Bone Tiles as Viable Flooring

A Science Investigatory Project

Presented to the

Faculty of Mother of Divine Providence School

SCIENCE DEPARTMENT

Marikina Heights, Marikina City

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Subject:

Science and Technology 10

BY:

Rodgie S. Avendaño

Gianna P. Gamo

Josh Christian A. Melchor

Khrissarah Charlize M. Yap

S.I.P. Adviser

Mr. John Russel V. Galera

February, 2019
 Acknowledgement

We, the researchers, would like to express our deepest and utmost gratitude to all the

people who had been involved in the journey of making this project possible; who had given their

full support and provision throughout the process of this investigatory project.

To Ms. Sheillemae Cresse Duey Delim, who had granted the researchers permission to use

the TLE laboratory; allowing the team to make use of the necessary equipment needed, and the

location itself in the experimentation process of this project.

To our science teacher, Mr Russel V. Galera, who had supervised the making of each

chapter of this Science Investigatory Project. It is through him that this investigatory project had

been started, to begin with.

All of the efforts of the people who have been involved are thoroughly appreciated. Once

again, we tip our hats to all the individuals that have supported the researchers all throughout, it is

these people who had made this project a possibility.

- The Researchers
 Abstract

Bones are organic material proven to be as strong as metal, yet as light as aluminum. The

investigatory project entitled “Bone Tiles as Viable Flooring”, was conducted to test whether the

determined enduring quality of bones make it an efficient component in the creation of an

alternative tile as flooring that will ensure durability. The notable decrease in the availability of

resources and lack of tile flooring in poverty-stricken has driven the researchers to choose this topic

for investigation.

The researchers gathered the necessary materials, and a total of 2 trials were held. The first

trial, with a total of 3 days of observation, direct heat was applied for the drying process by placing

the mixture inside an oven for 15 minutes. The resulting tile was of a clay-like consistency and the

odor was evident. In the second trial, with a total of 4 days of observation, the mixture was allowed

to air-dry, and the resulting tile was a lot more solid, but not enough to be an enduring tile. The

odor became evident as well, as time passed.

(tanong mo muna si sir kung may third trial pa)

In conclusion, there was fault in the process of cleaning and a lack in the addition of the

binder (cornstarch), which had resulted into a tile that had not met the expectations.

i
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract …………………….. i.

I. Chapter I: Introduction

1.1 Background of the Study 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem and Objectives 2

1.3 Hypothesis 3

1.4 Significance of the Study 3

1.5 Scope and Limitations 4

II. Chapter II: Review of Related Literature and Studies

2.1 Review of Related Literature 5

2.2 Review of Related Studies 7

2.3 Definition of Terms 11

III. Chapter III: Methodology and Experimental Design

3.1 Methodology 12

3.1.1 Materials 12

3.1.2 Procedures 12

3.2 Experimental Design 17

IV. Observation and Findings

4.1 Results 19

4.2 Analysis of Data 21

V. Generalization and Recommendation

5.1 Conclusion 22

5.2 Recommendations 23

Bibliography 24
 CHAPTER I:

Introduction

1.1 Background of the Study

The floors of a house take the brunt of our everyday activities, and are usually the first

surfaces to reflect wear and tear, as such it is important to invest in floors that will keep pace with

our daily life (Gray, 2011). Tiles are considered as a great flooring material in homes since it

requires less maintenance, having a protective layer that rests over the material, making them

impervious to water and stain penetration, unreceptive to dust mites, molds, germs and bacteria.

Tiles are also well-known for its durability, lasting for about 10-20 years if installed properly and

handled with care, which is why people choose to invest in getting tiles as flooring (Lewitin, 2017).

