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Phys111 Lab Manual

This document provides guidelines and rules for laboratory work, including measurements and uncertainties, significant figures, and graphical uncertainties. It discusses calculating uncertainties when adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing measured quantities. It also defines the International System of Units (SI) including the seven base units and derived units.

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M Furkan Ö

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

155 views180 pages

Phys111 Lab Manual

Uploaded by

M Furkan Ö

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

You are on page 1/ 180

October 7, 2005

Contents

1 MEASUREMENT 21

2 INSTANTANEOUS VERSUS AVERAGE VELOCITY 27

3 PROJECTILE MOTION 33

4 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW 41

5 THE FORCE OF GRAVITY 47

6 MEASURING g, THE ACCELERATION CAUSED BY GRAVITY 55

7 ELASTIC-KINETIC ENERGY 59

8 CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY 63

9 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM 69

10 ROTATIONAL MOTION 77

11 FARADAY ICE PAIL 91

12 COULOMB’S LAW 99

13 EQUIPOTENTIAL AND ELECTRIC FIELD LINES 109

14 BASIC ELECTRICITY 119

15 CAPACITORS AND RC CIRCUITS 141

16 MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING WIRE 149

17 ELECTROMAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 159

1
18 MAGNETIC INDUCTION AND MAGNETISM OF MATTER 165

2
LABORATORY RULES
1 . Students may enter a laboratory only when a lecturer or demonstrator is present unless
special permission has been granted.

2. Eating and drinking in any laboratory is prohibited.

3. Before starting an experiment;

• Check that all apparatus is present and has no obvious defect.

• Report to the person in charge any damaged or missing equipment.

4. During an experiment the student should report to the person in charge;

• any equipment that does not seem to be functioning properly.

• any accidents and breakages that occur.

• NEVER borrow equipment from another bench without permission.

5. Before leaving the laboratory,

• Switch off all power supplies and remove all AC/DC power plugs.

• Disconnect electrical circuits and collect the leads in a neat bundle.

• Ensure that the apparatus has been left tidily.

3
ANALYSIS OF MEASUREMENTS AND
EXPERIMENTAL UNCERTAINTIES
1. RANDOM UNCERTAINTIES

The arithmetic mean x̄ of a quantity obtained from a number (N) of readings xi is the most
probable value of that quantity. If the uncertainties are entirely random and is large, then
x̄ is close to the true value.

1 PN
x̄ = xi
N i=1

If the uncertainties of measurement are entirely random an estimate of the precision is given
by the standard deviation
s
PN (xi − x̄)2
S= i=1
N −1

where (xi − x̄) is the deviation of a reading xi from the mean x̄.

The standard error (SE) of the mean SE = (S/N)1/2 and the error at a 95% confidence
level is 2SE.

The significance of S can be seen by consideration of the distribution of a large collection

of measurements, known as the normal or Gaussian distribution. It can be shown that for
large N the probability of an individual reading differing from the mean by more than S is
about 32%. 2S is about 5% and 3S is less than 1%.

In practice, when N is less than 6 the statistical analysis is not appropriate and an
estimate of the uncertainty may be obtained from the range of values obtained.

2. PROPAGATION OF UNCERTAINTIES

Almost all experiments require calculations to be performed which involve manipulation of

the measured uncertainties. In order to calculate the uncertainty in the final result it is
necessary to know how the computed or estimated uncertainties in each quantity combine
or propagate.

2.1 A General Approach

The easiest method of estimating the uncertainty is to substitute the extreme values of the
quantities into the expression and calculate the result. The uncertainty is the difference
between this value and the preferred value. e.g.

4
d sin θ
λ=
n
Preferred value
d = (1.00x10−6 ± 0.05x10−6 )m
θ = 30.0o ± 0.5o , and n = 1
λ = 10−6 xsin 30.0o = 0.50µm

Maximum value of λ is obtained with maximum value of d and maximum value of θ.

λmax = (1 + 0.05)x10−6xsin(30 + 0.5) = 0.53µm

λmin = (1 − 0.05)x10−6 xsin(30 − 0.5) = 0.47µm

λ = 0.50 ± 0.03µm

Note: The same method may be used for any uncertainty calculation e.g.

Density = mass/volume.

Mass of object = (2.00 ± 0.01)kg

V olume of object = (2.50 ± 0.05)x10−3m3
Density(ρ) = 800kgm−3

Maximum value of ρ obtained using maximum mass and minimum volume

2.01kg
ρmax = = 820kgm−3
2.45x10−3 m3

Minimum value of ρ is obtained using minimum mass and maximum volume

1.99kg
ρmin = = 780kgm−3
2.55x10−3 m3

ρ = 800 ± 20kgm−3

2.2 Additions and Subtractions

It is usually fairly easy to write down the possible uncertainty in any single measurement.
Thus suppose that in an experiment with a spring the length of the spring is measured with
a metre scale. With care such a scale allows you to measure to about 1 mm. If you take
a number of careful readings with the scale you should find that they do not differ among
themselves by more than this. Thus for one particular reading you may be able to say:

Length of spring = 302 ± 1mm

5
If additional masses are added and the spring is re-measured, you may find

New length of spring = 488 ± 1mm

Now consider what you know about the change in length. According to our figures the
change is equal to 186 mm. But each of the figures may have been wrong by 1 mm. If
one of them happened to be too high by this amount while the other was too low, then the
uncertainty in the difference would be 2 mm. To be on the safe side we must assume
that the worst has happened. So we say

Change in length = 186 ± 2mm

The same thing applies if we are concerned with adding the two lengths. The worst possible
case will be when both figures were too high or both figures were too low. We assume the
worst possiblee case and say

Sums of lengths = 790 ± 2mm.

Thus if you are adding or subtracting two figures the actual uncertainty is the sum of the
separate uncertainties.

2.3 Multiplications and Divisions

Now suppose that you are measuring the volume of a cylinder. You measure the diameter d
and the length l and then calculate the volume from the equation

πd2 l
V olume =
4
In a case such as this the fractional uncertainty in the volume is the sum of the fractional
uncertainty in the length plus twice the fractional uncertainty in the diameter. The fractional
uncertainty in the diameter is doubled as a consequence of the fact that it is the square of
the diameter that comes into the formula. If the formula had involved d3 , three times the
fractional uncertainty would have been added and so on.
To take a very general case, suppose we are concerned with a formula of the type

k a tb
x=
mc nd
In this case:
△x a△k b△t c△m d△n
= + + +
x k t m n

Fractional uncertainty in x=a(fractional uncertainty in k)+ b(fractional uncertainty in t)

+c(fractional uncertainty in m) + d(fractional uncertainty in n)

6
This general rule can be proved, but the student is advised to accept the rule and leave the
proof until later.

The rule is simple: if you are multiplying together or dividing a number of figures, the possible
fractional uncertainty in the result is the sum of the separate fractional uncertainties

3.SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

In quoting a result only one uncertain figure should be retained; then the number of
figures indicates the order of accuracy. For example, suppose the speed of light was calculated
as 2.988x108ms−1 and is known to 1%. The possible uncertainty is then 0.03x108 ms−1

This shows that the third and subsequent significant figures are unreliable, hence we retain
only three figures and express the result in its neatest form as
(2.99 ± 0.03)x108 ms−1

4. GRAPHICAL UNCERTAINTIES

In laboratory work a graph is often used to illustrate the behaviou of system; to assist in the
calculation of a quantity or to determine the relationship between variables. It is essential
that the graph displays the characteristics of the results and their uncertainties as clearly as
possible. This involves the proper selection of scale and the physical arrangement
of the axis.

The best way to indicate the uncertainties of the variables is to locate the point of the graph
by a dot at the centre of bars indicating the range of uncertainty. A method of estimating
the uncertainty in the gradient of a straight line is to draw lines of maximum and minimum
gradient which are possible fits to the experimental points.The uncertainty in the gradient
of the line of best fit is then one half the difference between the maximum and minimum
gradients. A similar method can be used to estimate the uncertainty in an intercept. These
techniques are illustrated on the graph in Figure 1.

5. THE SI SYSTEM OF UNITS

5.1 Classes of SI Units

There are three classes of SI units. These are:

Base units
Derived units
Supplementary units.

The base units are seven well-defined units: metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, candela
and mole.

7
Figure 1:

The derived units are units which can be obtained by combining base units according to the
algebraic relations linking the corresponding quantities.
The supplementary units, the radian and steradian (symbol, rad and sr respectively) are
dimensionless quantities used when defining derived units for quantities such as angular
frequency.

5.2 Definition of Base Units

metre (unit of length, symbol m)

The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of
1/299 792 458 of a second. Note that the metre is defined in terms of the speed of light.

kilogram (unit of mass, symbol kg)

The kilogram is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram. Once the
mass of a litre of water, it may soon be redefined as the mass of a number of carbon-12
atoms.

second (unit of time, symbol s)

The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the
transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom.
This is a highly monochromatic microwave emission.

ampere (unit of electric current symbol A)

The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel con-
ductors of negligible circular cross-section, placed one metre apart in vacuum, would

8
produce beetwen these conductors a force equal to 2x10−7 Newton per metre of length.

Earlier metric systems used the coulomb as the base unit, but it was too hard to measure
with sufficient precision.

Kelvin (unit of thermodynamic temperature, symbol K)

The Kelvin is the fraction 1/273.15 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of
water. The Kelvin is used to express an interval or a difference in temperature, so it tends
to appear in the denominator of derived units.

