Section 7

Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and

Foam Fracturing

Table of Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 7-5
Topic Areas ............................................................................................................................................ 7-5
Learning Objectives ............................................................................................................................... 7-5
Unit A: Physical Properties of Nitrogen (N2) ............................................................................................ 7-6
Nitrogen Properties................................................................................................................................. 7-6
Nitrogen Factors ..................................................................................................................................... 7-7
Additional Reference.............................................................................................................................. 7-7
Unit A Quiz ............................................................................................................................................ 7-8
Unit B: Nitrogen (N2) Services .................................................................................................................. 7-8
Applications for Nitrogen....................................................................................................................... 7-9
Foam Frac Services .............................................................................................................................. 7-10
Pumping Units ...................................................................................................................................... 7-11

.............................................................................................................................................................. 7-11
Additional References .......................................................................................................................... 7-12
Unit B Quiz .......................................................................................................................................... 7-13
Unit C: Safety with Nitrogen ................................................................................................................... 7-14
Safety Precautions for Handling Nitrogen ........................................................................................... 7-14
Liquid Air Hazard ................................................................................................................................ 7-14
Symptoms of Oxygen Deficiency ........................................................................................................ 7-15
Effect of Trapping Liquid Nitrogen ..................................................................................................... 7-15
Nitrogen Rig-Up and Test Procedure ................................................................................................... 7-16
Pressure Test ........................................................................................................................................ 7-16

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Pumping Procedure / Treating Iron Low Temperature Limits ............................................................. 7-16

Emergency Shut Down Procedures ...................................................................................................... 7-17
Shutdown Procedure............................................................................................................................. 7-17
Unit C Quiz .......................................................................................................................................... 7-18
Unit D: Material and Components Used in Handling Nitrogen ............................................................... 7-19
Non-Cryogenic Materials ..................................................................................................................... 7-19
Cryogenic Materials ............................................................................................................................. 7-19
Unit D Quiz .......................................................................................................................................... 7-20
Unit E: Sample Nitrogen Problems .......................................................................................................... 7-21
Definitions ............................................................................................................................................ 7-21
Thermal Gradients ................................................................................................................................ 7-21
Example Problems................................................................................................................................ 7-22
Unit E Quiz........................................................................................................................................... 7-24
Unit F: Physical Properties of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) ............................................................................. 7-25
Applications of Carbon Dioxide........................................................................................................... 7-25
Carbon Dioxide Factors........................................................................................................................ 7-25
Additional References .......................................................................................................................... 7-26
Unit F Quiz ........................................................................................................................................... 7-27
Unit G: Chemical Properties of Carbon Dioxide (CO2)........................................................................... 7-28
Carbonic Acid ...................................................................................................................................... 7-28
Designing CO2 Well Treatments .......................................................................................................... 7-28
Additional References .......................................................................................................................... 7-29
Unit G Quiz .......................................................................................................................................... 7-29
Unit H: Safe Handling and Pumping of CO2 ........................................................................................... 7-30
CO2 Injection ........................................................................................................................................ 7-30
Pretreatment Meeting ........................................................................................................................... 7-30
Spotting Equipment .............................................................................................................................. 7-31
CO2 Rig-Up .......................................................................................................................................... 7-31
Purging the CO2 System ....................................................................................................................... 7-32
Pressure Test and Cool Down .............................................................................................................. 7-33
Pumping Procedure .............................................................................................................................. 7-34
Shutdown.............................................................................................................................................. 7-34
Controlling the Separator ..................................................................................................................... 7-34
Starting and Stopping Boost Pumps during Operation......................................................................... 7-35
Shutting Down CO2 Boost Operations ................................................................................................. 7-36
Unit H Quiz .......................................................................................................................................... 7-37
Unit I: Sample CO2 Problems .................................................................................................................. 7-38
Additional References .......................................................................................................................... 7-39
Unit I Quiz ............................................................................................................................................ 7-42
Unit J: Foam Fracturing ........................................................................................................................... 7-43
Foam ..................................................................................................................................................... 7-43
Foam Quality ........................................................................................................................................ 7-43
Foam Stability ...................................................................................................................................... 7-44
Low Liquid Content ............................................................................................................................. 7-44
Fluid Loss ............................................................................................................................................. 7-44
Proppant Transport ............................................................................................................................... 7-44
Built-In Gas Assist ............................................................................................................................... 7-44
Minimum Well Clean Up Time ............................................................................................................ 7-44
Foam Types .......................................................................................................................................... 7-44
Proppant Concentration ........................................................................................................................ 7-45
Breakers in Liquid Phase...................................................................................................................... 7-45

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Foaming Agents ................................................................................................................................... 7-45

Foamed Acid ........................................................................................................................................ 7-45
Unit J Quiz ........................................................................................................................................... 7-47
Unit K: Flow back of Energized Fluids ................................................................................................... 7-48
Procedures ............................................................................................................................................ 7-48
Unit K Quiz .......................................................................................................................................... 7-49
Self Check Test for Section 7 .................................................................................................................. 7-50
Answer Keys ........................................................................................................................................ 7-54
Self-Check Test .................................................................................................................................... 7-57

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Use for Section notes…

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Introduction
Nitrogen (N2) or carbon dioxide (CO2) is often
injected along with other fluids during the Learning Objectives
stimulation treatment to help remove silt,
reaction products, and formation fines from the
well bore. Their uses frequently result in greater After completing this section, students will be
fracture flow capacity, higher well productivity, able to:
and quicker clean ups after treatment. Describe types of service operations for
nitrogen
Topic Areas Describe major safety considerations in
using nitrogen
The section units are: Describe major safety considerations in
1. Physical Properties of Nitrogen using liquid carbon dioxide

2. Nitrogen Services Match the physical properties of CO2 and

N2 from a list of fluid physical properties
3. Safety with Nitrogen
Identify pumping operations that apply to
4. Material and Components Used in pumping CO2 and N2
Handling Nitrogen
Calculate the following:
5. Sample Nitrogen Problems
a) Pipe displacement, nitrogen
6. Physical Properties of Carbon Dioxide requirement
7. Chemical Properties of CO2 b) Concentration of sand in the
8. Safe Handling & Pumping of CO2 blender tub when you know the
sand concentration in the foam
9. Sample CO2 Problems system
10. Foam Fracturing c) Bottom hole treating pressure
11. Flow back of Energized Fluids (BHTP) with commingled CO2
fluid columns given the
instantaneous shut-in and
temperature gradient.

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Unit A: Physical Properties of Nitrogen (N2)

The use of nitrogen gas in the oilfield began in
1956. Its initial use was as a gas cushion to
control well-flowing pressures during drill stem
tests. Although quantities and pressures were
limited, this service did allow control of well
liquids and pressures by use of an inert gas.
With the introduction in 1959 of cryogenic
transports and pumps that could pump and
transport nitrogen in the liquid state, service was
expanded. Nitrogen helps speed treating fluid
recovery, reducing rig time and improving
results. It can also be used in generating
fracturing foam, especially valuable for low
permeability, low pressure, and water sensitive
formations.

Nitrogen Properties

Nitrogen is a valuable aid in almost all types of

oil and gas well service procedures. It has
several unique properties since it: Figure 7.1 - Equilibrium Curve for Nitrogen
is an inert gas (does not readily react with
other elements)
The vapor density of nitrogen at 70°F and 14.7
does not react adversely with treating or psi is .0724 lbs. per cubic foot. The solubility of
formation fluids N2 in various treating fluids is extremely low.
is slightly soluble in water, oil and most For oil field work, N2 is liquefied (LN2) and
other liquids transported in insulated transports at
approximately –320°F and 15 psi. Since N2 is
remains in bubble form to help lift fluids
non-flammable, there is no danger of fire or
from the well bore when commingled with
explosion.
liquids
You might have LN2 stored in your field
is colorless and is brought to location in
location. Insulated LN2 containers work just
liquid form
like a thermos bottle. A small amount of LN2
is converted to gas at controlled rates, converts to gas continuously. A Road Relief
pressures and temperatures valve, installed on each unit, keeps the tank
pressure below 15 psi. It is normal for these
tanks to vent excess pressure automatically.

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Molecular Symbol ...................................... N2

100 212 Water Boils (Steam) Molecular Weight ................................ 28.016
Normal Boiling Point...................... -320.36°F
Critical Temperature (Tc)............... - 232.85°F
Critical Pressure ................................ 492.3 psi
20 70 Room Temperature
Density Gas @ 70°F, 1 atm ........ 0.0724 lb/ft3
0 32 Water Fr eezes (Ice) Density Liquid @ Boiling Point
.................................. 50.45 lb/ft3, 6.74 lb/gal
Density Vapor @ Boiling Point
................................ 0.280 lb/ft3, .0374 lb/gal
Cryogenic Range
Expansion Ratio
-78.4 -109.3 CO2 Subli mes (Dry Ice)
............................ 696 : 1 (SCF : ft3 of liquid)
Critical temperature is –232.4°F and critical
pressure is 492.9 psi (Figure 7.1). Normal
boiling point is –320.36°F. The cryogenic
thermometer (Figure 7.2) shows the
-161.5 -258.7 Methane extraordinarily cold nature of liquid nitrogen.
-183.0 -297.3 Oxygen Note that a difference in temperature of 180°F
-185.9 -302.6 Argon
-195.8 -320.4 Nitrogen
exists between ice and boiling water. The 390°F
temperature difference between liquid nitrogen
and 70°F room temperature is more than twice
as great.
-246.1 -410.9 Neon
-252.8 -423.0 Hydrogen Halliburton has developed original data tables
-268.9 -410.9 Helium for designing and planning well servicing
-273.16 -459.7 Absolute Zero
procedures using nitrogen. The data produced
Figure 7.2 - Cryogenic Thermometer are based on actual downhole conditions. For
instance, instead of using average temperatures,
the tables permit treatment design with actual
temperature gradients (see Figure 7.8.) This
technique can often make a substantial
Nitrogen Factors difference in job design and results.