Our study focuses on bones being a good alternative to cement as flooring. We will be devising a

structured experimentation to ensure the resilience and longevity of bones by means of a

preservation process wherein the bone will be submerged in hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), which will

prevent the bone from decaying. We have chosen bones as the main compliant because it is a truly

incredible substance, it is as strong as steel but at as light as aluminum. Not only is it strong, but

also surprisingly flexible as well. Its components are calcium phosphate and collagen, which are

both extremely weak. But nature mixes them together at room temperature and without toxic

chemical to create something that is very tough (Dr. Wile, 2011).

Bones have piqued the interest of the researchers because of its durability and composition

itself. Researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, namely Oral Buyukozturk, a

professor in MIT’s Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering (CEE), Markus Buehler, CEE

department head, along with their team are seeking to redesign concrete—the most widely used

human-made material in the world—by following nature's blueprints. As observed by the researches

1
through a comparative study on cement paste—concrete's binding ingredient—with the structure

and properties of natural materials such as bones, shells, and deep-sea sponges. As the researchers

observed, these biological materials are exceptionally strong and durable. Ultimately, the team

hopes to identify materials in nature that may be used as sustainable and longer-lasting alternatives

to Portland cement, which requires a huge amount of energy to manufacture.

"If we can replace cement, partially or totally, with some other materials that may be readily

and amply available in nature, we can meet our objectives for sustainability," Buyukozturk says. –

“Researchers look to bones and shells as blueprints for stronger, more durable concrete” (Chu,

2016).

1.2 Statement of the Problem and Objective

There is an inadequacy of tiles in poverty-stricken places, as they do not have the privilege to

afford installation of tiles due to financial situation. The rapid decrease in the availability of

resources is also another problem that continues to ensue as time passes.

The objectives of our study include:

 create a tile that can endure the different weather conditions of the Philippines, throughout

the whole year;

 prevent the tile from decaying and producing foul odour;

 identify what are the elements that make bones so durable, that may help in developing a

finer tile;

 create organic tiles, using bones of various animals, like chicken and beef; and

 develop a better understanding on how tiles are created.

2
 1.3 Hypothesis

The firmness and enduring quality of bones makes it an efficient component in creating an

alternative tile that will serve as flooring and ensure durability.

1.4 Significance of the Study

One of the targets is to create organic tiles from bones. The significance of this study for the

researchers is to be able to get more information with regards to organic tile making that can be

taught to those in our community, and can also be utilized as a livelihood project. Alongside this,

we are teaching these communities how to repurpose leftover bones from meals instead of burning

or throwing these away.

This may also be relevant to the large part of our country struggling with poverty, as well as

the victims of calamities. Instead of buying and using already scarce resources, one can easily

create their own tiles for the creation of houses and such, out of left-over bones. This is also

relevant to the lengthy time it takes for bones to decompose, as they can be recycled and used for

the benefits of thousands in a community and primarily our environment. The manufacturing of

cement tremendously consumes energy, to further solidify this point, during the 8th World Energy

System Conference (WESC) 2010, It stated that about 26% of the total electrical power is used in

grinding raw materials. During the grinding process, the energy obtained from the rotary burner is

consumed, (Adem Atmaca, 2010). So by using organic materials such as bones in making a type of

tile as an alternative to cement, we are promoting the conservation of energy wherein our

environment will greatly benefit.

3
 This study may also benefit the researchers in such ways as it being a plausible reference

for future experimentations, it being a good vantage point for others when having further studies

with regards of creating such tiles that may either be a good or finer alternative rather that of

regular tiles.

1.5 Scope and Limitations

Our study mainly focuses on how bones can serve as viable alternative for cement as flooring,

despite it being the researchers’ aim is to conduct a study on 6why bones may or may not be a

good variable in manufacturing durable and long lasting tiles. Though bones do decay in due time,

we are devising a structured experimentation to ensure its resilience. This research aims to do all

necessary experimentations within the school premises and in specific time stamps, without

interfering with other subjects’ daily scheduled tasks. For the location, we may develop our tiles in

the science laboratory of our school, and if ever needed, in the high school open area.