(Celsius temperature, symbol T, is defined by the expression T = K − 273.15)

candela (unit of luminous intensity, symbol cd)

The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochro-
matic radiation of frequency 540x1012 Hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction
of 1/683 watt per steradian. This unit is used when the instrument of comparison is the
human eye. Its use is in decline.

mole (unit of amount of substance, symbol mol)

The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities
as there are atoms in 12 g of carbon-12. When the mole is used, the elementary entities
must be specified. It is properly used as a number, but is often used as a mass.

5.3 Writing of Symbols

Roman lower case is used for symbols of units unless the symbols are derived from proper
names, when capital roman type is used for the first letter. These symbols are not followed
by a stop.

Unit names and symbols do not change in the plural, even though we often add an ”s” in
common speech. (2K reads as two degree Kelvins.)

5.4 Derived Units, Special Names

Several derived units have been given special names and may be used to obtain further
derived units. This is much simpler than expressing all units in terms of base units. e.g.
1P a = 1Nm−2

9
Table 1 Derived units which have been given special names

PHYSICAL QUANTITY UNIT SYMBOL IN TERMS OF BASE UNITS

activity becquerel Bq s−1
capacitance farad F m−2 kg −1s4 A2
conductance siemens S m−2 kg −1s3 A2
dose absorbed gray Gy m2 s−2
dose equivalent sievert Sv m2 s−2
electric charge coulomb C sA
electric potential volt V m2 kgs−3A−1
electric resistance ohm Ω m2 kgs−3A−2
energy, work, heat joule J m2 kgs−2
force newton N mkgs−2
frequency hertz Hz s−1
illuminance lux lx m−2 cdsr
inductance henry H m−2 kgs−2A−2
luminous flux lumen lm cdsr
magnetic flux weber Wb m2 kgs−2A−1
magnetic induction tesla T kgs−2 A−1
power, radiant flux watt W m2 kgs−3
pressure pascal Pa m−1 kgs−2

5.5 Recommendations for Use of Units

(i) It is preferable to indicate the product of two units with a dot when there is a risk of
confusion with another symbol. When no dot is used a space should be left between
the symbols for the two units.

(ii) A negative power, horizontal line, or a solidus (/), may be used to express a derived unit
obtained from two other units by division.

(iii) The solidus must not be repeated unless parentheses are used to avoid ambiguity.

5.6 Number Notation

The decimal point should be expressed by a dot placed on the line. Then multiplication
should be indicated by an ”x”. If a dot half-high is used for this purpose, the decimal point
must be a comma. A number should never commence with a decimal point.

Long numbers should be arranged in groups of three with a space, not a comma, separating
them. The grouping should start at the decimal point.

A space should be left between the number and the unit.

10
5.7 Multiples and Sub-multiples

Table 2

FACTOR PREFIX SYMBOL FACTOR PREFIX SYMBOL

1018 exa E 10−3 milli m
1015 peta P 10−6 micro µ
1012 tera T 10−9 nano n
109 giga G 10−12 pico p
106 mega M 10−15 femto f
103 kilo k 10−18 atto a

The prefixes hecto, deca, deci and centi are still legal but should be avoided in technical
work. An exponent attached to a symbol containing a prefix indicates that the multiple, or
submultiple, of the unit is raised to the power of the exponent: e.g. a sand grain of 2 mg has
a volume of about 1mm3 . (The metre is cubed and so is the milli). A prefix should not
appear in the denominator of a derived unit: e.g. thus the sand grain has a density
of about 2Mgm−3

NOTE: The kilogram is the only base unit containing a prefix, retained for historical reasons.
It may appear in the denominator: e.g. a specific activity of 1.5kBqkg −1, not 1.5Bqg −1.

5.8 Units which are not within the SI

Some units, not within the SI are in widespread use. They should be converted to SI units
before calculations. These are:

minute (min) tonne (t) (1 Mg)

hour (h) degree (o)
day (d) minute (’)
year (a) second (”)
litre (l,L)

Jargon survives in all disciplines despite a general willingness to conform (to SI) for the
general good. In physics, the following non-SI units have survived:

electronvolt (eV)
The energy acquired by an electron when moved through a potential difference of one volt.
(6 eV = 1 aJ approx; 6 MeV = 1 pJ approx)

atomic mass unit (u)

1/12 of the mass of one 12 C atom. An energy of 149 pJ or 931 MeV has approximately 1 u
of mass. Atomic masses are expressed in u.

11
light year (ly)
The distance light travels in a year. (1 ly = 10 Pm, approx).

curie (Ci)
An activity of 37 GBq. This number is similar to the number of events per second in a gram
of radium.
Other jargon units will be encountered in specialist areas; their conversion factors will be
found in the references below.
Other disciplines have their jargon units, too. For instance - engineering has rpm (1 Hz = 60
rpm), geophysics has milligals (1mgal = 10µms−2 ) and surveying has hectares (1ha = 104 m2 ,
1km2 = 100ha).

6. UNITS, ERRORS AND DIGITS

When an experimental value is to be reported, it must be put into the standard form. Here
is how to do it:
Take a fresh page. Lay out the value to be processed. Rewrite it as you make each of the
following corrections:
1. Reduce the units’ denominator to base units: (DENOM)
2. Reduce the units’ numerator to an appropriate unit: (NUM)
3 . Choose a 103N prefix which brings the main value to between 1 and 999 (PREFIX)
4. Express the error in the same units as the value: (SAME UNITS)
5. Round the error to one or two significant figures: (SIG. FIG.)
6. Round the main value and error to the same decimal place: (D.P.)
7. Check the spaces and cases: (FORMAT)

A difficult example: 605.643calories/gK ± 1.567%

=605643calorieskg −1K −1 ± 1.567% DENOM

=2537648.Jkg −1K −1 ± 1.567% NUM
=2.537648MJkg −l K −1 ± 1.567% PREFIX
=2.537648 ± 0.039765MJkg −1K −1 SAME UNIT
=2.537648 ± 0.04MJkg −1 K −1 SIG. FIGS.
=2.54 ± 0.04MJkg −1 K −1 D.P.
=2.54 ± 0.04MJkg −1 K −1 FORMAT

Practice the following, using pencil, eraser and scratch paper

2.3 ± 0.37Jg −1
6.71 ± 0.022Bqcm−2
1191300GJ ± 15T J

12
171 ± 9.666666N/mm2
1050.3 ± 18.33hectopascals
55tonnes km−3 ± 2%
1.2345x10−7g ± 75875f g
∼ 6miles, ∼ 6f t, ∼ 17min., ∼ 3kW h, ∼ 100light years
∼ 60MeV, ∼ 10−5 kgs−2A−2 (magnetic unit)

7. USE OF GRAPHS

This session is designed to give an understanding of the use of graphs. For those who are
good at mathematics it will serve as revision, for the rest of you please use the time to master
the following:

• Knowledge and understanding of the equation of a straight line.

• Ability to write an equation for a straight line given the graph.
• Ability to draw the graph given the equation without plotting out all the points.
• Understanding of ”directly proportional”.
• Ability to use a graphical method to show direct proportion in a variety of situations.
• Understanding of the term ”inversely proportional”.
• Ability to use a graphical method to show inverse proportionality.
• Ability to check equations using log graphs.

7.1 Gradient of a Stright Line

The straight line shown in Figure 2 has a constant gradient. In other words, as point P moves
along the line in the direction of x increasing (i.e. from A to B) y changes at a constant
rate, and in this case it is a simple matter to find the gradient.

7.1.1 Calculation of Gradient

In moving from A to B the x-coordinate has increased by 10 (from 0 to 10) while the
y-coordinate has increased by 5 (from 2 to 7).

increase in y 5 1
Gradient = = =
increase in x 10 2

The gradient is positive as y is increasing as x increases. So we say that the gradient of the
line in Figure 2 is 1/2 or 0.5. In fact to find the gradient of the line we can take any two
points on the line; e.g. we could have considered the points C add D with co-ordinates (4,4)
and (8,6) respectively. To obtain the most accurate answer choose points which are as far
apart as is convenient.

13
Figure 2:

7.1.2 Equation of a Straight Line

Consider the line shown in Figure 3. What is its gradient? Answer is 2. Now look at the
points marked and write down their coordinates. Answer:
A : (0,1)
B : (1,3)
C : (2,5)
D : (3,7)
E : (4,9)

You might like to add a few more points of your own. Can you now find a connection between
the y and x coordinates?

The first thing to notice is that the x-coordinate increases by 1 at each step as you go from
A to E, and as we would expect the y-coordinate increases by 2 each time, since 2 is the
gradient of the line (remember gradient is the change in y for an increase of 1 in x). Can
you find the rule which connects y with x? The answer is that to get the y-coordinate you
double the x-coordinate and add 1. Since the y-coordinate is referred to simply as ’y’ and
the x-coordinate as ’x’:

y = 2x + 1, (gradient)x + (intercept on y axis)

or in general terms y = mx + c

14
Figure 3:

7.2 Direct Proportion

Imagine you go shopping and buy items at $3 each. If you tabulated the cost then you would
get:

Number of items cost

1 $3
2 $6
3 $9
. .
. .
. .
10 $30

Draw a graph of cost on y-axis against number of items on the x-axis. The graph represents
a graph of two quantities which are proportional.

y ∝ x or y = kx

The two main features of a graph showing that two quantities are directly proportional are:
1. the graph is a straight line

15
2. the graph passes through the point (0,0).

If you added the cost of the journey to the shop then the cost would no longer be directly pro-
portional to the number of items. (If you bought twice the number of items it would cost less
than twice as much). The graph would still be a straight line but it would not pass through
(0,0), i.e. a straight line alone is not sufficient proof of direct proportionality.

Choose a value for the cost of the journey and plot the graph.

Write down the equation of the line. It should be

Cost = $3 x number of items + cost of journey

Another shopping example, this time the cost of tiling a square room at $10 a square metre.

side of room area of room cost

lm 1m2 $10
2
2m 4m $40
2
3m 9m $90
4m 16m2 $160

Question

Draw a graph of cost against side of room and of cost against (side of room)2 . What do
you find?