Each gallon of liquid nitrogen weighs 6.74

pounds and is equivalent to 93.11 standard cubic Additional Reference
feet of gas. One cubic foot of liquid nitrogen
contains 7.48 gallons and weighs 50.42 pounds. Halliburton Services Personnel Training Video
It is equal to 696.46 standard cubic feet of gas. ―Cryogenic Safety‖ 30 minutes.
That is, it will equal 696.46 cubic feet at 1 I Learn Module ―Basic Nitrogen Safety‖ 2 hours
atmosphere of pressure at 70°F. Standard refers Nitrogen WiSER – Virtual equipment Simulator
to using a standard of measurement. So for gas, for the TPU – 660 unit.
the standard is 1 atmosphere pressure (14.7 psi
at sea level) and 70°F. In liquid form, it is myhalliburton.com – PE equipment Portal
convenient and economical to increase pressure
of the liquid by using positive displacement
pumps. Other nitrogen factors are listed below:

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Unit A Quiz

Fill in the blanks with one or more words to check your progress in Unit A.
1. List six of the unique properties of nitrogen:

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

2. Nitrogen is delivered to location in ___________________________ form and converted to a

________________________ under controlled rates, pressure and temperature.

3. What is the weight of one gallon of liquid nitrogen?

_____ a) 6 lb/gal

_____ b) 10 lb/gal

_____ c) 6.74 lb/gal

_____ d) 8.33 lb/gal

4. One U.S. Standard gallon of liquid nitrogen will yield

_____ a) 7.48 standard cu. ft. of gas

_____ b) 69.61 standard cu. ft. of gas

_____ c) 178.12 standard cu. ft. of gas

_____ d) 6.74 standard cu. ft. of gas

_____ e) 93.11 standard cu. ft. of gas.

5. The normal boiling point of nitrogen is _______ °F.

Now, look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key.

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Unit B: Nitrogen (N2) Services

Nitrogen used with fracturing and acidizing
services gives more complete treatment fluid Density Control
recovery without swabbing. In most cases, even
in low-pressure reservoirs, N2 use eliminates the Nitrogen can be used in density controlled
need for time-consuming and sometimes acidizing or fracturing services to reduce the
dangerous swabbing to recover treatment fluid. density of the stimulation fluids. Since the
Nitrogen gas used as the spearhead, or in the created fracture may extend below the
breakdown fluid in fracturing, helps push the productive zone, commingled nitrogen in the
treatment fluid back out of the formation. appropriate liquid phase can effectively lighten
the fluid to enable its placement in the upper
portion of the fracture or productive zone.
Applications for Nitrogen
Workover Services
Cushion for Drill Stem Testing
Jetting with nitrogen can greatly aid treating
fluid recovery and reduce costs. Jetting can be
Even when nitrogen is not needed to prevent done either down the tubing and out the annulus
collapse of drill pipe, it can help improve the or down the annulus and out the tubing. Usually,
accuracy of drill stem test results. With nitrogen maximum recovery results from pumping
in the drill pipe, there is no question that any nitrogen down the tubing at a constant rate while
recovered fluid came from the formation. Also, maintaining back pressure on the annulus. This
recovered fluids are not diluted as with a water process causes high fluid velocities by making
cushion. Nitrogen can play a vital role more efficient use of the expansion properties of
throughout the test by: nitrogen. Jetting advantages are:
Pressuring the test string from the surface reduced rig time
to check for leaks before the tester is
opened improved wellbore conductivity
Preventing a sudden release of pressure at reduced danger of sticking swab cups
the formation face when the tester is quicker return on investment
opened. This helps reduce sloughing of
the formation. lower returning fluid cost
The combination of nitrogen and coiled tubing
Leak Testing services allows many completion, workover and
remedial services to be performed faster and at
Nitrogen leak testing can be a valuable less cost than previously possible. These
supplement to conventional hydrostatic tests, combinations of nitrogen and coiled tubing
especially in tubular goods intended for critical services may eliminate the need for a costly
applications. After the string or wellhead is workover unit to swab the well and the need to
hydrostatically tested, all couplings and joints pull tubing. Nitrogen circulation through
are leak tested with nitrogen. If the joints do not continuous tubing will:
leak nitrogen, they can usually be counted on not
clean out well bore debris
to leak oil or natural gas.
unload low pressure gas wells

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

circulate fluid from the well prior to Well Fire Control

perforating
remove sand remaining in the well bore Nitrogen can be used to extinguish certain well
after fracturing fires. If an oil or gas well catches fire,
noncombustible nitrogen gas can be pumped
gas lift fluids during testing into and around the flame to produce a
displace chemicals into the formation noncombustible mixture by lowering the oxygen
content of the air to less than 10 percent.
By reducing workover fluid density, nitrogen Nitrogen can also put out a natural gas blaze
helps reduce fluid loss to formations. This is when the concentration of nitrogen in the natural
especially helpful in low pressure wells. gas is increased above 30 percent.
Nitrogen-laden workover fluids retain high
lifting capabilities at minimum circulating Annulus Insulation
pressures.
With the use of nitrogen and a lubricator, the Paraffin precipitation and deposits in the
pressure within the wellbore can be controlled production string can be caused by heat loss
while perforating. Correct application can from the production fluid to the cooler
virtually eliminate the chance of perforation formations. Fluids in the tubing casing annulus
debris entering the formation by excess provide very little insulation to prevent heat loss.
hydrostatic pressure. Nitrogen in the annulus can help reduce or
Nitrogen is used to displace the well fluid from eliminate paraffin deposits. In steam injection
the tubing when a well is ready to be perforated. and geothermal wells, energy can be conserved
The packer is set, the gun positioned, and the and condensation reduced by using nitrogen as
well pressured with nitrogen. After firing, the insulation in the annulus.
gun is removed through a lubricator. The
nitrogen is slowly bled to the atmosphere to help Freeing Differentially Stuck Drill Pipe
bring in the well. Swabbing is not usually
required. Nitrogen, when commingled with drilling mud,
temporarily reduces fluid density, which reduces
Placing Corrosion Inhibitors the hydrostatic pressure against the pipe and
allows it to pull free. Another technique is to
There are two effective methods of placing spot nitrogen gas over the zone where the pipe is
corrosion inhibitors with nitrogen. First, stuck. The low viscosity of the gas causes the
nitrogen is used to create an inhibitor mixture or pressure to equalize around the pipe, allowing it
foam. Tubing fluid is displaced into the to pull free. Nitrogen quickly dissipates from
formation by the inhibitor mixture, resulting in drilling mud on return to the surface, allowing
the tubing being filled with the nitrogen. quick return to heavier weights.
Pressure is maintained to allow the inhibitor
time to deposit on the tubing wall. The nitrogen
is then bled off and the well put back on
Foam Frac Services
production. Shut-in time is held to a minimum.
The inhibitor is much more likely to stick on the In the Foam-Frac service, nitrogen gas is
tubing because swabbing and displacement are injected downstream of the pumps into a water-
eliminated. base fluid containing a foaming agent. In most
jobs, nitrogen volume ranges between 65 and 85
By the second method, the inhibitor is displaced percent of the total volume. The proppant
into the formation with nitrogen gas. The transport and rheological characteristics of the
nitrogen allows the well to be placed on foam are excellent. However, because the low-
production faster by eliminating or reducing density foam produces less hydrostatic pressure
swabbing time.

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

and because foams have a high amount of capabilities. The model designation used is
friction, the wellhead pressure will be higher. primarily for U. S. service under the authority of
This can increase the HHP requirements. Since the joint Halliburton / Praxair venture company
the foam bubbles help block small pore spaces, of Wellnite Services. The first three letters are a
fluid loss control is obtained without the use of prefix that states the type of unit. For instance,
fluid loss additives. This helps reduce formation TPU stands for trailer pumping unit while SPU
damage that could be caused by the fluid loss stands for skid pumping unit. The numbers
additive. Also, because of its lighter density and usually stand for the maximum amount of
expansion properties, cleanup after the nitrogen the unit can pump in one hour. For
stimulation treatment is much faster and more instance, the MPU 90A should be able to pump
fluid can be recovered. 90,000 SCF of Nitrogen in one hour if the
pressure is low enough for it to maintain it’s
maximum rate. Any letter after the numbers
Pumping Units signifies a model of that unit, except for the
letter ―F‖ which indicates that the unit is
Table 7.1 lists some of the currently used ―flameless‖ or carries a non-open-flame heater.
Halliburton nitrogen pumping units and their

Normal
Deliverable Maximum Maximum
Volume of N2 Designation Rate Minimum Rate Pressure
160,000 SCF MPU 60 1000 SCF/min 100 SCF/min 10,000 psi
250,000 SCF MPU 90A 1500 SCF/min 100 SCF/min 10,000 psi
250,000 SCF TPU 300A 5000 SCF/min 300 SCF/min 15,000 psi
250,000 SCF TPU 340F A 5666 SCF/min 300 SCF/min 15,000 psi
* S120-15F 1666 SCF/min 100 SCF/min 15,000 psi
* SPU 180 3000 SCF/min 100 SCF/min 15,000 psi
250,000 SCF TPU 660 11,000 SCF/min 800 SCF/min 10,000 psi
Table 7.1- Nitrogen Pumping Equipment
* Skid tanks can be several sizes.

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Figure 7.3 – TPU-340A nitrogen pumper

Figure 7.4 - SPU-60B nitrogen pumper

Additional References
Halliburton Foam Stimulation, NS 113

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Unit B Quiz

Answer the following questions to check your progress in Unit B.

1. List seven applications for nitrogen services.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
2. What are five advantages of jetting with nitrogen in workover service?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

Now, look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key.

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Unit C: Safety with Nitrogen

Nitrogen is a colorless, odorless and tasteless long sleeve shirts
gas that makes up 78% of the air we breathe. In
liquid form, it is extremely cold and is cuffless trousers
―cryogenic,‖ which refers to its very cold nature. Avoid Skin Contact
Liquid nitrogen under normal atmospheric
pressure is 320°F below zero. This can freeze liquid leaking from equipment
flesh instantly upon contact. Even though cold equipment surfaces
nitrogen and cryogenic equipment are different
from other service equipment, their use is not Protect Your Eyes
considered dangerous if handled and operated liquid nitrogen causes immediate damage
properly. Safety should always be first priority
and this unit discusses safety measures involved eye damage is usually beyond repair and can
in nitrogen service procedures. cause permanent blindness
First Aid Procedures for Freeze Burns
Safety Precautions for Handling A freeze burn should be treated as follows:
Nitrogen 1. Remove clothing that may constrict
blood circulation to affected body area.
2. Immediately flood or submerge the
Skin and Eye Protection affected body area with large quantities
of clean, unheated water.
Liquid nitrogen is hazardous. If contact is made
with human tissue, its severely cold properties 3. Apply cold compresses.
will destroy skin in a manner similar to high heat 4. Get patient to a physician for treatment.
temperature burns. Burns will also result when
contact is made with the cold surfaces of piping
and other equipment containing the liquid. This Liquid Air Hazard
danger increases when liquid nitrogen is under
pressure. These facts emphasize the need for Nitrogen jobs may present some unusual
protective clothing and a good safety attitude on conditions you should learn to recognize. The
the part of the nitrogen operator. Wearing safety boiling point of nitrogen is lower than the
goggles or a face shield can protect you if the boiling point of oxygen. Liquid air will rapidly
liquid sprays or splashes and from the cold gas become oxygen enriched. This condensed liquid
that may be discharged under pressure from air forming on pumps and manifolds may
equipment. Wearing clean, insulated gloves that contain approximately 52% oxygen. This
can be easily removed and long sleeves are oxygen-enriched air causes normally non-
recommended for hand and arm protection. combustible material to become flammable and
Pants with no cuffs should be worn outside normally flammable material to burn at an
boots or over shoes to shed spilled liquid. The increased rate. A dangerous situation to watch
key safety measures are: for on a nitrogen job is when, under extremely
Wear Protective Clothing dry air conditions, suction lines may appear wet
instead of frosted. This is formed by liquid
safety goggles oxygen condensing from the surrounding air.
insulated gloves Also, keep cigarettes or other flammable