We will base our materials on the resources available, and setting a certain budget. For the

bones, we are planning on using ones that are leftover from meals. If there are ever some

materials that we need to buy, we will make sure to keep it as cheap as we can to pertain to one of

our objectives: to create an organic tile, with the resources available.

4
 CHAPTER II: Review of Related Literature

2.1 Related Literature

Tiles have been around as early as 700 B.C originally from Egypt; popularized because of it

being aesthetically pleasing to the eyes, and can endure various activities from our everyday lives

(Sydney Myer, 2011). It is widely known that the manufacturing of tiles can consume copious

amounts of energy. That after coal-powered electricity, cement manufacturing is the next biggest

emitter of greenhouse gases, accounting for approximately 5% of annual anthropogenic global

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) production (Kenny Shrum, 2013).

In the creation of completely organic tiles, the variables in itself are completely natural, and

no artificial additives were augmented with it. These variables as mentioned in chapter one are

animal bones, and now added with starch as an organic binding agent.

Bones, they are rigid tissues consisting of cells embedded in an abundant hard intercellular

material. The two principal components of this material are: collagen and calcium phosphate, both

that are naturally weak on their own, but is mixed to become as strong as metal, but as light as

aluminum (Robert Proulx Heaney, 2014).

The animal bone to be used in the experimentation is of pigs and cows, for they are both

mammals and have similar bone structures. Though Mammal bones in particular are denser and

thicker than human bones, but they do have similar molecular composition (James Watson, 2016).

When we look closely at bones and muscles, they are similar across species. You’d need a

microscope to see this, but it would show the tiny living cells that make up animals and humans’

bones and muscles; you can say the reason the human structure looks different from an animal is

5
really about the different shapes and sizes of bones between species (John McClelland, 2016).

Bones are generally stronger than concrete, but bone structure is somewhat similar to

reinforced concrete. Protein strands make up the rebar of bone. Calcium and phosphorus mineral

crystals deposited around the protein strands are somewhat like the concrete poured around the

rebar in reinforced concrete (Ieoela Iacobas, 2011).

Although bones do decompose in time, research has shown that it is possible to prevent them

from decaying, like how skeletons are preserved in museums. Individuals usually use hydrogen

peroxide, to bleach the bone, but not enough to damage or cause the bone to brittle (Claire Lower,

2017).

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), it works by oxidizing compounds that are common in organic life.

It reacts particularly well when in the presence of catalase, an enzyme that occurs naturally in cells,

by releasing water and oxygen. When the water and oxygen are released, it causes the fizzing

process that you associate with hydrogen peroxide. It dissolves proteins by breaking apart and

releasing water and oxygen free radicals. Giving it the potential not only to disinfect but also oxidize

water and other biotic environments (Joan Clark, 2016)

Starches are powdered forms of a group of carbohydrates producing colloidal emulsions in

water having strong binding properties; corn starches are no different to these aspects. Chemical

derivatives have properties like esters of cellulose but are not stable against bacteria. Bacteria

usually are the cause of the decomposition of organic binders, so we therefore have to add an anti-

bacterial agent (Nilo Tozzi, 2015).

Amylase is the bacterium that breaks down starch molecules; Bacteria and fungi secrete

6
amylases for extracellular digestion. When they have broken down the insoluble starch, the soluble

end products such as (glucose or maltose) are absorbed into their cells (Vipin Kannan, 2011)

Although starches do decompose in due time, the hydrogen peroxide is an anti-bacterial

agent itself. When two of these constituents are mixed together, they modify the starch into an

oxidized starch, which helps prolong the longevity of the starch (Pasi Tolvane, 2015)

Oxidized starches have shorter chain lengths than native starches. It improves whiteness and

reduces microbiological content. Oxidized starches are the best thickener for applications requiring

gels of low rigidity. This therefore improves adhesion. This type of modified starch is also used in

the production of paper and serves as stabilizers in ice-cream and milk pudding production (Nadiya

Baal, 2017)

2.2 Related Studies

An article called: “Clandestine operation: Bones from Carcass Cold Meat to Tiles

and Animal Feed”, written by Nabinder Bommala was released mid 2018, the said article claims

that the usage of bones of dead animals (carcasses), which are dumped at Great Hyderabad

Municipal Corporation (GHMC) dump yard at Autonagar near LB Nagar (India), cam be clandestinely

turned into powder for use in manufacturing tiles and as animal feed. They pound the bones to

powder to supply it to tile-manufacturing companies and agencies dealing with flooring of

residential and commercial buildings.