Which graph enables you to deduce the relationship between cost and the length of the side
of the room?

7.3 Inverse Proportion

The term inverse proportion is often wrongly used. It has a very precise meaning and refers
to the situation where doubling one quantity halves the other, trebling one causes the other
to be a third etc.
1
y∝ or xy = constant
x

Question

Which of the following sets of pairs of numbers are inversely proportional?

16
a b c d e f
l 24 1 20 1 144
2 12 2 16 2 48
3 8 3 12 3 32
4 6 4 8 4 16
5 4.8 5 4 5 8
6 4 6 0 6 6

Draw a graph of each. What do you notice?

What graph can you draw to establish without doubt that the two quantities are inversely
proportional?

Note: You need a straight line graph before you can be sure about the relationship between
two variables.

7.4 Linear Graph from Non-linear Equations

The aim of many experiments is to find an equation relating two variables. If the graph
obtained by plotting these two variables is a straight line, it is an easy matter to measure
the slope and intercept and write out an equation in the form y = mx + c. If the graph is a
curve, the solution is not so simple but it is often possible to choose the variables so that a
straight line is obtained. Here are distances moved by a trolley from rest after various times.

Time, t Distance, s
0.7 0.141
1.3 0.372
1.9 0.794
2.3 1.113
2.9 1.850

If s is plotted against t the graph will not be a straight line since s increases much more
rapidly than t because the trolley is accelerating.

For an object travelling with constant acceleration from rest, the equation relating acceler-
ation (a), distance (s) and time (t) is

s = (1/2)at2

comparing this with y = mx + c shows that a graph of s against t2 should be a straight line
passing through (0,0) and having a gradient of (1/2)a.

17
Question

How would you check graphically whether experimental results fit the following equations?

1. F = k/r 2 , where k is constant.

2. E = (1/2)mv 2 , where m is constant,
3. V = RE/(R + r), when E and r are constant.

7.5 Log Graphs

Sometimes, two variables are related by an equation of the form

y = Axn

where A and n are unknown constants.

You can use trial and error to try to find n but this would involve graphing;

y against x
y against x2
y against 1/x

etc. until you obtained a straight line and, in the end, you might give up without getting a
solution. However, if

y = Axn then
log y = log(Axn )
log y = logA + log xn
log y = logA + nlog x

(compare this with) y = mx + c.

The graph of logy against logx would be a straight line. The constant n is the gradient and
the intercept is logA. From this graph we would be able to find both A and n.

Question

Under certain conditions (when heat cannot flow into or out of the gas) the pressure p and
volume V are related by the equation

pV γ = k

where γ and k are constants.

18
If you obtained experimental data under these conditions, what graph would you plot to find
the values of γ and k and how would you find the values of γ and k?

Question

Theory suggests that the power P dissipated in a heated filament of resistance R is given by
an equation of the form

P = kRn

where k and n are constants.

Plot a suitable graph of the following data so that the values of n and k can be found.

P(W) R(Ω)
4.41 0.91
8.11 1.11
12.59 1.27
17.70 1.41
23.88 1.51

7.6 Use of Graphs-Assignment

1. A 100 watt heater and a thermometer were immersed in a copper calorimeter containing
water. The following readings were obtained:

temperature (o C) 22 36 40 45 49 54 58
time (minutes) 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Plot a graph of temperature against time (reminder: this means that time should be on the
x axis).

The relevant equation is: power x time = heat capacity x temperature rise
Compare this equation with the equation of a straight line: y = mx + c

From your graph determine the initial temperature of the water and the heat capacity of the
calorimeter + water.

2. The tension of a vibrating string is kept constant and its length varied to tune it to a
series of tuning forks. The necessary lengths are given below:

Tuning Fork C D E F G
frequency of tuning fork (Hz) 256 288 320 384 512

19
length of string (cm) 117 104 94 78 59

Plot a graph of length against frequency. What possible relationship is there between the
frequency of vibration and the length of the string? Draw a suitable graph to confirm this.

20
Chapter 1

MEASUREMENT

Purpose
To give you some feeling for the magnitude of measurement uncertainties when using a metre
ruler, a vernier callipers, a micrometer and a balance,
To use the measurements obtained to calculate the density of the samples,
To see how measurement uncertainties affect the final results.

Introduction
In physics it is always important to be aware of the limitations of any equipment used and to
be able to estimate the uncertainty inherent in any measurement taken. This is often called
the error of the reading, a term which is itself misleading as it suggests that the experimenter
has made a mistake when taking the reading. An uncertainty is present on every reading
regardless of the care and skill of the experimenter or of the accuracy of the instrument.

Formulae Required:
mass
density =
volume

Volume of a cylinder = πr 2 h

(r is the radius of one of the bases and h is the length of cylinder)

4 3
Volume of a sphere = πr
3

(r is the radius of sphere)

√
3 2
Volume of a hexagonal based object = hd
2
(h is the length of object and d is the distance from one edge to the other of the base )

21
Densities of Materials

daluminum = 2.70 g/cm3

dbrass = 8.75 g/cm3

dcopper = 8.96 g/cm3

dsteel = 7.85 g/cm3

Equipments
A ruler
A vernier callipers
A micrometer
A balance
Brass, copper, aluminum and steel objects

Procedure
1. Record the smallest scale division for each measuring instrument in Table 1.1.

2. Then record your reasonable estimate of a ”reading uncertainty” for each instrument,
record in Table 1.1.

3. Measure each dimension three times at different places around the object in order to
obtain a reasonable average over the whole object. Do this with each measuring instrument
and record your data in Table 1.2 .

4. Calculate the densities of the objects and record in Table 1.3.

22
REPORT SHEET

EXPERIMENT 1: MEASUREMENT

Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:
Group Member Name(s):
Laboratory Bench Number:
Assistant’s Name and Signature:

Data and Calculations

Table 1.1

Instrument Size of smallest division on scale Reasonable estimate of reading uncertainty

Table 1.2

Object Instrument Quantity measured Readings Mean Best estimate of uncertainty

Table 1.3

Object Mass (g) Volume (cm3 ) Density (g/cm3)

23
Questions

Is there a ”zero error” in your measuring instruments? If so, how do you make a correction
for this?

...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................

How do the results of using different measuring instruments compare? Are they within your
combined uncertainty estimates? If not, then what does this signify?

What is the most accurate instrument?

What, as a result of all your measurements would you give as the ’best’ values of mass,
length and diameter of the objects?

24
Would you consider the uncertainties you have found to be random (i.e. the probability that
the reading is too high is the same as the probability that it is too low) or systematic’ (the
error is usually of the same sign, such errors may be produced by an incorrectly calibrated
measuring instrument or by a zero error)?

How may random uncertainties be reduced?

How may systematic errors be detected and then eliminated or reduced?

What are the volumes of the objects? How accurate are your answers?

25
What are the densities of the specimens? How accurate are your answers? What units have
you used g/cm3 or kg/m3?

In the measurement of density of each object, is there a measuring instrument that has
contributed significantly more to the uncertainty in the density?

If you needed to improve the precision of your density measurements, for each object, what
would be your first step?

26
Chapter 2

INSTANTANEOUS VERSUS
AVERAGE VELOCITY

Purpose
To grasp the difference between the average and the instantaneous velocities and their most
proper places of applications.

Introduction
Average velocity of a motion is the total displacement achieved within the total time elapsed
from the start of the motion. Then the instantaneous velocity is the displacement for so small
a time interval that we cannot say when the motion started and ended, as if everything
occurred in one instant of time. However we can express it mathematically as in dx/dt,
where dx and dt are the infinitesimal displacement and the infinitesimal time.

Both average and the instantaneous velocities have their proper places of applications. For
example in the famous parable of a race between a hare and a turtle, it is the average velocity
that helps the slow turtle to win it. The hare, resting for the most part of the race (having
a zero instantaneous velocity) and dashing at the end (producing a very high instantaneous
velocity) looses it, simply because his average velocity does not add up to that of the turtle.

On the other hand, a karate master can break a wooden block, because he is well trained
and so able to produce an immensely high instantaneous velocity (and momentum) with his
hand at the moment of the blow.

In this experiment you’ll investigate the relationship between instantaneous and average
velocities, and see how a series of average velocities can be used to deduce an instantaneous
velocity.

27
Equipments
Photogate Timer
Accessory Photogate
Air Track System with one glider
Air Supply

Procedure

Figure 2.1:

1. Set up the air track as shown in Figure 2.1, elevating one end of the track with a 1-2 cm
support.

2. Choose a point x1 near the center of the track. Measure the position of x1 on the air
track metric scale, and record this value in Table 2.1.

3. Choose a starting point xo for the glider, near the upper end of the track. With a pencil,
carefully mark this spot on the air track so you can always start the glider from the same
point.

4. Place the Photogate Timer and Accessory Photogate at points equidistant from x1 , as
shown in the figure. Record the distance between the photogates as D in Table 2.1.

5. Set the slide switch on the Photogate Timer to PULSE.

6. Press the RESET button.

7. Hold the glider steady at xo , then release it. Record time t1 , the time displayed after the
glider has passed through both photogates.

8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 at least two more times, recording the times as t2 through t3 .

28
9. Now repeat steps 4 through 9, decreasing D by approximately 10cm.

10. Continue decreasing D in 10cm increments. At each value of D, repeat steps 4-8.

You can continue using smaller and smaller distances for D by changing your timing tech-
nique. Tape a piece of cardboard on top of the glider. Use just one photogate and place it
at x1 . Set the timer to GATE. Now D is the length of the cardboard. Then start the glider
from xo as before, and make several measurements of the time it takes for the glider to pass
through the photogate. As before, record your times as t1 through t3 . Continue decreasing
the value of D, by using successively smaller pieces of cardboard.