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

materials away from lines wet with liquid As seen above, a slight oxygen deficiency
oxygen. results in deeper respiration, faster pulse and
poor coordination. As the oxygen deficiency
increases, judgment becomes so poor that an
Symptoms of Oxygen individual may not know to move to a well-
Deficiency ventilated area. One full breath of pure nitrogen
can strip blood of necessary oxygen and cause
Oxygen is necessary for us to function. immediate loss of consciousness.
Expanding nitrogen displaces normal air without Be very careful when checking levels in a frac
warning. Although nitrogen is a nontoxic, tank on flow back. Nitrogen returning with the
nonflammable gas, it can cause asphyxiation in frac fluid will displace the oxygen from the tank.
an area without adequate ventilation. All liquid If you breathe air with less than 6% oxygen your
containers should be stored outdoors in well- body will react almost instantaneously and cause
ventilated areas. The normal oxygen amount in you to lose consciousness. Do not think you can
air at sea level is 21%. Table 7.2 shows what hold your breath or that only a breath or two will
happens when certain percentages of oxygen are not matter! Immediate asphyxiation may result.
remaining in the air at 14.7 psi total pressure. If someone should fall into the tank, do not try to
rescue him without first taking some
Oxygen Content Effects and Symptoms of acute
exposure (at Atmospheric Pressure) precautions. Before entering the tank, stop the
gas and allow the tank to refill with air, or use an
% by Effects and Symptoms air pack. Tie a safety rope to the waist of any
Volume operator checking fluid levels on a tank.
15-19% Decreased ability to perform tasks. May
impair coordination and may induce early
symptoms in persons with head, lung, or
Effect of Trapping Liquid
circulatory problems. Nitrogen
12-15% Breathing increases, especially in
exertion. Pulse up. Impaired coordination, Trapped liquid nitrogen absorbs heat and can
perception, and judgment. exert pressure in excess of 20 tons per square
inch. This fact explains why Halliburton’s
10-12% Breathing further increases in rate and pumping systems are designed to use a safety
depth, poor coordination and judgment,
lips slightly blue.
relief valve any place where nitrogen can be
trapped.
8-10% Mental failure, fainting, unconsciousness,
ashen face, blueness of lips, nausea
(upset stomach), and vomiting.

50.46 lb 50.46 lb
6-8% 8 minutes, may be fatal in 50 to 100% of of Liquid Nitrogen of Nitrogen
cases; 6 minutes, may be fatal in 25 to -320ºF, 0 psi 70ºF, 42,500 psi
1 ft3 1 ft3
50% of cases; 4-5 minutes, recovery with
treatment.

4-6% Coma in 40 seconds followed by Figure 7.5 - Nitrogen Liquid to Gas

convulsions, breathing failure, death.
Expansion Rate Example
Exposure to atmospheres containing 8-10% or
less oxygen will bring about unconsciousness
without warning and so quickly that the If liquid nitrogen is trapped between two valves
individuals cannot help or protect themselves.
in a manifold or hose, the effect of liquid turning
Table 7.2 – Oxygen Deficiency Symptoms to vapor may cause pressure over 42,000 psi
(Figure 7.5)

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Nitrogen Rig-Up and Test

Procedure

Job Set-Up

Perform proper risk assessment.

Spot trucks upwind from well, if possible
and note wind direction..
Figure 7.7 - Nitrogen Rig-Up Procedure —
Connect the discharge manifold as Two N2 Pumper
illustrated in Figures 7.6 and 7.7. The two
check valves in series in the nitrogen line
are to prevent water or acid from flowing
back to the nitrogen pump. The bleed valve
must be downstream of both check valves Pressure Test
to prevent trapped pressure. A stop valve
should always be placed between the Nitrogen treating lines and manifolding should
nitrogen manifold and the fluid line or be pressure tested with nitrogen, not exceeding
wellhead. the working pressure of the lines. The
preference is to pressure test other surface
If the nitrogen is being mixed with fluid,
treating lines and manifolds first with a non-
then tee the two together as close to the
compressible fluid as opposed to nitrogen. This
wellhead as possible. A check valve should
will help minimize potential risks due to a line
be used in the fluid line just upstream of the
failure with a compressible gas. Only
nitrogen connection.
designated personnel are to inspect the N2 lines.
If the nitrogen is connected directly to the Never use your hand to check for a leak. Use a
wellhead, inspect all wellhead connections rag or soapy water to find leaks in N2 lines.
to ensure their pressure rating/integrity.
This inspection is extremely important if
the wellhead has pipe thread type Pumping Procedure / Treating
connections. Iron Low Temperature Limits
Have one person check to make sure all valves
are in the correct position before the pumping
starts. There should also be one person chosen
to observe all manifolding during the pumping
operation. The temperature of nitrogen
discharged into the treating lines should be
around 70-100°F. However, if a heater on a
nitrogen pump fails, this temperature can
quickly drop. At -40°F, a sudden impact or
pressure pulse could cause a minor crack to turn
Figure 7.6 - Nitrogen Rig-Up Procedure — into a major failure. If the discharge lines frost
One N2 Pumper up on a nitrogen pumping job at any time,
execute an emergency shut-down and exit the
area immediately. After the carbon steel has
warmed up, it will return to its previous state.

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

However, all iron that has been frosted up There are many other steps which must be taken
should be inspected for damage. care of at some point, depending upon the
severity of the emergency. Refer back to the
Unit Operator’s manual for your specific unit for
Emergency Shut Down exact procedure.
Procedures

In the event of an emergency, be prepared to

Shutdown Procedure
shut the equipment down fast. Many N2 units
come equipped with an Emergency Kill button. At the end of the job, close the stop valve
The main objective is to bring the unit off-line, between the nitrogen manifold and the wellhead
isolate it from the wellhead and leave the tank, or fluid lines. This prevents fluid from entering
pump and lines in a safe condition. the nitrogen iron. Then bleed the pressure off the
nitrogen manifold with the bleeder tee.
There are five major steps to be followed in
order: Remember: treated iron or carbon steel will not
withstand cryogenic temperatures. Even a slight
disengage the pump drip can be enough to damage steel permanently
close the discharge valve if it is cracked while frozen. If you think liquid
nitrogen has been pumped into the lines or
open the prime up valve manifolds then disassemble and inspect for
turn off the vaporizer cracks. If you need to X-ray and do not have
access to the proper equipment, call Duncan
close the suction valve Engineering.

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Unit C Quiz

Fill in the blanks with one or more words or answer the following questions to check your progress
in Unit C.
1. ____________________ _____________________ will result from contact with the actual liquid
nitrogen; eye damage is usually beyond repair.

2. 50.46 lbs. of trapped N2 liquid at –320°F psi will take on heat and can build pressures in excess of
________________ psi at 70°F.

3. The normal amount of oxygen in the air at sea level is

_______ a) 10%
_______ b) 90%
_______ c) 25%
_______ d) 21%

4. At an oxygen concentration of 6-8%, how long does it take for a person to die? __________

5. What five steps should be taken if a nitrogen pump must be shut down during an emergency?

__________________________ __________________________ _____________________

____________________________________ ___________________________________

6. If you think liquid N2 has been pumped into discharge lines, what should be done?

_______________________________________________

Now, look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key.

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Unit D: Material and Components Used in Handling

Nitrogen
Extreme low temperatures adversely affect most Non-Cryogenic Non-Cryogenic
construction materials. Since a liquid nitrogen Materials Components
spill on a storage tank or any regular steel could carbon steels treating iron
cause the tank or steel to fracture and fail if cryogenic tank casing
stressed while frozen, components engineered low alloy steels
trailer frame
for use in cryogenic service must be chosen most rubber materials trailer frame
from approved materials.
most plastics power train

structural components
Non-Cryogenic Materials hydraulic lines
Table 7.3 - Non-Cryogenic Materials and
At cryogenic temperature, regular steel becomes Components
as brittle as glass and can easily be shattered.
Keep leaking liquid nitrogen away from truck
tires, chassis, boat decks and offshore platforms.
Allowing liquid nitrogen in the carbon steel
The extreme cold temperatures could weaken
treating iron is one of the most dangerous
and fracture any of these structures. Because of
mistakes an operator can make. Carbon steel
this, be extremely cautious when working with
becomes brittle at around –40°F. When this
discharge lines. Constantly monitor and
occurs, any shock could cause treating iron to
maintain discharge temperatures between 70°
break like glass.
and 100°F. If these lines frost up, either stop
pumping or increase heat. If the vaporizer stops
working, do not continue pumping. Introduction Cryogenic Materials
of liquid nitrogen into discharge lines can cause
a failure due to differential contraction. The cold
liquid nitrogen causes the inner wall of the pipe Pumps and manifolds are made from materials
to shrink. This action within a pipe could result such as copper, brass, bronze and non-magnetic
in an explosion if the pipe is under pressure. stainless steel, which are materials that can
Another possible hazard is that the pipe could withstand cryogenic temperatures (Table 7.4).
fracture at a later time. Materials Components

Know where your bleed-off valves are. If the inner tank of nitrogen
copper and its alloys
tank
pressure rises above safe levels, release the
pressure immediately. Do not rely upon the non magnetic stainless nitrogen low pressure
steels piping
safety pop-offs. If a gauge indicates that
pressure is rising at an unusually high rate of aluminum nitrogen fluid ends
speed, vent off immediately and then check the high pressure piping
reason. Do not try to find the problem until the high nickel steels up to the vaporizer
outlet
pressure has been bled-off. Most of the
components of nitrogen pumping units are made brass
up of materials that cannot withstand cryogenic bronze
temperatures (Table 7.3). Do not expose these Table 7.4 - Cryogenic Materials and
components to extreme cold. Components

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Unit D Quiz

Fill in the blanks or select the correct answer to check your progress in Unit D.
1. Carbon steel becomes brittle at approximately ________________. When this occurs, any shock such
as hitting the treating iron could cause the iron to break like glass.

2. From the list below, make a check mark to identify the cryogenic material(s).

________a) Copper
________b) Carbon steel
________c) Non magnetic stainless steel
________d) Aluminum
________e) Rubber

3. N2 discharge temperature should be kept between __________°F and __________°F.

4. Cold liquid nitrogen can cause the inner wall of a pipe to ____________________ and cause the pipe
to _______________________.

Now, look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key.