Many agencies, which have the technology to turn animal waste into ceramic ash, have

7
approached the civic body, but their bids have been thwarted. The GHMC officials states that; “For

the sake of the environment and people staying near the dump, animal waste should be disposed

of in a scientific manner.”

“Recycling of Fish Bone Ash in the Preparation of Stoneware Tiles”

The main focus of this study is on the recycling of fish bone waste by undergoing a process

of calcination in order to obtain the fish bone ash, which is to be used in the production of

stoneware tiles. The never-ending call for new materials to replace traditional ceramic raw materials

makes use of wastes an important research focus. Any calcium-containing materials are potentially

suitable fluxing additives in the production of ceramic bodies. Fish bone ash resulting from heat

treatment fish waste is composed mainly of hydroxyapatite (HA) phase. This inexpensive material

could be useful as a biologically and environmentally compatible raw material media in the ceramic

industry.

The primary objective was to study the effects of partial replacement of traditional feldspar

by fish bone ash in the production of stoneware tiles and to measure changes in the tiles’

densification and mechanical properties.

“Recycled shells good for tile making — study”

Similar to the objective of our study, an extensive research was conducted, pertaining to the

usage of seashells as a component in the production of tiles; in promotion of the value of

environmental awareness. The study was monitored by the Los Baños-cased Department of Science

and Technology-Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development (DOST-

PCAMRD). Currently headed by Executive Director Rafael D. Guerrero III, PCAMRD is DOST's

8
planning council for fisheries and aquatic resources that coordinates the national aquatic resources

research and development network (NARRDN) now composed of more than a hundred R&D

agencies and institutions.

Ubando and Nones followed processing steps such as washing and cleaning the shells,

boiling to remove the impurities, air-drying, pounding and pulverizing, molding, drying, and impact

testing.

The tiles produced were left to dry for a time period of 15 to 25 days.

As reported by PCAMRD's Dr. Dolly DG Fernandez, the ground shells mixed with Styrofoam

resulted in grayish tiles similar to the granite tiles, has similar texture, and were stronger and

cheaper than the commercial tiles.

A piece of commercial tile costs P10 while the shell tile fetches a price of only P4.10 per

unit, said Dr. Fernandez.

Findings of the NVSU study also showed that the shells are sources of calcium oxide (CaO),

which strengthens the plastic materials of the experimental tile.

To be commercially competitive, however, the experimental tiles should further be tested to

determine its endurance to weight or pressure and should be properly glazed, Ubando and Nones

recommended.

A study was conducted pertaining to the “Effects of Varying Dosage Replacement of

Cement Content by Animal Bone powder in Normal Concrete Mix Production” wherein

bone samples accumulated from Seka Waste Disposal Site of Jimma town were the primary object

of interest in this study.

9
 The aim of this research was to analyze the effects of varying dosage replacement of

cement by animal bone powder in the normal concrete strength properties. To achieve the major

objective of the research, the specific objectives are organized as follows:

to determine the properties of the animal bone powder and bone blended cement at

different percent dosage of replacement and to compare with the standard specifications.

to determine and analyse the workability, compressive strength, flexural strength and tensile

strength of the concrete by partial replacement of cement with animal bone powder at different

percent dosage replacement.

to determine the optimum percent dosage of animal bone powder as a partial replacement

in cement of concrete mixture.