29
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30
REPORT SHEET

EXPERIMENT 2: INSTANTANEOUS VERSUS AVERAGE VELOCITY

Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:
Group Member Name(s):
Laboratory Bench Number:
Assistant’s Name and Signature:

Data and Calculations

Table 2.1

x1 =.....................

D(cm) t1 (s) t2 (s) t3 (s) tavg (s) vavg (cm/s)

1. For each value of D, calculate the average of t1 through t3 . Record this value as tavg .

2. Calculate vavg = D/tavg . This is the average velocity of the glider in going between the
two photogates.

3. Plot a graph of vavg versus D with D on the x-axis.

31
Questions
1. Which of the average velocities that you measured do you think gives the closest approx-
imation to the instantaneous velocity of the glider as it passed through point x1 ?

2. Can you extrapolate your collected data to determine an even closer approximation to the
instantaneous velocity of the glider through point x1 ? From your collected data, estimate
the maximum error you expect in your estimated value.

3. In trying to determine an instantaneous velocity, what factors (timer accuracy, object

being timed, type of motion) influence the accuracy of the measurement? Discuss how each
factor influences the result.

4. Can you think of one or more ways to measure instantaneous velocity directly, or is an
instantaneous velocity always a value that must be inferred from average velocity measure-
ments?

32
Chapter 3

PROJECTILE MOTION

Purpose
To find how the range of the ball depends on the angle at which it is launched and the angle
that gives the greatest range.

Introduction
Let us consider a special case of two-dimensional motion: A particle moves in a vertical
plane with some initial velocity v~o but its acceleration is always the free-fall acceleration ~g ,
which is downward. Such a particle is called a projectile (meaning that it is projected or
launched) and its motion is called projectile motion. During its two-dimensional motion,
the projectile’s position vector and velocity vector change continuously, but its acceleration
vector is constant and always directed vertically downward. The projectile has no horizontal
acceleration.

In projectile motion, the horizontal motion and the vertical motion are independent of each
other; that is, neither motion affects the other.

The Vertical Motion

The vertical motion is the motion for a particle in free fall. Most important is that the
acceleration is constant. Thus, the equations for motion with constant acceleration apply,
provided we substitute −g for a and switch to y notation.Then, for example, the equation
becomes
1
y − yo = voy t − gt2
2
1
y − yo = (vo sin θ)t − gt2
2

where the initial vertical velocity component voy is replaced with the equivalent vo sin θ.

33
The vertical velocity component behaves just as for a ball thrown vertically upward. It
is directed upward initially and its magnitude steadily decreases to zero, which marks the
maximum height of the path. The vertical velocity component then reverses direction, and
its magnitude becomes larger with time.

The Horizontal Motion

Because there is no acceleration in the horizontal direction, the horizontal component vx of

the projectile’s velocity remains unchanged from its initial value vox throughout the motion.
At any time t, the projectile’s horizontal displacement x − xo from an initial position xo is
given by

x − xo = vox t

Because vox = vo cos θ, this becomes

x − xo = (vo cos θ)t.

The range is the horizontal distance, x, between the muzzle of the Launcher and the place
where the ball hits (Figure 3.1), given by x = (vo cos θ)t, where vo is the initial speed of the
ball as it leaves the muzzle, θ is the angle of inclination above horizontal, and t is the time
of flight. Of course in this type of experiment the air resistance is totally ignored.

Figure 3.1:

34
Equipments
Mini Launcher and steel ball
Photogate Mounting Bracket
Photogate Timer
Time of Flight Accessory

Procedure
Determining the Initial Velocity of the Projectile

1
The vertical distance the ball drops in time t is given by y = gt2 .
2
The initial velocity of the ball can besdetermined by measuring x and y. The time of flight
2y
of the ball can be found using : t =
g
x
and then the initial velocity can be found using vo = .
t
1. Put the steel ball into the Mini Launcher and cock it to short range position. Fire one
shot to locate where the ball hits the floor. At this position, tape a piece of white paper to
the floor. Place a piece of carbon paper (carbon-side down) on top of this paper and tape it
down. When the ball hits the floor, it will leave a mark on the white paper.

2. Fire about three shots.

3. Measure the vertical distance from the bottom of the ball as it leaves the barrel (this
position is marked on the side of the barrel) to the floor. Record this distance.

4. Use a plumb bob to find the point on the floor that is directly beneath the release point
on the barrel. Measure the horizantal distance along the floor from the release point to the
points where the ball hits the floor. Record these values in Table 3.1.

5. Find the average of the three distances and record the value in the table.

6. Using the vertical distance and the average horizontal distance, calculate the time of flight
and the initial velocity of the ball.

Determining the Time of Flight

Put the Photogate Mounting Bracket onto the Mini Launcher and mount the Photogate
Timer’s Photogate Head at the front of the launcher. Connect the Time-of-Flight Accessory
stereo phone plug into the side of the Photogate Timer as in Figure 3.2.

1. Adjust the angle of the Mini Launcher.

35
Figure 3.2:

2. Put the steel ball into the Mini Launcher and cock it to the short range position.

3. Test fire the ball to determine where to place the timer plate on the floor. Put the timer
plate where the ball hits.

4. Set the Photogate Timer to PULSE mode to measure the time of flight of the projectile
from the launcher to the pad.

5. Shoot the ball and record the time of flight.

Part I: Projectile Range Versus Angle (Shooting on a Level Surface)

1. Adjust the angle of the Mini Launcher to ten degrees.

2. Put steel ball into the Mini Launcher and cock it short range position.

3. Fire one shot to locate where the ball hits the table. At this position, tape a piece of
white paper to the table. Place a piece of carbon paper (carbon-side down) on top of this
paper and tape it down. When the ball hits the table, it will leave a mark on the white
paper.

4. Fire about three shots.

5. Measure the horizontal distance from the launch position of the ball to the leading edge
of the paper (x′). Record in Table 3.2.

36
6. Measure from the leading edge of the paper to each of the three dots and record these
distances (x1 , x2 , x3 ) in Table 3.2.

7. Find the average of the three distances and record it.

8. Add the average distance to the distance to the leading edge of the paper to find the total
measured range (xmeasured = x′ + xavg ) in each case. Record it in Table 3.2.

9. Using the values of initial velocity of the projectile and the time of flight, find the
calculated range, xcalculated = (vo cos θ)t. Compare with the measured value.

10. Increase the angle by 10 degrees and repeat all the steps for angles up to and including
80 degrees.

Part II: Projectile Range Versus Angle (Shooting from an Initial Height)

Set the Mini Launcher to a initial height and aim it so that the ball will hit the table. Repeat
steps 1 through 10 in Part I and record the data in Table 3.3.

37
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38
REPORT SHEET

EXPERIMENT 3: PROJECTILE MOTION

Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:
Group Member Name(s):
Laboratory Bench Number:
Assistant’s Name and Signature:

Data and Calculations

Table 3.1

Vertical distance, y=...............

Calculated time of flight, t=...............
Initial velocity, vo =...............

Trial Number Distance

1
2
3
Average Distance

Table 3.2 Shooting on a Level Surface

θ t(s) x′(cm) x1 (cm) x2 (cm) x3 (cm) xavg (cm) xmeasured xcalculated

10o
20o
30o
40o
50o
60o
70o
80o

39
Table 3.3 Shooting from an Initial Height

yo =................

θ t(s) x′(cm) x1 (cm) x2 (cm) x3 (cm) xavg (cm) xmeasured xcalculated

10o
20o
30o
40o
50o
60o
70o
80o

For data in Table 3.2 and Table 3.3, plot the measured range versus angle and draw a smooth
curve through the points.

Questions
1. From the graph, what angle gives the maximum range for each case?

2. Is the angle for the maximum range greater or less for shooting from an initial height?

3. Is the maximum range further when the ball is shot from an initial height or on the level
surface?

40
Chapter 4

NEWTON’S SECOND LAW

Purpose
To demonstrate that the force to acceleration ratio is a constant dependent on the amount
of the matter that is subjected to the various forces, gravitational or not.

Introduction
There’s nothing obvious about the relationships governing the motions of objects. In fact, it
took around 4000 years of civilization and the genius of Isaac Newton to figure out the basic
laws. Fortunately for the rest of us, hindsight is a powerful research tool. In this experiment
you will experimentally determine Newton’s second law by examining the motion of an air
track glider under the influence of a constant force. The constant force will be supplied by
the weight of a hanging mass that will be used to pull the glider. By varying the mass of
the hanging weight and of the glider, and measuring the acceleration of the glider, you’ll be
able to determine Newton’s second law.

Equipments
Photogate Timer
Accessory Photogate
Air Track System with one glider
Pulley, Mass hanger and Masses (1x5g, 2x10g, 2x20g)

Procedure
1. Set up the air track as shown in Figure 4.1. Level the air track very carefully by adjusting
the air track leveling feet. A glider should sit on the track without accelerating in either
direction. There may be some small movement of the glider due to unequal airflow beneath
the glider, but it should not accelerate steadily in either direction.

2. Measure the effective length of the glider and record your value as L in Table 4.1.

41
Figure 4.1:

3. Mount the hook into the bottom hole of the glider. To counterbalance its weight, add a
piece of similar weight on the opposite end as shown on Figure 4.1.

4. Add 60 grams of mass to the glider using 10 or 20gram masses. Be sure the masses are
distributed symmetrically so the glider is balanced. Determine the total mass of your glider
with the added masses and record the total as m in Table 4.1.
5. Place a mass of 5 grams on the mass hanger. Record the total mass (hanger plus added
mass) as ma .

