems is the method of the suction and compression of the refrigerant in
the refrigeration cycle. In the vapor compression system, the compressor sucks the refrigerant from evaporator
and compresses it to the high pressure. The compressor also enables the flow of the refrigerant through the whole
refrigeration cycle. In the vapor absorption cycle, the process of suction and compression are carried out by two
different devices called as the absorber and the generator. Thus the absorber and the generator replace the
compressor in the vapor absorption cycle. The absorbent enables the flow of the refrigerant from the absorber to
the generator by absorbing it.
Another major difference between the vapor compression and vapor absorption cycle is the method in which the
energy input is given to the system. In the vapor compression system the energy input is given in the form of the
mechanical work from the electric motor run by the electricity. In the vapor absorption system the energy input is
given in the form of the heat. This heat can be from the excess steam from the process or the hot water. The heat
can also be created by other sources like natural gas, kerosene, heater etc. though these sources are used only in
the small systems.

Absorption Refrigeration System

Simple Absorption System and How it Works?

1) Condenser: Just like in the traditional condenser of the vapor compression cycle, the refrigerant enters the
condenser at high pressure and temperature and gets condensed. The condenser is of water cooled type.
2) Expansion valve or restriction: When the refrigerant passes through the expansion valve, its pressure and
temperature reduces suddenly. This refrigerant (ammonia in this case) then enters the evaporator.
3) Evaporator: The refrigerant at very low pressure and temperature enters the evaporator and produces the
cooling effect. In the vapor compression cycle this refrigerant is sucked by the compressor, but in the vapor
absorption cycle, this refrigerant flows to the absorber that acts as the suction part of the refrigeration cycle.
4) Absorber: The absorber is a sort of vessel consisting of water that acts as the absorbent, and the previous
absorbed refrigerant. Thus the absorber consists of the weak solution of the refrigerant (ammonia in this case) and
absorbent (water in this case). When ammonia from the evaporator enters the absorber, it is absorbed by the
absorbent due to which the pressure inside the absorber reduces further leading to more flow of the refrigerant
from the evaporator to the absorber. At high temperature water absorbs lesser ammonia, hence it is cooled by the
external coolant to increase it ammonia absorption capacity.

How Absoption Refrigeration System Works (Continued)

The initial flow of the refrigerant from the evaporator to the absorber occurs because the vapor pressure of the
refrigerant-absorbent in the absorber is lower than the vapor pressure of the refrigerant in the evaporator. The
vapor pressure of the refrigerant-absorbent inside the absorbent determines the pressure on low-pressure side of
the system and also the vaporizing temperature of the refrigerant inside the evaporator. The vapor pressure of the
refrigerant-absorbent solution depends on the nature of the absorbent, its temperature and concentration.

When the refrigerant entering in the absorber is absorbed by the absorbent its volume decreases, thus the
compression of the refrigerant occurs. Thus absorber acts as the suction part of the compressor. The heat of
absorption is also released in the absorber, which is removed by the external coolant.
5) Pump: When the absorbent absorbs the refrigerant strong solution of refrigerant-absorbent (ammonia-water) is
formed. This solution is pumped by the pump at high pressure to the generator. Thus pump increases the pressure
of the solution to about 10bar.
6) Generator: The refrigerant-ammonia solution in the generator is heated by the external source of heat. This is
can be steam, hot water or any other suitable source. Due to heating the temperature of the solution increases.
The refrigerant in the solution gets vaporized and it leaves the solution at high pressure. The high pressure and the
high temperature refrigerant then enters the condenser, where it is cooled by the coolant, and it then enters the
expansion valve and then finally into the evaporator where it produces the cooling effect. This refrigerant is then
again absorbed by the weak solution in the absorber.
When the vaporized refrigerant leaves the generator weak solution is left in it. This solution enters the pressure
reducing valve and then back to the absorber, where it is ready to absorb fresh refrigerant. In this way, the
refrigerant keeps on repeating the cycle.
Calculating the COP of vapor Absorption System

The actual formula for calculating the COP of Vapor absorption Refrigeration system is COP = R.E/(Win+Qg)

Here- R.E – refrigeration effect, Win – the work done in the pump, Qin – The heat supplied in the generator.