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Unit E: Sample Nitrogen Problems

Calculating the amount of nitrogen necessary for run StimWin - N2calcs subpackage. For these
various treatments requires some complicated problems we are referring to the tables.
equations. There are two ways to make these
calculations. ―Nitrogen Data for Oil Well
Servicing‖ is a set of tables for figuring nitrogen Definitions
requirements for commingled fluids and straight
nitrogen displacement. The second method is to Below are definitions of many of the values used
in calculating nitrogen requirements.
Symbol Typical Units
Q -Quality- Volumegas = Volumegas %
Volumefoam Volumegas + Volumeliquid
VLR - Volume Liquid Ratio- Actual Volume Mix none
Actual Volume Liquid
GLR - Gas Liquid Ratio Standard Volume Gas SCF/BBL
Volume Liquid
V’/V - Volume Factor- Standard Volume Gas SCF/BBL
Actual Volume Gas
WHP - Well Head Pressure- psi
BHP - Bottom Hole Pressure- psi
BHTP - Bottom Hole Treating Pressure- psi
BHFP - Bottom Hole Flowing Pressure- psi
ISIP - Instantaneous Shut-in Pressure- psi
BHST 80 F
Thermal Gradients F
Form Depth ft Thermal Grad
100ft
Because temperature has such a great effect on
nitrogen and CO2 calculations, the bottom hole Example:
temperature must be known. Most formations in You are going to treat a well with a thermal
an area have thermal gradients associated with gradient of 1.5°F/100 ft. The middle of the
them. These gradients are expressed as degrees formation is 5500 ft. What is BHST?
Fahrenheit per one hundred feet of depth
(°F/100 ft). The following equation can be used Solution:
to calculate the bottom hole static temperature 1.5 F
(BHST) if the thermal gradient is known: BHST 80 F 5500ft
100ft
80 F 82.5 F
162.5 F

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Example Problems gradient of 1.6°F/100 ft. If the wellhead ISIP is

1500 psi, find the bottom hole treating pressure.
Procedure:
Problem 1
Look at data for 500 SCF/bbl nitrogen with a
thermal gradient of 1.6°F/100 ft.
Calculate the volume of nitrogen and final WHP
to displace a foam frac down 2 7/8‖ 6.5 lb/ft Solution:
tubing. The well is 5000 ft. deep with a frac
On Figure 7.7, with a WHP of 1500 psi and
gradient of 0.6 psi/ft. The thermal gradient is
depth of 6000 ft we find a bottom hole pressure
1.1°F/100 ft.
= 3266 psi.
Procedure:
1. Calculate BHTP. Problem 3
2. Calculate tubing capacity.
In this example, calculate the total foam volume
3. Look up data. when we know the liquid and foam quality.
4. Calculate nitrogen volume. Quality of Foam = Q
(75 Quality = 0.75)
Solution:
Volume of Water/Acid = W
1.
W
BHTP F.G. depth Total Volume of Foam = (1 Q)
psi
0.6 5000ft
ft Example
3000psi
W = 95 bbl Acid
2. From the Cementer’s Handbook, the Q = 0.80 (80 Quality)
capacity of 2 7/8‖ tubing is found to be
0.00579 bbl/ft. 95 bbl
Total Foamed Acid Vol
bbl 1 - 0.80
Tubing Volume 0.00579 5000ft 95bbl
ft
28.95 bbl 0.2
3. In Figure 7.6 locate 5000 ft. under the
depth column. Read across the page until
you reach the 3000 psi BHP column. The Problem 4
well head pressure is 2575 psi and the
volume factor (V’/V) is 949 SCF/bbl. In this example we will calculate the volume of
4. liquid needed for a given volume of foam.
SCF Quality of Foam =Q
N 2 Volume 28.95 bbl 949
bbl Volume of Foam =V
Volume Water Needed = (V) × (1 – Q)
Example:
Problem 2 V = 600 bbl Foam
Q = 0.75 (75 Quality)
An instantaneous shut-in pressure is taken on a
frac job. The fluid pumped is 2% KCL water Water Volume Needed 600 bbl 1 - 0.75
with 40 lb/Mgal of gel and 500 SCF/bbl 600 bbl 0.25
nitrogen. The well is 6000 ft deep with a thermal

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Figure 7.8 -

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Unit E Quiz

Answer the following questions to check your progress in Unit E.

1. What do the following symbols stand for? What are the units for each?

Q = ____________________

VLR = ____________________

V’/V = ____________________

WHP = ____________________

BHP = ____________________

BHTP = ____________________

BHST = ____________________

2. If you are working with a formation that has a thermal gradient of 0.7°F/100 ft, what is the BHST if
the formation is 1,455 ft deep?

3. Calculate the volume of nitrogen required to displace casing under the following conditions. How
many standard cubic feet of nitrogen will be used?

4 ½‖ 11.6 lb/ft casing

Perforations at 3,000 ft

BHP is 2,000 psi

Thermal Gradient 1.1°F/100 ft

Now, look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key.

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Unit F: Physical Properties of Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

The physical properties of liquid carbon dioxide
make it easy to handle, and thus ideal for use
with stimulation treatments. With the trend
toward higher fracturing pump rates, the
injection rates of the gases must keep pace.
Pumped as a liquid, carbon dioxide places no
limits on flow rates. Therefore, liquid carbon
dioxide is added to treating fluids to improve
results and eliminate some of the problems
associated with oil and gas well stimulation. It
also promotes fast clean up of wells without the
need of swabbing.

Figure 7.9 - CO2 Booster/HT-400

Applications of Carbon Dioxide
When pressure is released at the well head after In crude oil treatments, the viscosity of low
treatment, CO2 expands and aids in removing gravity oil is reduced considerably by the
the treating fluids from the formation. The addition of CO2. Viscosity of high gravity oils is
presence of gaseous CO2 in these fluids reduces also lowered, but to a lesser degree. The
the weight of the fluid column so normal viscosity of water is only slightly altered by the
reservoir pressure can unload fluids from the addition of CO2.
well. CO2 is injected in the liquid state and forms an
CO2 can help prevent formation damage from emulsion that becomes foam above 88°F. CO2 is
the stimulation fluid and provide better well bore not compatible with all gel systems. The
clean up. Using CO2 often results in recovery of carbonic acid formed by mixing CO2 with water
formation fines, silt, reaction products, and mud can cause a premature break or a failure to
lost during drilling. crosslink in some gel systems.
The solution formed when water is the treating CO2 is pumped by conventional pumping
fluid has an acidic pH. This helps prevent the equipment with the addition of a relatively
swelling of the clays, the precipitation of inexpensive supercharging pump.
hydroxides and gypsum, and eliminates the need
to use expensive acid or calcium chloride
solutions for this same purpose. Carbon Dioxide Factors

At atmospheric temperature and pressure carbon

dioxide (Table 7.6) is a colorless, odorless gas
about 1-1/2 times heavier than air. For oil field
work, CO2 is liquefied and transported in
insulated transports at approx. 0°F and 300 psi.
In this state it is handled in much the same
manner as liquefied petroleum gas. CO2 is non-
combustible, so there is no danger of fire or
explosion. It can also be used as an auxiliary

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

fire-fighting medium in well stimulation work if Below 75.1 psia, CO2 can exist only as a solid
desired. (dry ice) or a gas. At atmospheric pressure, solid
CO2 vaporizes when it reaches a temperature of
Molecular symbol ...................................CO2
–109.3°F.
Molecular weight ...................................... 44
The critical temperature and pressure of carbon
Critical temperature ............................87.8°F dioxide are 87.8°F and 1071 psia. At these
Critical pressure ..... 1057.4 psig or 1071 psia conditions the liquid and vapor states of CO2
become indistinguishable. Above these
Liquid density at 2°F……..63.3 lb per cu. ft. conditions the fluid state that exists is a gas.
or 8.46 lb per gallon
Some conversion factors useful in well
stimulation work are:
One ton of liquid CO2 yields 17,198 SCF
of gaseous CO2
One gallon of liquid CO2 @ 10°F yields
73 SCF of gaseous CO2
The solubility of CO2 (std. cu. ft./bbl.) at 100°F
in various treating fluids is listed in Table 7.5.
100 1000 2000 4000
psi psi psi psi

Fresh Water 20 152 174 191

Salt Water
(100,000 13 108 127 139
ppm)
Salt Water
(260,000 6 53 63 69
ppm) Figure 7.10 - Carbon Dioxide Equilibrium
Crude Oil Curve
45 1025 1075 1075
38° API (85°)
Crude Oil
20° API 35 415 700 700
(120°)
Table 7.5 - CO2 Solubility
Additional References

Halliburton Services Personnel Training Videos,

Physically, all three states of carbon dioxide— ―Cryogenic Safety,‖ 30 minutes, and ―CO2
Services,‖ 5 ½ minutes.
solid, liquid and gas—are familiar (Figure 7.10).
They can exist simultaneously at –69.9°F and
75.1 psia, the triple point of carbon dioxide.

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Unit F Quiz

Fill in the blanks or mark the correct answer to check your progress in Unit F.
1. The critical temperature and pressure of CO2 are __________°F and __________ psia.

2. Physically, all three states of carbon dioxide (____________________, ____________________, and

____________________) can exist simultaneously at –69.9°F and 75.1 psia.

3. For field services, CO2 is liquid and delivered to location in insulated transports at approximately
__________ °F and __________ psi.

4. In low gravity crude oil treatments the viscosity of the oil is often ____________________ by the
addition of CO2.

5. CO2 injected in the liquid state forms an ____________________ that becomes a

____________________ above 88°F.

6. One gallon of liquid CO2 at 10°F yields:

_______ a) 152 standard cu. ft. of gaseous CO2

_______ b) 73 standard cu. ft. of gaseous CO2

_______ c) 63.3 standard cu. ft. of gaseous CO2

_______ d) 88.6 standard cu. ft. of gaseous CO2.

Now, look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key.