6. Set your Photogate Timer to GATE mode.

7. Choose a starting point xo for the glider, near the end of the track. Mark this point with
a pencil so that you can always start the glider from this same point.

8. Press the RESET button.

9. Hold the glider steady at xo , then release it. Note t1 , the time it took for the glider to
pass through the first photogate, and t2 , the time it took for the glider to pass through the
second photogate. Repeat this measurement two times. Take the average of your measured
t1 ’s and t2 ’s and record these averages as t1 and t2 in Table 4.1.

Note: Use the memory function of the timer to measure the two times. Turn the MEMORY
switch to ON. Press RESET. Run the experiment. When the first time t1 is measured, it
will be immediately displayed. The second time t2 will be automatically measured by the
timer, but it will not be shown on the display. Record t1 , then push the MEMORY switch to
READ. The display will now show the TOTAL time, t1 + t2 . Subtract t1 from the displayed
time to determine t2 .

10. Set the Photogate Timer to PULSE mode.

42
11. Press the RESET button.

12. Again, start the glider from xo . This time measure and record t3 , the time it takes the
glider to pass between the photogates. Repeat this measurement two more times and record
the average of these measurements as t3 in Table 4.1.

13. Vary ma , by moving masses from the glider to the hanger (thus keeping the total mass,
m + ma , constant). Record m and ma and repeat steps 5 through 11. Try at least four
different values for ma .

14. Now leave ma , constant at a previously used value. Vary m by adding or removing mass
from the glider. Repeat steps 5-11. Try at least four different values for m.

43
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44
REPORT SHEET

EXPERIMENT 4: NEWTON’S SECOND LAW

Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:
Group Member Name(s):
Laboratory Bench Number:
Assistant’s Name and Signature:

Data and Calculations

Table 4.1

Glider Length, L=.....................

m(g) ma (g) t1 (s) t2 (s) t3 (s) v1 (m/s) v2 (m/s) a(m/s2 ) Fa (N)

For each set of experimental conditions:

1. Use the length of the glider and your average times to determine v1 (L/t1 ) and v2 (L/t2 ),
the average glider velocity as it passed through each photogate.

2. Use the equation a = (v2 − v1 )/t3 to determine the average acceleration of the glider as
it passed between the two photogates.

3. Determine Fa the force applied to the glider by the hanging mass. (Fa = ma g, g =
9.8m/s2 )

4. Draw a graph showing average acceleration as a function of applied force, Fa .

5. Draw a second graph showing average acceleration as a function of the glider mass with
ma being held constant.

45
6. Examine your graphs carefully. Are they straight lines? Use your graphs to determine the
relationship between applied force, mass, and average acceleration for the air track glider.

7. Discuss your results. In this experiment, you measured only the average acceleration of
the glider between the two photogates. Do you have reason to believe that your results also
hold true for the instantaneous acceleration? Explain. What further experiments might help
extend your results to include instantaneous acceleration?

46
Chapter 5

THE FORCE OF GRAVITY

Purpose
Using Newton’s Second Law to measure the force exerted on an object by the Earth’s gravi-
tational field.

Introduction
In this experiment, we will use Newton’s Second Law (F = ma) to measure the force
exerted on an object by the Earth’s gravitational field. Ideally, you would simply measure
the acceleration of a freely falling object, measure its mass, and compute the force. However,
the acceleration of a freely falling object is difficult to measure accurately. Accuracy can be
greatly increased by measuring the much smaller acceleration of an object as it slides down
an inclined plane. Figure 5.1 shows a diagram of the experiment. The gravitational force
Fg can be resolved into two components; one acting perpendicular and one acting parallel
to the motion of the glider. Only the component acting along the direction of motion can
accelerate the glider. The other component is balanced by the force from the air cushion of
the track acting in the opposite direction. From the diagram, F = Fg sin θ, where Fg is the
total gravitational force and F is the component that accelerates the glider. By measuring
the acceleration of the glider, F can be determined and Fg can be calculated.

Equipments

Photogate Timer
Accessory Photogate
Air Track System with one glider
A block of known thickness
Masses

47
Figure 5.1:

Procedure

Figure 5.2:

1. Set up the air track as shown in Figure 5.2. Level the air track very carefully.

2. Measure d, the distance between the air track support legs. Record this distance.

3. Place a block of thickness h under the support leg of the track. Measure h with calipers
and record it.

4. Measure and record D, the distance the glider moves on the air track from where it
triggers the first photogate to where it triggers the second photogate.

48
5. Measure and record L, the effective length of the glider.

6. Measure and record m, the mass of the glider.

7. Set the Photogate Timer to GATE mode and press the RESET button.

8. Hold the glider steady near the top of the air track, then release it so it glides freely through
the photogates. Record t1 , the time during which the glider blocks the first photogate, and
t2 , the time during which it blocks the second photogate.

Use the memory function of the timer to measure the two times. Turn the MEMORY switch
to ON. Press RESET. Run the experiment. When the first time t1 is measured, it will be
immediately displayed. The second time t2 will be automatically measured by the timer, but
it will not be shown on the display. Record t1 , then push the MEMORY switch to READ.
The display will now show the TOTAL time, t1 + t2 . Subtract t1 from the displayed time to
determine t2 .

9. Repeat the measurement several times and record your data in Table 5.1. You needn’t
release the glider from the same point on the air track for each trial, but it must be gliding
freely and smoothly (minimum wobble) as it passes through the photogates.

10. Change the mass of the glider by adding weights and repeat steps 6 through 8. Do this
for at least five different masses, recording the mass m for each set of measurements.

49
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50
REPORT SHEET

EXPERIMENT 5: THE FORCE OF GRAVITY

Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:
Group Member Name(s):
Laboratory Bench Number:
Assistant’s Name and Signature:

Data and Calculations

d =......................
h =......................
D =.......................
L = ......................
θ =.......................
m (mass of the glider with the flag) = ......................

Table 5.1

m(g) t1 (s) t2 (s) v1 (m/s) v2 (m/s) a(m/s2 ) F (N) Fg (N)

aavg =.....................

1. Calculate θ, the angle of incline for the air track, using the equation θ = arctan(h/d).

2. For each set of time measurements, divide L by t1 and t2 to determine v1 and v2 , the
velocities of the glider as it passed through the two photogates.

3. For each set of time measurements, calculate a, the acceleration of the glider, using the
equation v22 − v12 = 2a(x2 − x1 ) = 2aD.

4. For each value of mass that you used, take the average of your calculated accelerations to
determine aavg .

51
5. For each of your average accelerations, calculate the force acting on the glider along its
line of motion (F = maavg ).

6. For each measured value of F , use the equation F = Fg sin θ to determine Fg .

7. Construct a graph of Fg versus m, with m as the independent variable (x-axis).

Does your graph show a linear relationship between Fg and m? Does the graph go through
the origin? Is the gravitational force acting on the mass proportional to the mass? If so, the
gravitational force can be expressed by the equation Fg = mg, where g is a constant. If this
is the case, measure the slope of your graph to determine the value of g.

Questions
1. In this experiment, it was assumed that the acceleration of the glider was constant. Was
this a reasonable assumption to make? How would you test this?

2. The equation v22 − v12 = 2a(x2 − x1 ) was used to calculate the acceleration. Under what
conditions is this equation valid? Are those conditions met in this experiment? (You should
be able to find a derivation for this equation in your textbook.)

52
3. Could you use the relationship Fg = mg to determine the force acting between the Earth
and the Moon? Explain.

53
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54
Chapter 6

MEASURING g, THE
ACCELERATION CAUSED BY
GRAVITY

Purpose
To familiarize the students with a practical measurement technique of the important me-
chanical constant g.

Introduction
The equation of motion for a body starting from rest and undergoing constant acceleration
can be expressed as: x = (1/2)at2 where x is the distance the object has traveled from its
starting point, a is the acceleration, and t is the time elapsed since the motion began. In
order to measure the acceleration caused by gravity, several questions must be answered:

Is the acceleration constant? If it is, then the distance an object falls will be proportional
to the square of the elapsed time, as in the above equation.

If the acceleration is constant, what is the value of the acceleration? Is it the same for all
objects or does it vary with mass or size of the object, or with some other quality of the
object? If it is not constant, how does it vary with time?

In this experiment you will answer these questions by carefully timing the fall of a steel ball
from various heights.

Thanks to our electronics age, we are much luckier than our good old Galilee Galileo when
he had to drop objects off the top of the leaning tower of Pizza and time them with his pulse.

55
Equipments
Free-Fall Timer with two steel balls
Rod stand
Multi clamp

Procedure

Figure 6.1:

1. First use the steel ball 13mm in diameter.

2. Set d, the height from which the ball drops. Measure the distance as accurately as possible
and record the distance in Table 6.1. Press the RESET button on the timer, then loosen
the thumbscrew so the ball drops. Record the measured time as t1 in Table 6.1. Repeat
the measurement at least two more times and record these values as t2 − t3 . Calculate the
average of your three measured times and record this value as tavg .

3. Set d to different values and repeat step 2 for each value of d. Be sure you measure it
carefully.

4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 using the steel ball 16mm in diameter and record your data in Table
6.2.

56
REPORT SHEET

EXPERIMENT 6: MEASURING g, THE ACCELERATION CAUSED BY GRAVITY

Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:
Group Member Name(s):
Laboratory Bench Number:
Assistant’s Name and Signature:

Data and Calculations

Table 6.1

d(cm) t1 (s) t2 (s) t3 (s) tavg (s) t2avg (s2 )

Table 6.2

d(cm) t1 (s) t2 (s) t3 (s) tavg (s) t2avg (s2 )

For each ball, plot a graph of d versus t2avg with d as the dependent value (y-axis). Within
the limits of your experimental accuracy, do your data points define a straight line for each
ball? Was the acceleration constant for each ball?