Animal bone serves as an essential reservoir for calcium, which can be drawn upon when

required for special metabolic activities. 97% of the total calcium in body accumulates in the

skeleton. On the other hand, anticipated half of the Portland cement weight has calcium oxide

(CaO), the primary raw material in the production of cement. Therefore, this indicates that cement

and bone have the same fundamental composition of calcium compounds.

For that reason, utilization of the bone as a sustainable material in concrete production

would help to preserve natural resources and maintain ecological balance. The waste production of

animal bone in Ethiopia accounted of 10% population of cattle's are slaughtered per year, and the

average weight of cow and ox's 300kg plus out of this mass from 20% to 30% are the weight of

bone, we can get the average of 400.5 million Kgs animal bone generates annually as waste.

A forum online called “Ask MetaFiller: Querying the Hive Mind” comes up with a

detailed analysis about the association of the elements of bones and limestone, a modernized type

of cement from Portland.

10
 ”Bones are primarily calcium carbonate which is also what some kinds of limestone are

made out of which is what cement is made out of at least modern Portland cement. So if you

processed the bones the same way you process limestone you would likely get a similar product.”

2.3 Definition of Terms

Calcination

It is the process of subjecting a substance to the action of heat, but without fusion, for the

purpose of causing some change in its physical or chemical constitution.

Concrete

The most commonly used man-made material on earth. It is an important construction

material used extensively in buildings, bridges, roads and dams. Its uses range from structural

applications, to paviours, kerbs, pipes and drains.

Extracellular Digestion

It is a form of digestion wherein the breaking down of materials into smaller, absorbable

components takes place outside the cell.

Mammals

A mammal is any warm-blooded vertebrate having the skin more or less covered with hair.

The young are born alive except for the small subclass of monotremes and nourished with milk.

Tile

A tile is a thin object usually square or rectangular in shape. Tile is a manufactured piece of

hard-wearing material such as ceramic, stone, metal, baked clay, or even glass. Tiles are often used

to form wall and floor coverings, and can range from simple square tiles to complex design.

11
 CHAPTER III

Methodology and Experimental Design

3.1 Methodology

3.1.1 Needed Materials/Equipment

 200 grams of crushed bones  2 basins

 1 ½ cup of water  Hammer/Sledgehammer

 2 ½ cup of cornstarch  Tile Molder

 360 ml hydrogen peroxide  Parchment paper/ Aluminum Foil

 Braiser pan  Dishwashing liquid soap

 Oven

3.1.2 Procedure

1. Begin by cleaning the bones, removing unnecessary tissues and fat, thoroughly wash it with

tap water and dishwashing liquid soap, if available.

Figure 1: Thoroughly cleanse the bones

12
 2. Leave the bones to dry for a few hours,

Figure 2: Leave the bones to dry

3. Then prepare to soak them in a hydrogen peroxide formula, about 240 ml of hydrogen

peroxide, 50% water and 50% hydrogen peroxide. Leave the bones soaked for at least

another couple of weeks, changing the formula when the water gets cloudy.

Figure 3: Soak the bones in the solution

4. Once again, leave them to dry for a day.

13
 Figure 4: Leave the bones again

5. Pulverize the bones into a powdered state, you may use a hammer for this.

Figure 5: Pulverize the bones

6. Then begin to create your mixture in your braiser pan, first pour 1 ½ cup of water, then 2

½ cups of cornstarch, mix until substance is viscous

14
 Figure 6: Mix all ingredients in the braiser pan

7. Pour 200 grams of the pulverized bones, mix once again

Figure 7: Pour the crushed bones into the mix

8. Add another 3 teaspoons of hydrogen peroxide, and then mix.

15
 Figure 8: Put a few drop of hydrogen peroxide into the mixture

9. Prepare your tile molder, by placing aluminum foil over it; this is so that the tile won’t stick

to your molder.

Figure 9: Place the foil on top of the molder

16
 10. Pour your formula into the mold and see to it that the surface is levelled. Leave it to dry for

two days, and remove it from the mold afterwards.