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Unit G: Chemical Properties of Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

The use of carbon dioxide as a well servicing fluid does not stay at a low pH, insoluble
medium grew rapidly upon its introduction as an compounds such as calcium sulfate
additive to acid and fracture jobs in 1962. (gypsum) may precipitate and restrict flow.
Today, specially insulated high-pressure The presence of CO2 in the solution helps
transports normally carry carbon dioxide to the prevent such a precipitation.
wellsite as a 0°F, 300 psi liquid. Liquid CO2, at Dolomites, limestone, and silicates are
the wellsite, is commingled with various treating soluble in carbonated water to varying
fluids and pumped downhole while still in its extents. Under well treatment conditions,
liquid state. By pumping CO2 as a liquid, greater 2625 pounds of magnesium carbonate will
flow rates can be achieved than if it were dissolve in 100 barrels of water saturated
gaseous. It remains liquid until reaching with CO2. Calcite will dissolve to the
temperature and pressure conditions downhole extent of 80 pounds per 100 barrels.
that allow it to vaporize. Silicates such as calcium silicate, strontium
silicate, and barium silicate are soluble in
ranges of from 100 to 200 pounds per 100
Carbonic Acid barrels. The removal from the formation of
such materials by the treating fluid can
As with any well servicing medium, the uses of result in increased permeability of the
carbon dioxide depend upon its physical and formation.
chemical properties. One of the most useful
chemical applications with carbon dioxide is Fluid retention by a formation is related to
what can be accomplished when water is capillary pressure, which is important in
saturated with CO2. Carbonic acid is formed. low porosity and low permeability
This acid, with a stable pH of 3.3 to 3.7, is reservoirs. CO2 lowers the interfacial
relatively non-corrosive and requires no tension of water and helps prevent water
inhibition for short term well treating blocks due to high capillary pressures.
applications. Some benefits of well stimulation
that work from this chemical effect are:
Designing CO2 Well Treatments
The low pH of carbonic acid will tend to
shrink and stabilize clay particles. This With proper design, in which the many well
control of swelling is especially important variables are taken into consideration, a treating
in formations containing large amounts of fluid can be provided with the proper level of
swelling clays. carbonation. This quantity of CO2 is injected
Most sandstone formations and many simultaneously with the treating fluids and
carbonate formations contain iron and normally remains in the liquid state until after
aluminum that can be dissolved during the fluid injection ceases. Heat transfer from the
acidizing. If the pH rises to five or above formation then causes vaporization of the CO2.
during a treatment, iron and aluminum The vapor expands, imparting a gas lift effect to
could precipitate as gelatinous hydroxides the well. Rapid, high rate flow back of
which can effectively block flow channels. carbonated treating fluids increases well
The low pH treating fluids help keep this productivity by taking advantage of the CO2 gas
from happening. expansion to provide energy for the formation
clean up.
Gypsum and anhydrite can be dissolved
with aqueous treating fluids. If the treating

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Additional References

Halliburton Services Personnel Training Video, ―Pumping CO2 Safely,‖ 23 minutes.

Unit G Quiz

Fill in the blanks with one or more words to check your progress in Unit G.
1. ____________________ acid is formed when water is saturated with CO2.

2. The low pH carbonated treating fluids will help prevent ____________________ and
____________________ from precipitating after a treatment.

3. Under normal well conditions ________________ pounds of magnesium carbonate will dissolve in
100 barrels of carbonated water.

4. CO2 lowers the ____________________ ____________________ of water and helps prevent

____________________ ____________________.

Now, look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key.

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Unit H: Safe Handling and Pumping of CO2

CO2 can present problems if not handled and open the vent valve on the discharge line.
correctly. Knowing how CO2 reacts in each of Vapor is allowed to pass out the bleeder vent
its three forms – solid, liquid and gas – and how until a continuous, heavy cloud of dry ice
it changes in job situations will allow you to particles is blowing. This confirms presence of
safely control CO2. liquid CO2 through the system. By this time all
CO2 suction and injection lines and the injection
This unit discusses: pump fluid end manifold should be completely
proper set-up procedures for a job frosted over. When many pumps are used, they
may be primed individually by having a separate
purging the system prime-up valve on the discharge of each pump.
priming and testing the system Rotary gauges are provided on all of the CO2
starting injection transports and field storage facilities to indicate
the amount of liquid CO2 present as a percent of
controlling the separator total tank capacity. These gauges can be used to
check on the CO2 injection rates during a
starting and stopping boost pump during
treatment. The total CO2 tank capacity is
operation
indicated on each piece of equipment.
shutting down
Gauge readings for these purposes are:
Transport Capacity ................... 5335 gallons
CO2 Injection Initial Reading – 90% ................. 4800 gal or
.................................................360,000 SCF
Liquid carbon dioxide is injected into the other
treating fluids near the well head through a Check Reading – 70% ................ 3735 gal or
separate treating line. To prevent vaporization .................................................280,000 SCF
and eliminate gas locking in the injection Liquid CO2 Used – 20% ............. 1065 gal or
pumps, a positive super-charge pressure must be ...................................................80,000 SCF
maintained as the liquid CO2 is transferred from
the transport to the injection pump suction. This This quantity divided by the pumping time
is done with a small rotary pump placed as close elapsed from the start of the job gives a check on
as possible to the transport. To cool and prime the actual CO2 pumping rate.
the pumps and to prevent water from entering
the CO2 lines during the job, a block valve, a
back check and a bleeder vent are installed in the Pretreatment Meeting
CO2 injection line. These are placed as near as
possible to the line’s junction with the other A pretreatment safety meeting should be held
injection lines entering the well head. with all personnel to discuss job description,
maximum pressure, pressure testing procedures,
Before starting the injection, the CO2 block job hazards, and emergency procedures. The
valve is closed, the bleeder vent closed, and the emergency procedures should include fire
supercharge pump engaged at idling speed. The fighting equipment, personal safety equipment,
vapor valve on the CO2 transport is then opened, lifeline, and an emergency meeting place.
and the suction manifold is tested for leaks.
Repair leaks by first closing vapor line and Five-minute escape packs are recommended for
releasing pressure. Retest suction until all leaks all personnel on CO2 jobs. During the safety
are repaired. Then open liquid valve on transport meeting one person should be randomly chosen

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

to demonstrate the proper use of the escape

packs.
All operators should understand that once liquid
CO2 has been admitted to the system, leaking
unions in the CO2 lines are not to be tightened.

Spotting Equipment

Three important points to consider when

spotting equipment are: Figure 7.11 - Injection Pump Set-Up
The CO2 boost trailer should be as level as
possible. For the separator to work
properly, the left side of the trailer should NOTE: The job set-up shown in Figure 7.11
be no more than six inches above or below works well on fracturing jobs. No matter what
the right side. set-up is used, the following steps should be
implemented if possible:
Park the trailer in relation to the wind so
that a large amount of CO2 vapor does not circulate CO2 through all injection pumps
enter the engine air intake. This can cause and return through separator during pre-job
the engine to stall due to a lack of oxygen. cooling

Place the equipment so that all connections isolate separator from injection pump
can be made with one 100 ft. length of pressure during job
hose. Connecting two or more hoses allows isolate each injection pump in case one
the CO2 to gain more heat. This causes should develop trouble during the job
vapor to form.
CO2 transports should be connected to the trailer
suction header. The trailer discharge should be CO2 Rig-Up
connected to the Halliburton high pressure pump
suction header by using the ten-foot lengths of
four inch CO2 rated hose supplied with the Job Setup
trailer. If possible, connections should be made
so that there is no sag in the hoses. Sags provide 1. In a job setup (Figure 7.12), vapor lines
places for liquid CO2 to accumulate and form should be connected between the liquid
dry ice at the end of the job. This can damage CO2 containers in order to equalize
the hoses. pressure. These allow equal drawdown of
liquid from all containers. Depending upon
IMPORTANT: Never use hoses that are bent
the number of containers, equalization may
so short that they flatten in the bends. Minimum take several hours to a full day.
bend radius is 33 ½ inches.
2. A vapor source to the CO2 booster
A typical job set-up is shown in Figure 7.11. separator is necessary. A separate line may
This set-up allows one HT-400 to be kept cooled
be installed, or the vapor line integral with
and primed while the other is used to inject into receiver discharge piping may be adequate.
the well. CO2 used for cooling is returned to
trailer suction through the separator where the 3. Only use hoses approved for CO2 service.
vapor is vented. Inspect external cover or braid for damage
before using. Do not use hose with visible
damage until it has been pressure tested.
4. Use minimum hose lengths required.

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

5. Chain all hose connections securely. water). These contaminants can cause excessive
wear on the pump vanes if not removed.
6. Clean all unions and lubricate them with
diesel oil. Any water in the system will form ice as soon as
it contacts the liquid CO2. Even a small amount
7. Install a bypass line around the flow meter
of ice can:
to prevent over-speeding of turbine with
vapor when priming up or purging system. stop vane pumps from turning
8. Install a check valve in the discharge of restrict circulation and make it difficult to
each Halliburton high pressure pump or use cool the system
a manifold trailer.
stick valves in HT-400’s
9. Install a plug valve and two check valves
on CO2 line upstream of commingling tee. These steps should be followed to purge the
system:
10. Install a plug valve and a check valve on
liquid line upstream of commingling tee. 1. Before starting to purge, make sure the
separator screen has been cleaned.
11. Install a check valve in treating line as
close to the well as possible.
12. Use two plug valves and a choke on release
line with plug valves located upstream of
choke.
13. Erect a lifeline from CO2 equipment to a
clear area a safe distance from the location.

Figure 7.12 - CO2 Rig-Up Procedure

Figure 7.13 - Ball Valve

Purging the CO2 System

Before the system is cooled, it should be purged 2. After all lines have been connected, isolate
(force CO2 vapor through all parts of the the CO2 system by closing the valves at
injection system at as high a velocity as possible trailer suction and discharge manifolds so
in order to remove dirt, sand, rust, trash, and the system can be pressurized.

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

3. Connect vapor hose from transport to ball

valve (Figure 7.13) on boost trailer
separator. Most transports carry a rubber
hose about 15 feet long equipped with 1, 1-
¼, or 1-½ inch male pipe fittings. Since the
boost trailer is equipped with 1 inch pipe
fittings, an adapter may be necessary.

Figure 7.15 - Discharge Manifold

CAUTION: Make sure discharge area is clear

before releasing pressure through a valve.
IMPORTANT: Open valves fully as quickly
as possible. This will cause the vapor to
exhaust at a high velocity and give a better
Figure 7.14 - 4 inch Butterfly Valve purge.
NOTE: Dry ice will not form in the pump or
lines as long as pressure is above 100 psi in both
4. Turn vapor into the system; then watch any
the suction and discharge manifolds.
one of three gauges on the manifolding and
allow pressure to build until it stops.
Gauges should show from 200 to 280 psi. Pressure Test and Cool Down
5. After pressure is up, open a 4 inch butterfly
valve (Figure 7.14) at the trailer suction 1. Test CO2 discharge lines to required
manifold. Leave open until system pressure pressure with –50°F anti-freeze mixture
drops to zero. Repeat at least three times. from wellhead to check valves at
6. Allow pressure to build up again and open Halliburton high pressure pumps.
a 4 inch butterfly valve at the trailer 2. Bleed off pressure. Then remove anti-
discharge manifold (Figure 7.15). Close freeze solution from lines by displacing it
after pressure drops to zero. Repeat three with CO2 vapor back into tank through the
times. release line.
7. Follow the same procedure as in Steps 5 3. Close plug valve on CO2 discharge line at
and 6 at the vent line valve located on commingling tee.
injection hose between HT-400’s and
wellhead. 4. Open vapor line valve to CO2 system and
slowly build pressure while testing for
leaks on the CO2 supply manifolding. All
CO2 supply connections are to be checked
for leaks and repaired during this test. Do
not tighten connections after this test.
Leaks should be allowed to leak.
5. Bleed CO2 vapor through release valves on
top of Halliburton high pressure pumps and