But for ideal case, the pump work is negligible so the formula becomes COP = R.E/Qg

And if you know the different ranges you can just use this formula to calculate the COP of vapor absorption
refrigeration system COP = TE(TG-T1)/TG(T1-TE)

Here- TE – The temperature at which evaporator extracts heat

TG – The temperature at which heat is added to the generator

T1 – Cooling water temperature/ room temperature.

Liquefaction and Refrigeration Systems

Although the emphasis of this book is on the development of physical understanding of helium as a
cryogenic fluid, the discussion would be incomplete without reviewing the various methods of obtaining low-
temperature helium. Such methods are based solidly in engineering thermodynamics and rely primarily on a
combination of processes which make up a cycle. A cycle consists of a closed circuit where the working fluid, for
example helium, is compressed, expanded, and heat exchanged in such a way as to achieve cooling. The simplest
and most thermodynamically ideal cycle is the Camot cycle which consists of a combination of isothermal and
isentropic processes. The Camot cycle is difficult to achieve in a practical system. However, real refrigeration and
liquefaction systems are made up of similar processes which are usually compared in their performance to that of
the ideal Carnot cycle. In all gas refrigeration systems, the cooling is achieved by an expansion process. There are
essentially two types of expansion which are applied. Isentropic expansion is that where the fluid does work and
expands keeping its entropy constant (LIS= 0). This is the best method of expansion because it produces the largest
temperature change over a given pressure change. The other expansion process is isenthalpic expansion, where
the fluid undergoes a pressure change without heat transfer (.dQ = 0). This method is in common application in
practical refrigeration systems for its ease of use. However, it is of lower thermodynamic efficiency because it is an
irreversible process leading to nonidealities. The present chapter begins with an ideal liquefaction process as a
point of comparison. A number of practical cycles developed for cryogenic liquefaction and refrigeration are then
discussed with some aspects of component nonideality included. Examples involve the liquefaction and
refrigeration of most common cryogenic fluids.

IDEAL LIQUEFACTION

The thermodynamic limitations of the liquefaction process can be demonstrated best by consideration of
an ideal system, that is, a refrigeration cycle that performs at Camot efficiency and consequently consists of
reversible isothermal and isentropic processes. Consider a Camot refrigerator producing cooling in a low-
temperature reservoir. Furthermore, unlike the discussion in the previous section, assume that the refrigerator
consists of a large number of cycles operating over small temperature differences. This process can be thought to
occur physically by a large number of reservoirs operating at intermediate temperatures T;, as in Fig. 8.1. The ideal
Camot refrigerator achieves a certain amount of cooling at T c by performing a continuous process. The work done
to carry out this process can be approximated by an integral expression,

where each refrigerator operates between T H and T. To produce liquefaction in a liquid-gas system, there are two
contributions to the work which must be included: 1. w 8 is the work required to cool a unit mass of gas from
ambient temperature to its boiling point Tbr 2. w1 is the work required to convert a unit mass of gas at Tbp to a
unit mass of liquid. The first of these terms can be derived by application of (8.1 ), keeping in mind that c5Q = C
Pc5T. The work needed to bring a unit mass of gas to Tbp in a liquid-gas system is written .

Thermoelectric Refrigeration

Thermoelectricity is based upon following basic principles:

SeeBeck Effect:
 In 1821, Thomas Seebeck found that an electric current would flow continuously in a closed circuit made up of
two dissimilar metals, if the junctions of the metals were maintained at two different temperatures.

 Thermoelectric power supply generators are based on the Seebeck effect which is based on voltage generation
along a conductor subjected to a gradient of temperature.

 When a temperature gradient is applied to a conductor, an electromotive force is produced. The voltage
difference generated is proportional to the temperature difference across the thermoelectric module between the
two junctions, the hot and the cold one.

ΔV α ΔT

SeeBeck Effect: SeeBeck Coefficient:

 The Seebeck coefficient is defined as the ratio of the voltage difference to the temperature gradient. If the
temperature difference ΔT between the two ends of a material is small, then the Seebeck coefficient of a material
is defined as:

αab = ΔV /ΔT

αab = αa – αb

αa & αb is the Seebeck Coefficient with units of Volts per Kelvin for metals A & B or P & N.