Figure 10: Pour the mixture into the mold

3.2 Experimental Design

Soak the bones

in a hydrogen
peroxide
Clean the solution, with
bones 180 ml Then remove
thoroughly, measurement it from the
Then leave it and the solution and
to dry estimated leave it to dry
overnight, amount of water again funder
placed on top that may be the sun for
of a clean considered half five days
surface. of the formula. Add the
Let it soak for a bones
Pulverize the week.
Mix the conrstarch, and Leave it
bones into a water, and a few then to dry
powdered drops of hydrogen
mix until
state, using a peroxide; see to it
that the until the tile
hammer or measurements given the is
mallet. are followed substan formed
ce is
viscous

The central point of observation in the experimentation conducted by the researchers are

the animal bones, which the researchers have chosen to use as the main component of a tile

17
constituting of organic materials locally available; which we have chosen to test and observe in the

creation of an organic tile whether or not it can be an essential component that will guarantee

sturdiness and durability of an organic tile.

As it was mentioned in Chapter 1, the study took place within the school premises, namely

the physics and TLE laboratory. The specific time stamp we had taken into consideration was during

dismissal, to not further plague other tasks for certain subjects. The variable was kept at the

average room temperature of 31.0° Celsius (87.8° Fahrenheit), leaving it at the TLE lab to dry, it

being the most accessible area to leave the said tile.

18
 CHAPTER IV

Observations and Findings

4.1 Results

The following will consist of further observations and a thorough summary of each trial the

researchers has conducted. And therefore the researchers have decided to use a systematized way

of rating the progress of the durability and odor produced by the tile each day of observation; 10

being the highest value and 1 as the lowest.

Trial 1: Applying Heat

On the first day of observation of the initial trial, in which the mixture was placed inside an

oven to expose to heat. The output was left to cool atop a table once the heating process was

finished. In observation, the mixture was semi-solid in terms of consistency. Meanwhile in

consideration of the odor, the stench was evident.

In the succeeding days, the stench only seemed to worsen and the tile seemed to develop

in terms of solidification, but not sufficient enough; as it could easily be manipulated and molded.

After the second day, there happened to be no change in durability and the mixture remained the

same consistency; but the stench seemed to worsen as more days passed.

19
Table 1: Observation of the odor and durability of the tile from day 1 to 3; for trial 1.

Date Odor (measured in terms Durability (tested by the sense

of withstanding the of touch)

stench)

Day 1: Jan 3 2019 5 2

Day 2 : January 4 2019 6 4

Day 3: January 5 2019 10 4

Trial 2: Airdry

On the first day of the trial prior to the initial one, the mixture was left exposed to air to

allow the air-drying process to take place. The odor of the mixture was not as worse as the first

trial, and the mixture seemed to be more solid.

On the second day, the mixture seemed to further harden, although the stench seemed to

worsen. For the succeeding days, the stench persevered. Although the mixture seemed to harden

further; but on the fourth day of observation, the tile remained the same consistency as the third

day; which was not enough to be the ideal organic type which we had envisioned as enduring.

20
Table 2: Observation of the odor and durability of the tile from day 1 to 4; for trial 2.

Date Odor Durability

Day 1: January 6 2019 4 4

Day 2: January 7 2019 6 5

Day 3: January 8 2019 8 6

Day 4: January 9 2019 10 6

Trial 3 - Air-drying Process (increased addition of binder, degreasing method followed)

For the first day of observation, the tile had not secreted any evident odor, but did in fact had a

faint stench only distinguishable upon smelling the tile up close, which continued for the following

days to come. In terms of durability, the increase in the added binding agent allowed the mixture to

solidify into a tile. After the second day, the consistency of the tile remained the same, as well as

for the consecutive days that followed. The resulting tile once again, did not meet the expectations

as the tile was of brittle structure although solidified. Compared to the pprevious trials though,

there was great improvement in terms of odor.