57
If your graphs were linear, measure the slope of each graph. Using your measured slopes
and the equation shown in the introduction to this experiment, determine the acceleration
caused by gravity. Be sure to include the units. Was the acceleration the same for each ball?

Questions
Describe your laboratory experiment and discuss your results. Consider the following ques-
tions:

1. Is the acceleration caused by gravity constant?

2. Is the acceleration caused by gravity the same for all objects?

Discuss the conditions under which you believe your results to be true. Include a discussion
of the errors in your measurements and how they affect your conclusions. How linear was
your graph? How might you alter your technique, or the experiment, in order to reduce
experimental errors?

58
Chapter 7

ELASTIC-KINETIC ENERGY

Purpose
To familiarize oneself with the idea that the kinetic energy can be stored and imparted at a
later time. Spring provides an ingenious mechanism to this effect.

Introduction
It takes work to stretch or compress a spring. Suppose a spring has a natural (unstretched)
length Lo and a spring constant k. If that spring is stretched or compressed to a new length,
L = Lo ± x, the work required is given by the expression (1/2)kx2 . If the energy stored in
the spring is then used to accelerate an object, the kinetic energy of the object, (1/2)mv 2 ,
will be equivalent to the work that was originally stored in the spring. In this lab you will
investigate this equivalency between the work stored in a stretched spring and the kinetic
energy it can impart to an object.

Equipments
Photogate Timer
Air Track with one glider
Mass hanger with masses
Spring (with a low spring constant)

Procedure
1. Set up the equipment as shown in Figure 7.1 and level the track. As shown, attach a
cardboard flag to your glider with masking tape. The flag can be from 1 to 5cm wide. Make
a platform for your spring, so it will be supported horizontally and will not sag. Attach the
platform securely to the end of the air track. Connect the spring to the glider with a piece of
thread so that the glider is about in the middle of the air track with the spring unstretched.
Run another piece of thread from the glider over a pulley at the end of the track and attach
it to a hanger.

59
Figure 7.1:

2. Hang masses on the hanger and determine how far the spring stretches. This is easily
done using the metric scale on the side of the air track and using the glider to monitor the
distance the spring has extended. Record the masses added and the position of the glider in
Table 7.1. (The air flow should be on while gathering this data.) Then remove the hanger
and thread.

3. Measure and record m, the mass of your glider and flag, in Table 7.2. Then pass the
glider slowly through the photogate and note the position of the glider when the LED on
the photogate first goes on and again when the LED goes off. The difference between these
positions is ∆d. Record it.

4. Position the glider so the spring exerts no force on the glider, but the thread does not sag.
Record this glider position as xl . Position the photogate between the glider and the spring.

5. Pull the glider approximately 5cm farther away from the spring. Measure the distance
between this glider position and x1 and record this distance as the spring stretch in Table
7.2.

6. Set the Photogate Timer to GATE mode and press the RESET button.

7. Hold the glider steady as you turn the air flow on. Release the glider, but catch it before
it crashes into the spring platform. Record the measured time as t1 in Table 7.2.

8. Repeat steps 5-8 two more times. Record your times as t2 through t3 in Table 7.2.
Determine the average of these three times and record this value as tavg .

9. Repeat steps 5-9 for different distances of stretch of the spring up to 20cm. Also try
varying the mass of the glider by adding masses to it. Note the new masses in Table 7.2.

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REPORT SHEET

EXPERIMENT 7: ELASTIC-KINETIC ENERGY

Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:
Group Member Name(s):
Laboratory Bench Number:
Assistant’s Name and Signature:

Data and Calculations

Table 7.1 Determining the spring constant

Hanging Mass,(g) Applied Force, mg(N) Spring Stretch, x(m)

Determine k, the spring constant of your spring by constructing a graph of the stretch of
the spring versus the amount of force applied to it by the hanging weights with the spring
stretch values on the x-axis. The slope of this graph in, newtons/meter, is equal to k.

k=......................

Table 7.2

x1 =..................

Flag width, ∆d=................

m(g) stretch,x(m) t1 (s) t2 (s) t3 (s) tavg (s)

2
vavg (m/s) (1/2)mvavg (J) (1/2)kx2 (J) %Error

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1. For each set of trials you performed for a given spring stretch and glider mass, divide ∆d
by your average time to determine the average velocity of the glider as it passed through the
2
photogate. Calculate the final kinetic energy of the glider, (1/2)mvavg .

2. Calculate the energy stored in the spring in each case, (1/2)kx2 where k is the spring
constant and x is the spring stretch.

3. For each trial, determine the percentage difference between the elastic potential energy
stored in the spring and the final translational kinetic energy of the glider.

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Chapter 8

CONSERVATION OF
MECHANICAL ENERGY

Purpose
To demonstrate that the sum total of potential and kinetic energies is another conserved
quantity in elastic collisions and mechanically isolated objects that are subjected to gravity
only.

Introduction
Though conservation of energy is one of the most powerful laws of physics, it is not an
easy principle to verify. If a boulder is rolling down a hill, for example, it is constantly
converting gravitational potential energy into kinetic energy (linear and rotational), and
into heat energy due to the friction between it and the hillside. It also loses energy as it
strikes other objects along the way, imparting to them a certain portion of its kinetic energy.
Measuring all these energy changes is no simple task.

This kind of difficulty exists throughout physics, and physicists meet this problem by creating
simplified situations in which they can focus on a particular aspect of the problem. In this
experiment you will examine the transformation of energy that occurs as an air track glider
slides down an inclined track. Since there are no objects to interfere with the motion and
there is minimal friction between the track and glider, the loss in gravitational potential
energy as the glider slides down the track should be very nearly equal to the gain in kinetic
energy. Stated mathematically:

∆Ek = ∆(mgh) = mg∆h

where ∆Ek is the change in kinetic energy of the glider (∆Ek = (1/2)mv22 − (1/2)mv12) and
∆(mgh) is the change in its gravitational potential energy (m is the mass of the glider, g is
the acceleration of gravity and ∆h is the change in the vertical position of the glider).

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Equipments
Photogate Timer
Accessory Photogate
Air track system with one glider
A block of known thickness

Procedure

Figure 8.1:

1. Level the air track as accurately as possible.

2. Measure d, the distance between the air track support legs. Record this distance in Table
8.1

3. Place a block of known thickness under the support leg of the track. For best accuracy,
the thickness of the block should be measured with calipers. Record the thickness of the
block as h in Table 8.1.

4. Setup the Photogate Timer and Accessory Photogate as shown in Figure 8.1.

5. Measure and record D, the distance the glider moves on the air track from where it first
triggers the first photogate to where it first triggers the second photogate. (You can tell
when the photogates are triggered by watching the LED on top of each photogate. When
the LED lights up, the photogate has been triggered.)

6. Measure and record L, the effective length of the glider. (The best technique is to move
the glider slowly through one of the photogates and measure the distance it travels from
where the LED first lights up to where it just goes off.)

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7. Measure and record m, the mass of the glider.

8. Set the Photogate Timer to GATE mode and press the RESET button.

9. Hold the glider steady near the top of the air track, then release it so it glides freely through
the photogates. Record t1 , the time during which the glider blocks the first photogate, and
t2 , the time during which it blocks the second photogate. (The memory function of the
Photogate Timer will make it easier to measure the two times.)

10. Repeat the measurement several times and record your data in Table 8.1. You needn’t
release the glider from the same point on the air track for each trial, but it must be gliding
freely and smoothly (minimum wobble) as it passes through the photogates.

11. Change the mass of the glider by adding weights and repeat steps 7 through 10. Do this
for at least five different masses, recording the mass m for each set of measurements.

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REPORT SHEET

EXPERIMENT 8: CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY

Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:
Group Member Name(s):
Laboratory Bench Number:
Assistant’s Name and Signature:

Data and Calculations

d=............
D=...........
h=............
L=............
m=...........

Table 8.1

m θ t1 t2 v1 v2 Ek1 Ek2 ∆Ek ∆(mgh)

1. Calculate θ, the angle of incline for the air track, using the equation θ = arctan(h/d).

For each set of time measurements:

2. Divide L by t1 and t2 to determine v1 and v2 , the velocity of the glider as it passed

through each photogate.

3. Use the equation Ek = (1/2)mv 2 to calculate the kinetic energy of the glider as it passed
through each photogate.

4. Calculate the change in kinetic energy, ∆Ek = Ek2 − Ek1 .

5. Calculate ∆h, the distance through which the glider dropped in passing between the two
photogates (∆h = D sin θ).

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6. Compare the kinetic energy gained with the loss in gravitational potential energy. Was
mechanical energy conserved in the motion of the glider?

68
Chapter 9

CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

Purpose
To demonstrate that linear momentum is conserved in every collision that is free from any
other force except that is due to the collision itself and to demonstrate that if collision is
elastic and horizontal, the total kinetic energy of the system is a conserved quantity, ie, a
constant throughout the act.

Introduction
When objects collide, whether locomotives, shopping carts or your foot and the sidewalk,
the results can be complicated. Yet even in the most chaotic of collisions, as long as there
are no external forces acting on the colliding objects, one principle always holds and provides
an excellent tool for understanding the dynamics of the collision. That principle is called
the conservation of momentum. For a two-object collision, momentum conservation is easily
stated mathematically by the equation:

pi = m1 v1i + m2 v2i = m1 v1f + m2 v2f = pf

where m1 and m2 are the masses of the two objects, v1i and v2i are the initial velocities of
the objects (before the collision), v1f and v2f are the final velocities of the objects (after the
collision), and pi and pf are the combined momentums of the objects, before and after the
collision. In this experiment, you will verify the conservation of momentum in a collision of
two air track gliders.