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

allow CO2 vapor pressure to reach its liquid has been purged, or dry ice will
maximum value. form.
6. Continue to bleed CO2 through system 5. Close plug valve on CO2 discharge at
while waiting for start-up. commingling tee.
6. Put Halliburton high pressure pumps in
Pumping Procedure first gear and let idle to purge system until
only vapor is being discharged.
1. Close release valves located on top of 7. Close the vapor line at supply and allow
Halliburton high pressure pumps and allow time for system pressure to bleed off.
CO2 vapor pressure to reach its maximum 8. Rig down.
value.
2. Close CO2 vapor supply valve completely.
Controlling the Separator
3. Slowly open the main liquid line valve.
4. Start boost pumps. The CO2 separator (Figure 7.16) provides a
means of removing vapor from the circulated
5. Open plug valve at the commingling tee.
liquid CO2. In order to function properly, the
6. Prime one Halliburton high pressure pump separator requires that two conditions be met:
through the release valve located on top of
pump. The pump is primed when a solid The trailer is reasonably level (not more
white stream of gas and dry ice snow is than 6 inch slant side-to-side)
seen blowing continuously from its Liquid CO2 is maintained at the proper
discharge. Slowly close the release valve level in the separator.
and commence pumping CO2.
Figure 7.16 shows three openings used to
7. Prime Halliburton high pressure pumps one indicate and control liquid level:
at a time until CO2 rate is established (2-3
barrels per minute per pump is A. is the point at which vapors are vented away
recommended). B. is the low level indicator
8. For short interruptions in pumping, the C. is the high level indicator
boost pumps and HT-400’s may be put in
The discharge port is on the under side.
neutral. A longer delay may require
repriming.

Shutdown

1. Shut down Halliburton high pressure

pumps.
2. Close all liquid CO2 supply valves at
supply.
3. Open vapor supply valves and admit CO2
vapor into system.
Figure 7.16 - CO2 Separator
4. Slowly open CO2 release valves on CO2
discharge line. Do not allow manifold
pressure to drop below 100 psi until all In order for the separator to work properly, it
must be kept between ½ and ¾ full as shown

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

above. The liquid level is determined by

observing the two level-indicating needle valves
(B) and (C).
Both needle valves should be opened slightly
while the boost trailer is being used. If liquid
CO2 is at the correct level, (B) should vent liquid
while (C) vents vapor. Needle valves may
occasionally become clogged with dry ice.
Opening or closing the needle valves slightly
should clear them out.
Figure 7.18 - Liquid Level Too High
If both (B) and (C) begin to spew vapor, the
liquid level is probably too low as shown in
Figure 7.18. In this case some vapor may be
Figure 7.19 shows what can happen if the boost
drawn out with the liquid through the discharge
trailer is not adequately leveled side-to-side. All
port. To remedy this, open ball valve (A) a little
indications may show proper liquid level, but
more. This will allow more vapor to escape and
injection pumps may be getting vapor and may
reduce the size of the vapor space held in the
lose prime.
separator. The liquid level will then rise.
If both (B) and (C) spew liquid, the level is
probably too high as shown in Figure 7.19. In
this case liquid may be drawn off with vapor
through (A).

Figure 7.19 - Boost Trailer out of level

Figure 7.17 - Liquid Level Too Low

Starting and Stopping Boost

To correct this, close ball valve (A) slightly. Pumps during Operation
This will help maintain the volume of vapor held
in the separator and force the liquid level to 1. While pumping CO2 at an injection rate that
drop. is not near the maximum of 15 bbl/min, one
or two of the CO2 boost pumps may stop
turning. This should be considered normal if
proper boost pressure is maintained. Check
the boost pressure and make sure the
discharge manifold reads 50 to 65 psi more
than the gauge on the suction manifold.
Pumps that have stopped turning should be
turned off as follows:

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Close pump discharge valve on stalled 2. Bring boost trailer engine to idle.
pump(s) 3. Close valves on CO2 transports.
Close hydraulic fluid valve to hydraulic 4. Isolate CO2 system from well pressure.
motor(s) on stalled pump(s)
5. Attach CO2 from a transport to the ball
Open needle valve bleeder on stalled valve on the separator and turn vapor into
pump discharge(s) just enough to the CO2 system.
discharge liquid CO2 and maintain a
coating of frost on the pump. This will 6. Bleed off the liquid CO2 at a vacant boost
cause the pump(s) to be kept full of trailer suction valve, discharge valve, the
liquid CO2 , cool during the job and ready vent valve on the injection line and, if
to run at any time. available, a bleeder valve on a 4 inch
connection on the CO2 transport.
2. If one of the stalled pumps must be restarted
during the job: NOTE: Bleed these locations one at a time
repeatedly until only vapor is produced.
Open needle bleeder valve on required
pump until there is a positive flow of 7. After all liquid CO2 is out of the system,
liquid CO2 shut off the vapor supply at the transport.

Fully open hydraulic valve to required 8. Vent the pressure on the boost trailer.
motor 9. Remove vapor hose.
Open pump discharge valve on required 10. Kill engine.
pump only
IMPORTANT: Watch the pressure on the
Close needle bleeder valve on required discharge and suction gauges closely. When
pump only. bleeding off liquid, valves may be opened as
much as desired as long as the pressures shown
NOTE: Using all three of the pumps equally
on the discharge and suction gauges do not fall
will result in fewer pump overhauls. A pump
below 100 psi. Pressures lower than 100 psi can
that stops running on every job should be made
cause liquid in the system to form extremely low
to run by shutting down the pump that is
temperature dry ice. These extremely low
running. Follow the procedures listed above for
temperatures may damage boost trailer
shutting down a pump.
components such as hoses and pumps.
CAUTION: The rubber hoses may be stiff or
Shutting Down CO2 Boost contain dry ice just after they are disconnected.
Operations They should be allowed to warm and become
flexible before loading onto hose racks. Failure
After the HT-400’s have been stopped: to do so can cause damage to the hoses. Also, it
is possible that plugs of dry ice trapped inside
1. Stop CO2 boost pumps by turning the the hose may be violently discharged by
hydraulic pump control lever clockwise as expanding CO2 vapor.
far as possible.

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Unit H Quiz

Fill in the blank or mark the correct answer to check your progress in Unit H.
1. ______ True ______ False When using CO2, the four inch rubber transfer hoses may become
stiff or contain dry ice just after they are disconnected.

2. ______ True ______ False Dry ice plugs trapped inside the transfer hoses may be violently
discharged by the expanding CO2 vapor.

3. ______ True ______ False Dry ice will not form in pumps or lines when handling CO2 as long
as pressure is above 100 psi in both the suction and discharge
manifolds.

4. ______ True ______ False Make sure the discharge area is clear before releasing CO2 pressure
through a valve.

5. ______ True ______ False Five minute escape packs are recommended for all personnel on a
CO2 job.

6. Never use transfer hoses bent so short that they flatten in the bends; minimum recommended bend
radius is ____________________ inches.

Now, look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key.

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Unit I: Sample CO2 Problems

Since CO2 is a compressible gas at certain a near ball-off occurs, increasing the wellhead
conditions, similar equations and definitions that pressure from 1500 psi to 3000 psi. The well is a
are used for nitrogen can be used for CO2. tubing completion 12,000 ft deep, and the tubing
However, graphs are used instead of charts to capacity is 70 bbl. The temperature gradient is
solve CO2 problems. These curves can be found 1.1°F/ft, and the 2% KCL water contains 1500
in the Oilfield Carbon Dioxide Services SCF CO2/bbl.
Handbook. Solution:
1. Use the Commingled Carbon Dioxide Fluid
Problem 1 Curves for 1.1°F/100 ft – 8.5 lb/gal fluid –
1500 SCF CO2/bbl (Figure 7.21).
Determine:
2. On the WHP vs. BHP curve, find 3000 psi
Bottom hole treating pressure with commingled on the horizontal axis. Locate where this
carbon dioxide fluid column. value intersects with the 12,000 ft curve.
Find: Read across to the vertical axis and obtain a
BHP of 8000 psi.
The bottom hole treating pressure (BHTP) in an
8,000 ft well that has just been acidized. Acid 3. Using Equation #1 in the Commingled
was displaced with 2% KCL water containing Carbon Dioxide Fluid Curves explanation
1,000 SCF/bbl CO2. Instantaneous shut-in (Oilfield Carbon Dioxide Services
pressure equals 2,500 psi. Temperature gradient Handbook):
is 1.1°F/100 ft.
I
L
Solution: 359 .0
VLR 0.051948
Since 2% KCL water has a density of about 8.5 BHP WHP
lb/gal, use the Commingled Carbon Dioxide
Fluid Curves for 1.1°F/100 ft – 8.5 lb/gal fluid –
1000 scf CO2/bbl (Figure 7.21). On the WHP vs Where:
BHP curve, find 2500 psi on the horizontal axis L = well depth, ft
and the intersection with the 8000 ft curve. Read
across to the vertical axis and obtain a BHTP of ρ = fluid density, lb/gal
@ 5890 psi. I = carbon dioxide-liquid injection
ratio, scf/bbl
Problem 2 BHP = bottom hole pressure, psi
WHP = wellhead pressure, psi

Determine: SCF
1500
lb bbl
Change in liquid displacement volume of 12,000 ft 8.5
gal 359
commingled carbon dioxide fluid caused by
change in wellhead pressure. VLR 0.05195
8000 psi 3000 psi
Find: bbl mixture
1.5793634
The proper 2% KCL water displacement volume bbl liquid
when flushing an acid breakdown treatment and

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

4. Therefore, the corrected 2% KCL water Additional References

displacement volume is
70 bbl mixture Nitrogen Data for Oil Well Servicing
2% KCL Vol
bbl mixture
1.5793634 Halliburton Services Part #252.11115
bbl liquid
Manual N2 ―Oilfield Nitrogen Services
Handbook‖ Third Edition (Copyright,
NOTE: The VLR value before the pressure Halliburton Company, 1981)
increase was 1.2148948 bbl mixture/bbl liquid
providing a liquid displacement volume of Oilfield Carbon Dioxide Services Handbook
(Copyright, Halliburton Company, 1980)
70 bbl mixture
bbl mixture
1.2148948
bbl liquid
57 .618157 bbl liquid

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

40

30

20

15

10
9.0
8.0

7.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.5

1.0
0.9 Commingled Carbon Dioxide Curves 1.1°F/100 ft
0.8 Fluid Density - 8.5 lb/gal
0.7
CO2 Concentration - 1000 SCF/bbl
WHP vs BHP
0.6

0.5
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10 15
WHP (103 psi)

Figure 7.20- Commingled Carbon Dioxide Curve –1000 SCF CO2/BBL

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

40

30

20

15

10
9.0
8.0

7.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.5

1.0
0.9 Commingled Carbon Dioxide Curves 1.1°F/100 ft
0.8 Fluid Density - 8.5 lb/gal
0.7
CO2 Concentration - 1500 SCF/bbl
WHP vs BHP
0.6

0.5
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10 15
WHP (103 psi)

Figure 7.21 - Commingled Carbon Dioxide Curve-1500 SCF CO2/BBL

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Unit I Quiz

Work the following problem to check your progress in Unit I.