21
4.2 Analysis of Data

The tile seems to be semifluid and can be emulated to the sense of the characteristics of

clay, the approximate size of the tile is 7x7 in. (inches) and weights 1 kg (kilogram), given that it

isn’t as dense as expected; the surface also seems to be rough and rigid. The tile can sustain its

form, to a certain extent that it can be molded like clay, but with a little more labor and force. The

tile seemed to emanate odor after a period of time, and it seems to worsen as days pass by;

indicating that there may be an error in the devised/proposed general procedure.

22
 Chapter V

Generalization and Recommendations

5.1 Conclusion

After the observation of results, the researchers have picked up certain errors within the

processes attempted. The researchers conclude that one of the causes for the unsuccessful output

of the experimentation conducted is the insufficient amount of binding agent (cornstarch) added in

the mixture for both trials —the component in charge of hardening and binding the tile into a solid

—therefore hindered the hardening of the mixture into a tile. Another factor was the improper

cleansing of the bones, which the researchers’ suspect as the reason for the emanating odor.

After conducting the first trial, wherein the mixture is exposed to direct heat, the

researchers’ have arrived at the realization that it was deemed nonessential for the hardening

process of the mixture. As the mixture had not fully solidify, the resulting output was feeble in

terms of durability. As for the odor, the stench emanated and seemed to reek further as days

passed. The air-drying technique seemed to be the best option, but as stated, the inadequacy of

the binding agent had hindered it from full solidification.

For the last trial, the resulting tile was brittle in structure, although it did in fact solidify

better than the last trials conducted. The researchers suspect that the reason for the unsuccessful

trial was that the air-drying process did not allot the heat the mixture required for it to be a tile of

durable quality. On the other hand, the researchers have observed that the reason for the

unsuccessful output of the first trial was because the set temperature and amount of time the

mixture had been left in the oven was did not suffice.

23
 In conclusion to the hypothesis, the durability and solid structure of the bones allowed it to

be a component in tile making, except the resiliency of the newly created tile had not been tested

due to certain errors that hindered the tile from full solidification. Therefore, a drop test could not

have been made possible because of the resulting tile’s unstable structure which would only

guarantee an unsuccessful result due to the erroneous processes attempted by the researchers.

This is the final output of the experimental process conducted by the researchers:

Figure 11: The Final Product

5.2 Recommendations

The researchers have observed that the main fault in the experiment is the inability to

remove the stench from the bones, eventually becoming unbearable as more time passed. Not

being able to thoroughly clean the bones became a constituent of the problem, the other being the

fact that the researchers weren’t given enough time to actually allow the tile to dry; a time

constraint.

The recommended action on this is by using the method “degreasing” before actually

submerging the bones in a hydrogen peroxide formula. The process includes leaving the bones

inside a basin filled with water and partly dishwashing soap to let the grease leave the bone.

24
Another error is the boiling of the bones; which actually causes fat to get trapped inside the bones,

which is another reason for the stench.

Another recommended action is to decrease the amount of tap water in the mixture,

along with mixing the hydrogen peroxide with the binding agent beforehand, since its is

unnecessary for the final formula of the mixture.

The researchers also recommend scheduling the trials and experimentations in an orderly

manner; a clear layout of a schedule for this experimentation surprisingly takes copious amounts of

time, especially the process of cleaning the bones and removing the odour.

The researchers recommend for those who will take interest in this study, to consider the

usage of egg whites as an alternative-binding agent. During the Spanish colonial period, egg whites

were combined with lime, sand, and water to create mortars for the construction of churches.

Mortars are used in masonry construction as a binder (Michelle Eusebio, 2009). But further research

must be done in order to ensure that the egg whites won’t spoil. It is also recommended to attempt

different durability tests, such as the “drop-test” to ensure its resiliency and durability.