Peltier Effect:

 In 1834, a French watchmaker and part time physicist, Jean Peltier found that an electrical current would
produce a temperature gradient at the junction of two dissimilar metals.

 The Peltier effect is the main contributor to all thermoelectric cooling applications. It is responsible for heat
removal and heat absorbance.

 It states that when an electric current flows across two dissimilar conductors, the junction of the conductors will
either absorb or emit heat depending on the flow of the electric current.

 The heat absorbed or released at the junction is proportional to the input electric current. The constant of
proportionality is called the Peltier coefficient.
Peltier Effect: Peltier Coefficient:

When a current is made to flow through a junction between two conductors A and B, heat may be generated (or
removed) at the junction. The Peltier heat generated at the junction per unit time, Q , is equal to;

QαI

Q = πabI

πab = πa - πb

where (πa & πb ) is the Peltier coefficient of conductor A & B, and I is the electric current (from A to B).

Thompson Effect:

 The Thompson effect governs the cooling and the heating of a material carrying a current and subjected to a
temperature gradient.

 It states when an electric current is passed through a conductor having a temperature gradient over its length,
heat will be either absorbed by or expelled from the conductor.

 Whether heat is absorbed or expelled depends upon the direction of both the electric current and temperature
gradient.

Joule Effect:

When electrical Current I flows through a conductor of resistance R, there is dissipation of electrical energy. This is
well known joule effect. The energy dissipated is given by;

QJ = I2R

Fourier Effect:

If the ends of any element are maintained at different temperatures, the heat transfer from the hot end to the
cold end is related by;

The cooling and heating effects due to thermoelectric effect are given by;
Basic Principles:

 A typical thermoelectric cooling component is shown on the next slide. Bismuth telluride (a semiconductor), is
sandwiched between two conductors, usually copper.

 A semiconductor (called a pellet) is used because they can be optimized for pumping heat and because the type
of charge carriers within them can be chosen.

 The semiconductor in this examples N type (doped with electrons) therefore, the electrons move towards the
positive end of the battery.

 The semiconductor is soldered to two conductive materials, like copper. When the voltage is applied heat is
transported in the direction of current flow.

Basic Principles:

 A typical thermoelectric cooling component is shown on the next slide. Bismuth telluride (a semiconductor), is
sandwiched between two conductors, usually copper.

 A semiconductor (called a pellet) is used because they can be optimized for pumping heat and because the type
of charge carriers within them can be chosen.

 The semiconductor in this examples N type (doped with electrons) therefore, the electrons move towards the
positive end of the battery.

 The semiconductor is soldered to two conductive materials, like copper. When the voltage is applied heat is
transported in the direction of current flow.

N-TYPE SINGLE SEMICONDUCTOR PELLET

When a p type semiconductor (doped with holes) is used instead, the holes move in a direction opposite
the current flow. The heat is also transported in a direction opposite the current flow and in the direction of the
holes. Essentially, the charge carriers dictate the
direction of heat flow.
Thermoelectric Materials

 Semiconductors are the optimum choice of material to sandwich between two metal conductors
because of the ability to control the semiconductors’ charge carriers, as well as, increase the heat pumping ability.

 The most commonly used semiconductor for electronics cooling applications is Bi2Te3 because of its
relatively high figure of merit. However, the performance of this material is still relatively low and alternate
materials are being investigated with possibly better performance. Alternative materials include:

 Alternating thin film layers of Sb2Te3 and Bi2Te3.

 Lead telluride and its alloys

 SiGe

 Materials based on nanotechnology

Thermoelectric Performance TE performance depends on the following factors:

 The temperature of the cold and hot sides.

 Thermal and electrical conductivities of the device’s materials.

 Contact resistance between the TE device and heat source/heat sink.

 Thermal resistance of the heat sink.

The current yielding the maximum COP is given by:

The maximum COP is:

Where Tm= (TH+TC)/2

The COP corresponding to the maximum heat pumping capacity is:

The current corresponding to the maximum heat pumping capacity is:

A typical AC unit has a COP of approximately 3. TE coolers usually have COP’s below 1; 0.4 to 0.7 is a
typical range.
A simplified way of determining the voltage and the heat load are given by:

Where V is the voltage and Qc is the heat load, N is the number of couples, and L is the element height.