1. Find the wellhead pressure under the following conditions:
Tubing 2 7/8‖ 6.5 lb/ft
Perfs at 10,000 ft
BHTP Gradient .65 psi/ft
CO2 commingled at 1000 SCF/bbl
Base fluid density 8.5 lb/gal
Temperature Gradient is 1.1°F/100 ft

2. What is the Volume Liquid Ratio of a fluid under the conditions in question 1?

Now, look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key.

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Unit J: Foam Fracturing

One of the important applications of N2 and CO2 foam generator is recommended when using oil
in the oil field is foam stimulation. Foams have base fluids or crosslinked gels in order to
several advantages over other fluid systems: produce enough mixing energy to make a foam
(Figure 7.23).
less fluid in the system
gas assisted flow back of fluids
enhanced fluid loss control
minimized clean up time

Foam

Foams are fluids made up of two parts or phases. Figure 7.23 – Foam Generator
Gas bubbles compose the internal phase, and
liquids are the external phase (Figure 7.22).
Foams need to have an agent in the liquid to
remain stable over a period of time.
Foam Quality
External Foam quality is the ratio of gas volume to foam
Water Phase volume at a given pressure and temperature. In
the range of approximately 0 to 52 quality, the
gas bubbles in the foam are spherical and do not
contact each other. Foam in this quality range
has rheology similar to the liquid phase. In the
approximate quality range of 52 to 96, the gas
bubbles in the foam interfere with one another
and deform during flow. This causes the foam to
increase in viscosity and yield point. Above 96%
quality, foams may degenerate into a mist. When
the thin liquid layer is not able to contain the
larger volume of gas, the foam bubble ruptures.
In theory, foam between 52 and 96 quality could
be used to transport proppant in a static
Internal Gas condition. The higher quality foams have higher
Phase viscosity and give greater support to proppant in
a static condition. However, the higher quality
Figure 7.22 – Model of foam
foams require more horsepower to pump. A
compromise is reached between a 65 and 85
quality, with a 65 to 75 quality being most
A certain amount of mixing energy is required to frequently used in foam fracturing.
make a foam. If water or a water/alcohol mixture
is used, enough energy is produced by the gas
and liquid mixing in a tee to produce a foam. A

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Foam Stability comparable non-foamed system. Since fluid loss

additives often are not required, the chance of
damage to formation conductivity is reduced.
Once a foam is formed, it will remain stable
Some fluid loss additive may be required at
when kept in motion. If the foam stops moving,
higher permeabilities in the presence of natural
the process of drainage occurs. Gravity forces a
fractures.
separation of the free liquid (which is not tightly
bound at the surface of the bubbles) from the
rest of the foam. The liquid drains at a rate that Proppant Transport
is dependent upon the viscosity of the liquid
phase and on the concentration of foaming
agent. As the temperature of a foam increases, Foam allows proppant to be carried deep into the
the viscosity of the liquid phase decreases, and fracture without settling out before the fracture
the liquid drains more quickly. Generally, the closes. Proppant particles are held in place by
concentration of a foaming agent must also be the foam structure and do not readily settle
increased to stabilize foams as temperature through it. This means foam will distribute
increases. proppant more uniformly throughout the
fracture.
Using a gelling agent appropriate to the liquid
phase may increase the static stability of foam.
Some gel viscosity is usually desired to aid Built-In Gas Assist
proppant transport through the blender and
pumps. Additional viscosity in the liquid phase The built-in gas assist derived from a foam
can make significant improvement in fluid loss treatment makes recovery of treating fluids from
control. low-pressure reservoirs more efficient than non-
In spite of the advantages to a gelled liquid foamed treatments. The compressible nature of
phase, high viscosity liquids are more difficult to foam helps bring back the liquid due to
foam than low viscosity liquids. Therefore, expansion of the gas as it is returned to the
viscosifiers should be used in moderation in wellbore.
relation to temperature and pumping times.
Minimum Well Clean Up Time
Low Liquid Content
The built-in gas assist and low liquid content
Fracturing foams used in the field contain only result in high fluid recovery. Low production
15 to 35% liquid. The low liquid content is due to slow clean-up may be minimized.
extremely important when treating a liquid Swabbing units are seldom needed to get the
sensitive formation. Large amounts of liquid treating fluid back.
may cause swelling of clays in the formation
and/or reduce the permeability of the formation
to the produced fluids. The low liquid content Foam Types
of foam results in a lower hydrostatic head. This
enhances well clean up, especially when treating A wide variety of liquid phases are available for
low-pressure formations. foam fracturing. The base liquids include water,
water-alcohol mixtures, and hydrocarbons.
Water is the most economical liquid phase
Fluid Loss available. When water-sensitive clays are likely
to be encountered, salts such as potassium
The low fluid loss characteristics found in chloride or sodium chloride may be blended into
foamed systems provide better fluid efficiency the treating water to help protect the clays. Up to
and may create larger fractures than a 50% alcohol will further reduce potential clay

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

swelling. Alcohol also lowers the surface tension compatibility, and formation temperature. The
of the liquid and has a higher vapor pressure to foamers available are listed in Table 7.6.
aid in producing back the frac fluid. Aqueous Max. Rec.
Ionic Charge
Maximum protection against formation damage Foamers Temp.*
may be obtained by using hydrocarbon foam. AQF-2 Anionic 300°F
Suitable oils for foam fracturing include diesel, SEM-7 Anionic 400°F
condensates, and medium gravity crude oils.
Lease crude oils must be laboratory tested for SEM-8 Anionic 400°F
foaming ability prior to field usage. Foam HC-2 Amphoteric 300°F
generators are recommended when foaming Howco-Suds Anionic 250°F
hydrocarbons.
SSO-21M Non-ionic 215°F
Pen-5 Non-ionic 200°F
Proppant Concentration ACO-1 (80%
Anionic 300°F
Methanol)
The concentration of proppant desired in the * Maximum Temperature is based on gel
foam influences the choice of quality. For systems mixed from powdered gel – no oil.
example, assume three pounds proppant per
Table 7.6 – Foaming Agents
gallon foam is desired. The concentration of
sand in the blender tub would be nine pounds
per gallon for a 67 quality foam, twelve pounds
per gallon for a 75 quality foam, and fifteen
pounds per gallon for an 80 quality foam. Foamed Acid

Mineral acids and mixtures of mineral and

Breakers in Liquid Phase organic acids foam equally well. Corrosion
inhibitors have little effect on foaming. Foamed
Breaker should be added to the system to break acid treatments should have minimum well shut-
the gel after pumping has ended. Since the in time after pumping, with the fluids being
viscosity of the foam is only mildly influenced flowed back as soon as possible following
by the liquid phase viscosity, flow back of the treatment. This will prevent the spent acid and
well is not critically dependent upon a gel break. nitrogen from separating. The longer the well is
However, breaking will: closed-in, allowing the foamed acid to remain
under non-flowing conditions, the more the
aid recovery of the liquid which drained
liquid drains from the foam bubbles and
out of the foam
suspended fines settle out of the foamed acid.
help limit the stability of any emulsions
which might be formed Foaming Agents—Compatibility
In most cases, the foam structure itself will not
be broken by the time flow back begins, A pre-job chemical compatibility test of the
typically one to two hours after shutdown. foaming agent should be conducted with both
the live and spent acid as well as with all other
additives in the system. A foaming agent should
Foaming Agents be capable of producing a stable foam in live
acid and still retain sufficient foaming properties
A variety of foaming agents have been to foam spent acid. This will allow recovery of
developed for foam fracturing. These foaming insoluble fines following the treatment. In spent
agents are selected based upon the type of liquid acid systems, HC-2 does not perform as well as
phase, formation compatibility, chemical Pen-5E. Contact with oil will break the spent

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

acid foam. If the return foamed fluids are the nature of the rock
anticipated to contact traces of oil, then SGA-2
or SGA-HT used in conjunction with Pen-5E is the volume
recommended. the type
the concentration of acid used
Fluid Loss
Tests performed on both homogeneous and
Laboratory tests have shown that foamed acid heterogeneous cores have shown that the foamed
has much better matrix fluid loss control than acid had fracture flow capacity similar to
unfoamed acid without the conventional fluid unfoamed acid.
loss additives. Increasing the viscosity of the
acid before it is foamed will help stabilize the Reaction Rate
foamed acid and improve fluid loss control. In
cases where there is high formation permability The surface reaction rate constant and order of
or natural fractures, conventional fluid loss reaction should be the same for foamed acid as it
additives need to be incorporated into the is with unfoamed acid. Foaming the acid should
foamed acid system. The use of a pad and/or the not alter its chemical properties. However,
inclusion of OSR-100, 100 mesh sand, or foamed acid is regarded as a physically retarded
Matriseal®-O in the treating fluids has been quite system because one layer of bubbles reacts at a
effective. time on the face of the fracture. This differs
from a chemically retarded system where a layer
Fracture Flow Capacity of chemical is deposited on the formation face to
slow down the acid reaction. In several cases,
A successful fracture acidizing treatment chemically retarded acid systems have been
depends not only on good fluid loss control, but foamed with good results. Chemical retarders
also on the acid system used. The quantity of are usually added to foamed acid systems when
rock removed and the pattern in which it is high temperature or long pumping times will be
removed from the fracture faces are important. involved.
Fracture flow capacity depends on:

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Unit J Quiz

Fill in the blank or mark to check your progress in Unit J.

1. Foams are fluids made up of ____________________ ____________________ or
_____________________.

2. The most frequently used foam quality is __________ to __________.

3. ______ True ______False Foams remain stable under all conditions.

4. List three advantages of foams:

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

5. AQF-2 is a(n) ____________________ foamer that should be used at a maximum temperature of

__________ °F.

6. A foaming agent for acid systems should produce a stable foam in ____________________
_____________________ and still be able to foam ____________________ ____________________
to help return ____________________ _____________________ to the wellbore.

Now, look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key.