25
 Bibliography

Awaz, Abrham (2018) “Effects of Varying Dosage Replacement of Cement Content by Animal

Bone Powder in Normal Concrete Mix Production” Retrieved from

http://pubs.sciepub.com/ajcea/6/4/1/index.html

Baal, Nadiya (2017) “Oxidized Starch” Retrieved from http://www.banpong.co.th/oxidized_starch

Bommala, Nabinder (2018) “Clandestine operation: Bones from Carcass Cold Meat to Tiles and

Animal Feed” Retrieved from https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/clandestine-

operation-bones-from-carcass-cold-meat-for-shine-in-tiles/articleshow/63777195.cms

Chu (2016) “Bones & Seashells Inspire Sustainable Design for Concrete” Retrieved from

https://www.designnews.com/materials-assembly/bones-seashells-inspire-sustainable-design-

concrete/111478494146715

Clark, Joan (2016) “Hydrogen is a Powerful Oxidizer” Retrieved from

http://www.h2o2.com/products-and-services/us-peroxide

technologies.aspx?pid=112&name=Hydrogen-Peroxide

Cunnings, Herbert (2014) Re: Ask MetaFilter: Querying the Hive Mind, 2014 [Online forum]

Retrieved from https://ask.metafilter.com/269636/Bones-as-a-building-material

Dr. Wile (2011) “Bone Biology” Retreived from https://www.lgdalliance.org/bone-biology/

Eusebio, Michelle (2009) “Did our Church Builders Use Egg Whites as Mortar Ingredients?: The

Biomolecular Reason Behind Collecting Mortars from Historical Sites” Retrieved from

http://www.academia.edu/3697301/Did_our_Church_Builders_Use_Egg_Whites_as_Mortar_Ingredi

ents_The_Biomolecular_Reason_Behind_Collecting_Mortars_from_Historical_Sites

26
Fernandez, Rudy (2015) “Recycled shells good for tile making — study” Retrieved from

https://www.philstar.com/business/agriculture/2005/03/27/271648/recycled-shells-good-tile-

making-151-study

Gray (2011) “Ceramic Flooring Pros and Cons” Retrieved from

https://www.thespruce.com/ceramic-flooring-pros-and-cons-1314687

Heaney, Robert Proulx (2014) “Bone Anatomy” Retrieved from

https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/energy/vol/42/issue/1

Kannan, Vippin (2011) “Binder for Ceramic Bodies” Retrieved from

https://digitalfire.com/4sight/education/binders_for_ceramic_bodies_345.html

Lewitin (2017) “The Advantages of Using Tile Flooring for Your Home” Retrieved from

https://www.expressflooring.com/blog/the-advantages-of-using-tile-flooring-for-your-home/

Lower, Claire (2017) “How to Clean Animal Bones” Retrieved from https://lifehacker.com/how-

to-clean-animal-bones -1798191351

McClelland, John (2016) “Do Animals Have the same Type of Bones as Humans?, paragraph 6”

Retrieved from https://asktheprofessionals/2015/10/12/are-animal-and-human-bones-the-same/

Myer, Sydney 2013 “The History of Tile” Retrieved from

https://www.thevictorianemporium.com/publications/history/article/history_of_tiles

Naga, Salma (2014) “Recycling of Fish Bone Ash in the Preparation of Stoneware Tiles” Retrieved

from

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260124945_Recycling_of_Fish_Bone_Ash_in_the_Prepar

ation_of_Stoneware_Tiles

27
Shrummer, Kenny (2013) “Coal-powered electricity?” Retrieved from

https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/energy/vol/42/issue/1

Tolvane,Pase (2015) “Tyoes of Modified Starch” Retrieved from

https://www.ukessays.com/essays/biology/types-of-modified-starches-biology-essay.php

Tozzi, Nilo (2015) “Biodegradation of Starch” Retrieved from

https://www.slideshare.net/VipinKannan1/biodegradation-of-starch

Watson, James (2016) “Do Animals Have the same Type of Bones as Humans?, paragraph 1”

Retrieved from https://asktheprofessionals/2015/10/12/are-animal-and-human-bones-the-same/

28