Momentum is always conserved in collisions that are isolated from external forces. Energy
is also always conserved, but energy conservation is much harder to demonstrate since the
energy can change forms: energy of motion (kinetic energy) may be changed into heat
energy, gravitational potential energy, or even chemical potential energy. In the air track
glider collisions you’ll be investigating, the total energy before the collision is simply the
kinetic energy of the gliders:
2 2
Eki = (1/2)m1 v1i + (1/2)m2 v2i

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After the collision, the total kinetic energy of the system is:

2 2
Ekf = (1/2)m1 v1f + (1/2)m2 v2f

In this experiment you’ll examine the kinetic energy before and after a collision to determine
if kinetic energy is conserved in air track collisions.

Equipments
Two Photogate Timers
Air Track System with two gliders

Procedure

Figure 9.1:

1. Set up the air track and photogates as shown in Figure 9.1, using bumpers on the gliders
to provide an elastic collision. Carefully level the track.

2. Measure m1 and m2 , the masses of the two gliders to be used in the collision. Record
your results in Table 9.1.

3. Measure and record L1 and L2 the length of the gliders. (e.g., push glider through
photogate and measure the distance it travels from where the LED comes on to where it
goes off again.)

4. Set both Photogate Timers to GATE mode, and press the RESET buttons.

5. Place glider2 at rest between the photogates. Give glider1 a push toward it. Record four
time measurements in Table 9.1 as follows:

t1i = the time that glider1 blocks photogate1 before the collision.

t2i = the time that glider2 blocks photogate2 before the collision. (In this case, there is no
t2i since glider2 begins at rest.)

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t1f = the time that glider1 blocks photogate1 after the collision.

t2f = the time that glider2 blocks photogate2 after the collision.

6. Repeat the experiment several times, varying the mass of one or both gliders and varying
the initial velocity of glider1 .

7. Try collisions in which the initial velocity of glider2 is not zero. You may need to practice
a bit to coordinate the gliders so the collision takes place completely between the photogates.

Optional Equipment

Design and conduct an experiment to investigate conservation of kinetic energy in an inelastic

collision in which the two gliders, instead of bounching off each other, stick together so that
they move off with identical final velocities. Replace the bumpers with the wax and needle.

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72
REPORT SHEET

EXPERIMENT 9: CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:
Group Member Name(s):
Laboratory Bench Number:
Assistant’s Name and Signature:

Data and Calculations

Table 9.1

L1 =................ L2 =................

m1 (g) m2 (g) t1i (s) t2i (s) t1f (s) t2f (s)

v1i (m/s) v2i (m/s) v1f (m/s) v2f (m/s) pi (kg ∗ m/s) pf (kg ∗ m/s) Eki (J) Ekf (J)

1. For each time that you measured, calculate the corresponding glider velocity (e.g., v1i =
±L1 /t1i where the velocity is positive when the glider moves to the right and negative when
it moves to the left).

2. Use your measured values to calculate pi and pf , the combined momentum of the gliders
before and after the collision. Record your results in the table.

3. Use your measured values to calculate Eki and Ekf the combined kinetic energy of the
gliders before and after the collision. Record your results in the table.

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Questions
1. Was momentum conserved in each of your collisions? If not, try to explain any discrep-
ancies.

2. If a glider collides with the end of the air track and rebounds, it will have nearly the same
momentum it had before it collided, but in the opposite direction. Is momentum conserved
in such a collision? Explain.

3. Suppose the air track was tilted during the experiment. Would momentum be conserved
in the collision? Why or why not?

4. Was kinetic energy conserved in each of your collisions?

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5. If there were one or more collisions in which kinetic energy was not conserved, where did
it go?

75
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76
Chapter 10

ROTATIONAL MOTION

Purpose
To see how the reading on the Rotational Dynamics Apparatus display relates to the angular
velocity of the rotating disk.
Applying a constant force to the rotating disk under a variety of circumstances, in an attempt
to determine how the force on the disk relates to its angular acceleration.
Finally, to determine that if the angular momentum of rotating objects is conserved in a
collision as like their linear momentum.

Introduction
Suppose that our rotating body is at angular position θ1 at time t1 and at angular position
θ2 at time t2 . We define the average angular velocity of the body in the time interval ∆t
from t1 to t2 to be

θ2 − θ1 ∆θ
ωavg = =
t2 − t1 ∆t

in which ∆θ is the angular displacement that occurs during ∆t.

The (instantaneous) angular velocity ω is the limit of the ratio in equation above as ∆t
approaches zero. Thus,

∆θ dθ
ω (lim ∆t → 0) = =
∆t dt

If we know θ(t), we can find the angular velocity ω by differentiation.

The angular velocity ω of a rotating rigid body is either positive or negative, depending on
whether the body is rotating counterclockwise (positive) or clockwise (negative).

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If the angular velocity of a rotating body is not constant then the body has an angular
acceleration. Let ω2 and ω1 be its angular velocities at times t2 and t1 , respectively. The
average angular acceleration of the rotating body in the interval from t1 to t2 is defined as:

ω2 − ω1 ∆ω
αavg = =
t2 − t1 ∆t

in which ∆ω is the change in the angular velocity that occurs during the time interval ∆t.

The (intantaneous) angular acceleration α is the limit of this quantity as ∆t approaches zero.
Thus,

∆ω dω
α (lim ∆t → 0) = =
∆t dt

If the motion of an object undergoing constant acceleration, then the average acceleration
is equal to the instantaneous acceleration.

Angular momentum of a system of particles that form a rigid body that rotates about a
fixed axis with constant angular speed ω, can be written as; L = Iω. I, in that equation is
the rotational inertia about that same axis. The law of conservation of angular momentum
can be written as;

Li = Lf (isolated system)

We can apply this law to a isolated body which rotates around a fixed axis. Suppose that the
initially rigid body somehow redistributes its mass relative to that rotation axis, changing its
rotational inertia about that axis. The law of conservation states that the angular momentum
of the body cannot change. So we write this conservation law as;

Ii ωi = If ωf

Here the subscripts refer to the values of the rotational inertia I and angular speed ω before
and after the redistribution of mass.

In this experiment you will use the Rotational Dynamics Apparatus. The optical readers of
the apparatus count the number of black bars that pass by them in one second. This is the
number that is displayed. R is the reading in bars/second. So you can use this information
to convert the measurement to radians/second.

ω = κR

where κ, is the rotation of the disk in radians for each bar detected by the optical reader.

78
Equipments
Rotational Dynamics Apparatus
Air Pump

Part I: Angular Velocity

Procedure

Figure 10.1:

1. Set up the equipment as shown in Figure 10.1. Use either the steel or aluminum disk as
the top disk.

2. Use the bubble level to check that the base of the apparatus is level. If not, adjust the
leveling feet.

3. Flip the switch on the display to UPPER, so the top disk is monitored by the optical
readers.

4. Check that the valve pin for the lower disk is in the storage position, so that the lower
disk rests firmly on the base plate.

5. Give the top disk a gentle spin, so that the digital display reads somewhere 100 and 200
counts/sec. Watch the reading on the digital display for several minutes. Is it constant or
does the reading increase or decrease?

6. Place a narrow piece of tape on the top of the top disk, at some point near the rim.

79
7. Give the disk a gentle spin (again to about 100-200 counts/sec) and record the initial
reading on the digital display (Ri ) in Table 10.1.

8. By watching the tape, count the number of revolutions of the disk in some specified time
interval, about one minute. Record the number of revolutions as N and the time interval as
t. At the end of the time interval, record the final reading on the digital display (Rf ).

9. From your data, calculate the total angle θ, in radians, through which the disk rotated
during the time t (θ = 2πN). From this, determine the average angular velocity (ωavg ) of
the disk during the time t (ωavg = θ/t).

10. Calculate the average display reading during the time t, Ravg = (Ri + Rf )/2.

11. Repeat the experiment a few more times.

Part II: Angular Acceleration

Procedure

Figure 10.2:

1. Set up the equipment as shown in Figure 10.2. Use the steel disk as the top disk, and use
the small torque pulley.

2. Attach the mass hanger to the end of the thread. When the thread is extended, the mass
should almost reach the floor.

80
3. Check that the bottom disk sits firmly on the base plate. Only the top disk should spin.

4. Record the hanging mass (m), the radius of the torque pulley (r), and the mass of the
rotating disk (M) in Table 10.2. Be sure to include the mass of the hanger, 5g, in your value
for m.

To measure the acceleration of the disk under the force applied by the hanging mass:

5. Wind the thread onto the torque pulley, until the hanging mass is almost against the air
pulley.

6. Hold the disk still until the display reads zero.

7. Release the disk. As the disk rotates, record each successive, non-zero reading of the
display (R1 -R8 ) in Table 10.2. Record these values as the hanging mass falls, and again as it
rises back up. Do not record any values that appear after the mass has reached its highest
point and started back down. You should get at least six different values. If you don’t get
that many, raise the apparatus and use a longer piece of thread.

Two of your recorded values will not be useable data. The first is R1 . The second is the
value that was counted as the hanging mass reached its lowest point and then started back
up. Leave these values in your data table, but mark them clearly so you do not use them in
your later calculations.

8. Repeat steps 5-7 at least three times (the more the better).

9. Leaving all other experimental conditions the same, change the value of m, and repeat
steps 5-8.

10. Leaving all other experimental conditions the same, change the value of r (use the large
torque pulley), and repeat steps 5-8.

11. Leaving all other experimental conditions the same, change the value of M. Replace the
steel top disk with the aluminum top disk, and repeat steps 5-8.