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Unit K: Flow back of Energized Fluids

Under normal circumstances, it is not the 1 ½‖ tubing – ¼ inch choke
responsibility of Halliburton personnel to flow
During flow back as the surface pressure
fluids back after stimulation. Occasionally,
decreases, larger chokes may be used to
situations do arise that make it necessary for
maintain flow. The manifold downstream of
Halliburton to assist with or give advice on flow
the choke should be as straight as possible to
back procedures.
minimize erosion.
2. Two (2) stop valves are required between
Procedures the choke and the well. These valves must
be located upstream of the choke and where
There are variations in rig-up of flow back they can be closed safely in the event the
manifolds and flow back procedures. This tends choke cuts out.
to make a set procedure impractical. Therefore, Always open the upstream valve first, then
general guidelines must be applied to make all the downstream valve. Always close the
of these possible rig-ups safe. Since fluids down-stream valve first, then the upstream.
containing nitrogen and carbon dioxide have a Lo Torc® and other stop valves are never to
tremendous amount of energy to dissipate on be used as chokes.
flow back, close adherence to guidelines is
essential. 3. Never use rubber hoses in a flow back
line. Always ensure that the flow back
The guidelines are as follows: line’s maximum pressure rating is equal to
1. All initial flow back must be done or greater than the initial flow back pressure.
through some type of choke. The 4. Always assume the presence of
maximum initial choke size should not combustible hydrocarbons. Have a
exceed 1/6th the diameter of the surface separator or flame source present to
manifold, or the tubing in the well. eliminate the hazard of flash fires.
Examples: 3‖ tubing – ½ inch choke
2‖ tubing – 5/16 inch choke

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Unit K Quiz

Fill in the blanks with one or more words to check your progress in Unit K.
1. All initial ____________________ ____________________ must be done through some type of
choke.

2. Maximum initial choke size should not exceed ___________ the diameter of the surface manifold or
tubing in the well.

3. If the tubing is 1 ½‖ diameter, the maximum choke size would be __________.

4. __________ stop valves are required between the choke and well.

5. Always open the ____________________ valve first, then the ____________________ valve.

6. Always close the ____________________ valve first, then the ____________________ valve.

7. Never use ____________________ ____________________ in a flow back line.

8. Always assume the presence of ____________________ _____________________.

Now, look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key.

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Self Check Test for Section 7

Mark the best answer(s) to the following questions.
1. ______ True ______False Viscosity reduction is produced by N2 since it is soluble in water and
oil.
2. Which of the following is not an advantage of jetting nitrogen?
_____ A) reduced rig time
_____ B) improved wellbore conductivity
_____ C) reduced danger of sticking swab cups
_____ D) higher returning fluid cost
3. Nitrogen combined with what allows many completion, workover, and remedial services to be
performed faster and at less cost than previously possible?
_____ A) corrosion inhibitors
_____ B) coiling tubing services
_____ C) workover fluids
_____ D) density control
4. Nitrogen circulation through continuous tubing will do what?
_____ A) clean out debris
_____ B) load low pressure gas wells
_____ C) block fluid from the well prior to perforating
_____ D) add sand after fracturing
5. Foam quality is the ratio of gas volume to foam volume. What two factors is foam quality most
dependent upon?
_____ A) time and pressure
_____ B) time and temperature
_____ C) temperature and pressure
_____ D) weight and temperature
6. What kind of an effect do corrosion inhibitors have on foaming?
_____ A) great effect
_____ B) little effect
_____ C) no effect
_____ D) unknown
7. Which of the following is not considered protective clothing when working with nitrogen?
_____ A) cuffed trousers

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

_____ B) safety goggles

_____ C) insulated gloves
_____ D) long sleeve shirts
8. Which of the following is a procedure to follow for freeze burns?
_____ A) flood or submerge affected body area with ice water
_____ B) apply hot compresses
_____ C) get patient to a physician for treatment
_____ D) secure any clothing to body area affected
9. At what temperature does carbon steel become brittle?
_____ A) + 30°F
_____ B) 0°F
_____ C) – 20°F
_____ D) – 40°F
10. Calculate the volume of nitrogen and the wellhead pressure necessary to develop a 3,000 psi cushion
for a drill stem test. The test uses 9,000 ft of 3 ½‖ 13.30 lb/ft internal upset drill pipe. The thermal
gradient is 1.1°F/100 ft.
Procedure:
1. Calculate drill pipe capacity
2. Look up data
3. Calculate nitrogen volume

11. ______ True ______ False The use of CO2 often results in the recovery of formation fines, silt,
reaction products, and mud lost during drilling.
12. When water is the treating fluid, the carbonated solution that is formed has an acidic pH. Which of
the following is not prevented when this acidic pH is formed?
_____ A) swelling of clays
_____ B) precipitation of hydroxides
_____ C) swelling of formation fines
_____ D) precipitation of gypsum
13. Which of the following is not true of CO2 in a liquefied state?
_____ A) non-combustible
_____ B) combustible

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

_____ C) could be used as an auxiliary fire fighting medium

_____ D) is explosive if trapped
14. Water saturated with which of the materials below will form Carbonic Acid?
_____ A) N2
_____ B) O2
_____ C) CO2
_____ D) KCL
15. When spotting equipment for a CO2 transport, which of the following is true?
_____ A) the CO2 boost trailer should have the left side slightly higher
_____ B) the CO2 boost trailer should have the right side slightly higher
_____ C) the CO2 boost trailer should be as level as possible
_____ D) the leveling of the CO2 boost trailer is not important
16. ______ True ______ False Sags in hoses provide places for liquid CO2 to accumulate and form
dry ice at the end of a job. This can damage the hose.
17. When purging the CO2 system, which of the following will not occur when a small amount of ice
forms?
_____ A) stop vane pumps from turning
_____ B) restrict circulation making it difficult to cool the system
_____ C) stick valves in HT-400’s
_____ D) restrict vaporization
18. How must the valves be opened to cause vapor to exhaust at a high velocity and give a better purge?
_____ A) as quickly as possible
_____ B) as slowly as possible
_____ C) at a steady medium rate
_____ D) short, quick turns every 30 seconds
19. If needle valves become clogged with dry ice, what will clean them out?
_____ A) blowing with hot air
_____ B) flushing with hot water
_____ C) opening or closing slightly
_____ D) opening and scraping
20. After the HT-400’s injecting and circulating CO2 have been stopped, several steps take place for shut
down. Which of the following is not one of the steps?
_____ A) bring boost trailer engine to idle
_____ B) open valves on CO2 transports
_____ C) isolate CO2 pumping system from well pressure
_____ D) vent the pressure on boost trailer

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

21. When bleeding off liquid CO2, valves may be opened as much as desired as long as the pressures on
the discharge and suction gauges do not fall below what pressure?
_____ A) 200 psi
_____ B) 150 psi
_____ C) 100 psi
_____ D) 50 psi
22. ______ True ______ False Rapid, high rate flow back of carbonated treating fluids decreases
well productivity by taking advantage of the CO2 gas expansion to
provide energy for formation clean up.
23. Find the bottom hole treating pressure in an 8,000 ft well that has just been acidized. The acid was
displaced with 2% KCL water, containing 1,000 scf CO2/bbl. Instantaneous shut-in pressure equals
2,500 psi. Temperature gradient is 1.1°F/100 ft.
Note: Use Figure 7.21 to help you with this problem.

24. What are the five guidelines for flow back of energized fluids?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
25. The range of foam quality generally used in stimulation is:
_____ A) 0 – 10%
_____ B) 0 – 52%
_____ C) 96 – 100%
_____ D) 65 – 85%
Now, look up the suggested answers in the Answer Key.

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Answer Keys
Items from Unit A Quiz
1. an inert gas, does not react adversely with treating or formation fluids, is slightly soluble in water, oil
and most other liquids, remains in bubble form to help lift fluids from the well bore when commingled
with liquid, is colorless and is brought to location in liquid form, is converted to gas at controlled rates,
pressure and temperatures
2. liquid / gas
3. C
4. E
5. -320.36

Items from Unit B Quiz

1. Cushion for Drill Stem Testing, Leak Testing, Density Control, Workover Services, Placing Corrosion
Inhibitors, Well Fire Control, Annulus Insulation, Freeing Differentially Stuck Drill Pipe
2. Reduced rig time, Improved wellbore conductivity, reduced danger of sticking swab cups, quicker
return on investment, lower returning fluid cost

Items from Unit C Quiz

1. Destroyed skin
2. 42,000
3. d
4. 8 minutes
5. Disengage the pump, close the discharge valve, open the prime up valve, turn off vaporizer,
Disassemblely and inspect for cracks

Items from Unit D Quiz

1. -40° F
2. a), c), d)
3. 70 / 100
4. shrink / explode

Items from Unit E Quiz

1. Quality of foam
Actual Volume Mix
Volume Liquid Ratio -
Actual Volume Liquid

Standard Volume Gas SCF

Volume factor - -
Actual Volume Gas bbl
Wellhead pressure

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Bottom Hole Pressure

Bottom Hole Treating Pressure
Bottom Hole Static Temperature

F
2. BHST 80 1455 ft 0.7 90 .185 F
100 ft

SCF
From Figure 7.6 - V' /V 688
bbl
bbl
3. From RedBook - Capacity of 4 - 1/2, 11.6 # /ft Casing 0.0155
ft
bbl SCF
N 2 Vol 3000 ft 0.0155 688 31,992 SCF
ft bbl

Items from Unit F Quiz

1. 87.8 / 1071
2. Solid / liquid / gas
3. 0 / 300
4. reduced
5. emulsion / foam
6. b

Items from Unit G Quiz

1. Carbonic acid
2. Iron /and or aluminum
3. 2625
4. Interfacial tension / water blocks

Items from Unit H Quiz

1. T
2. T
3. T
4. T
5. T
6. 33-1/2

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Items from Unit I Quiz

psi
1. BHTP = 10,000 ft × 0.65 = 6,500 psi
ft
from chart WPH ≈ 2,250 psi

1000
10000 8.5
359 bbl mixture
2. VLR 0.051948 1.3794
6500 2250 bbl liquid

Items from Unit J Quiz

1. To parts / phases
2. 6570 / 75
3. F
4. Less Fluid In The System
Gas assisted Flowbackflow back of fluid
Enhanced fluid loss control
Mminimized cleanup time
5. anionic / 300
6. live acid / spent acid / insoluble finesC

Items from Unit K Quiz

1. FlowbackFlow back
th
2. 1/6
3. 1.5 in ÷ 6 = – 0.25 inches
4. Two (2)
5. upstream / downstream
6. downstream / upstream
7. Rubber Hoses
8. Combustible hydrocarbons

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 Nitrogen/Carbon Dioxide and Foam Fracturing

Self-Check Test
1. F
2. D
3. B
4. A
5. C
6. B
7. A
8. C
9. D
bbl
10. 9,000 ft × 0.00742 = 66.78 bbl
ft
scf
V’/V = 868 from Fig 7.6
bbl
scf
66.78 bbl × 868 = 57,965.04 SCFscf
bbl
11. T
12. B, D
13. B, D
14. C
15. C
16. T
17. D
18. A
19. C
20. B
21. C
22. F
23. about 60005980 psi
24. All initial flowbackflow back must be done through some type of choke , Two (2) stop valves are
required between the choke and the well, Never use rubber hoses on a flow back line, Always
assume the presence of combustible hydrocarbons
25. D

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