Part III: Conservation of Angular Momentum

Procedure

1. Record the mass of all rotating disks (the top and bottom steel disks and the top aluminum
disk) and measure the inner and outer radii of the disks. Record your measurements in Table
10.4.

2. Set up the equipment as in Figure 10.3. Use the steel disk as the top disk.

81
Figure 10.3:

3. Insert one valve pin in the bottom disk valve and the other in the hole in the center of
the top disk. Spin the disks. They should rotate smoothly and independently.

4. Set the display switch so that the display monitors the motion of the upper disk.

5. Hold the bottom disk stationary and give the top disk a spin, so that the display reads
approximately 300-400 counts/s. Wait several seconds, then record the display reading for
the top disk as Rtop in Table 10.5. Immediately after recording the reading, pull the valve
pin from the top disk so that the top disk falls onto the bottom disk. Wait a full two seconds,
then record the reading, on the display as Rf inal in the data table. (The initial reading for
the bottom disk, Rbot , is zero, since it was held stationary.)

6. Repeat the experiment several times. Try different initial angular velocities for the top
disk. Also try some runs in which Rbot is not zero. Experiment with both disks spinning
initially in the same direction, and also with both disks spinning initially in opposite direc-
tions. (When both disks are spinning initially, you will need to flip the display switch to
measure both Rtop and Rbot , before removing the drop pin. Each time you flip the switch
or pull the pin, be sure to wait a full two seconds before recording the new display reading.
Also be sure to record the direction in which each disk spins, cw or ccw.)

7. Exchange the top steel disk for the aluminum disk, and repeat the experiment. Try a
variety of initial angular velocities.

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REPORT SHEET

EXPERIMENT 10: ROTATIONAL MOTION

Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:
Group Member Name(s):
Laboratory Bench Number:
Assistant’s Name and Signature:

Data and Calculations

Part I: Angular Velocity

Table 10.1

Ri Rf N t θ ωavg Ravg κ

1. Using your calculated values, determine a constant κ, that relates the average display
reading to the average angular velocity (κRavg = ωavg ).

2. How accurate does your measured value of κ seem to be?

3. Determine the number N of black bars on the circumference of the disk (count them or
determine the number per centimeter and multiply by the circumference of the disk or use
some other method).

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4. Divide 2π by N to determine κ. Convince yourself of this by comparing the units of the
relevant variables: R (bars/second), ω (radians/second), N (bars), 2π (radians). Notice that
(2π/N)R = ω gives the proper units.

5. Compare your value of κ from step 2 with that from step 4. Are they the same? If
not, which value do you have more confidence in? If necessary, experiment some more to
determine a value of κ that you trust.

84
Part II: Angular Acceleration
The display shows you the number of bars that pass by every second. However, there is
a dead time of one second between each counting interval, so the time between successive
displayed values is 2.00 seconds. Therefore, if you convert all your display readings into
angular velocities, you can easily calculate the average angular acceleration within each time
interval. For example; α3 = (ω3 − ω2 )/(t3 − t2 ) where t3 − t2 = 2.00 seconds, and ω is
determined using the conversion factor that you measured before (e.g., ω3 = κR3 ).

Table 10.2
m = 10g, r = 1.27cm, M = 1600g

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8

ω1 ω2 ω3 ω4 ω5 ω6 ω7 ω8

α1 α2 α3 α4 α5 α6 α7 αavg

m = 20g, r = 1.27cm, M = 1600g

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8

ω1 ω2 ω3 ω4 ω5 ω6 ω7 ω8

α1 α2 α3 α4 α5 α6 α7 αavg

m = 10g, r = 2.54cm, M = 1600g

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8

ω1 ω2 ω3 ω4 ω5 ω6 ω7 ω8

α1 α2 α3 α4 α5 α6 α7 αavg

m = 10g, r = 1.27cm, M = 600g

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8

ω1 ω2 ω3 ω4 ω5 ω6 ω7 ω8

α1 α2 α3 α4 α5 α6 α7 αavg

85
For each trial of the experiment that you performed:

1. Calculate the angular velocity within each counting interval.

2. Calculate the average angular acceleration within each valid timing interval.

For each set of trials in which the experimental conditions were the same:

3. Determine the average of your measured values of α. Record this value as α in Table
10.3.

For each value of α that you determine:

4. Calculate and record the total moment of inertia (I) of the accelerated disk(s).

5. Calculate and record Iα.

6. Calculate the applied torque (τ ) and record this value in Table 10.3.

7. Calculate the percentage difference between τ and Iα.

Table 10.3

α I Iα τ %diff

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Questions

1. Is it reasonable to assume that your measured values of α are the same as the instantaneous
angular acceleration within each counting interval? Explain your answer. (Hint: Is the
angular acceleration constant?)

2. Within the limits of accuracy of your measurements, did τ = Iα for all your experimental
run? Discuss any discrepancies.

87
Part III: Conservation of Angular Momentum

Table 10.4

Mass, M Inner Radius Outer Radius Moment of Inertia

Bottom steel disk 1600g
Top steel disk 1600g
Top aluminum disk 600g

1. Using the data you collected in Table 10.4, calculate I, the moment of inertia of each
1 2 2
rotating disk, I = M(rinner + router ). Record your results in the table.
2

Table 10.5

Itop Ibot Rtop Rbot Rf inal ωtop ωbot ωf inal Ltop Lbot Lf inal

For each run of the experiment that you performed:

2. Calculate the initial angular velocity of each disk (wtop and wbot ).

3. Multiply the calculated angular velocity of each disk by its moment of inertia to determine
the initial angular momentum of each disk, Ltop = Itop ωtop , etc.

4. Calculate the total final angular momentum of the disks, Lf inal = (Itop + Ibot )ωf inal .

5. Calculate the percent difference between the combined initial angular momentums and
the combined final angular momentums.

88
Questions

1. Within the limits of your experimental error, was angular momentum conserved in your
collisions. Discuss any discrepancies.

2. Discuss the role of friction in the experiment. How might you change the apparatus,
and/or the design of the experiment, to compensate for frictional effects?

3. Suppose you performed the experiment without the valve pin in the bottom disk valve,
so that the bottom disk was sitting firmly on the base plate. The initial angular momen-
tum would be that of the top disk. The final angular momentum would be zero. Would
momentum be conserved? Explain your answer.

89
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90
Chapter 11

FARADAY ICE PAIL

Purpose
To investigate the nature of charging an object by contact as compared to charging by
induction and variations of charge densities.

Introduction
There are three ways that objects can be given a net charge. These are;

1. Charging by friction; this is useful for charging insulators. If you rub one material with
another (say, a plastic ruler with a piece of paper towel), electrons have a tendency to be
transferred from one material to the other. For example, rubbing glass with silk or saran
wrap generally leaves the glass with a positive charge; rubbing PVC rod with fur generally
gives the rod a negative charge.

2. Charging by contact; useful for charging metals and other conductors. If a charged object
touches a conductor, some charge will be transferred between the object and the conductor,
charging the conductor with the same sign as the charge on the object.

3. Charging by induction; also useful for charging metals and other conductors. Again, a
charged object is used, but this time it is only brought close to the conductor, and does not
touch it. If the conductor is connected to ground (ground is basically anything neutral that
can give up electrons to, or take electrons from, an object), electrons will either flow on to it
or away from it. When the ground connection is removed, the conductor will have a charge
opposite in sign to that of the charged object.

If one wishes to investigate the nature of electrostatics, a charge detecting device is needed.
Traditionally an electroscope, an instrument with two gold leaves suspended from a common
point which separate upon certain conditions is used. This device is simple, inexpensive,
but only gives qualitative results. Quantitative results can only roughly be estimated by
the amount the gold leaves spread. The electrometer is an expensive instrument (which

91
does many things besides) that indicates the qualitative and quantitative results needed to
investigate electrostatics thoroughly. In addition to indicating that there is some charge on
a body, it actually tells what kind of charge (+ or -) and the amount. It is nearly 1000
times more sensitive than a standard gold-leaf electroscope and can measure charges as low
as 10−11 coulombs.

As just mentioned, the electrometer is very expensive and is very sensitive. It can be damaged
easily if certain precautions are not followed. Examine the electrometer. You can GROUND
it by attaching a wire to the gas pipe at the lab station. This should be done for you already.
If not, please check with your instructor before continuing.

In investigating electrostatics you will use the FARADAY ICE PAIL (Figure 11.1). It works
on the principle that a charge placed inside a conducting surface will induce an equal charge
on the outside of that surface. For example, if we suspended a charged sphere inside a
closed canister a charge equal to that on the sphere would appear on the outside of the can.
Charge is still conserved, but the charge has migrated over the surface of the can to produce
differing distributions of charge. For example, if one inserted a (+) charged sphere in the
can, electrons or (-) charged particles would be attracted to the inside of the can leaving
a positive charge on the outside of the can. The actual distribution has changed, but not
necessarily the total quantity of charge. This allows you to measure charge by INDUCTION.

Figure 11.1: Faraday Ice Pail

The ice-pail is a wire mesh about 10cm in diameter mounted on an insulated support. To
eliminate the problem of stray charges a wire mesh shield is placed around the pail. It will
be grounded and should prevent stray charges from producing erroneous readings.

92
Faraday’s Ice Pail Experiment

1. Faraday started with a neutral metal ice pail (metal bucket) and an uncharged electro-
scope.

2. He then suspended a positively charged metal ball into the ice pail, being careful to not
touch the sides of the pail. The leaves of the electroscope diverged. Moreover, their degree
of divergence was independent of the metal ball’s exact location. Only when the metal ball
was completely withdrawn did the leaves collapse back to their original position.

3. Faraday noticed that if the metal ball was allowed to contact the inside surface of the ice
pail, the leaves of the electroscope remained diverged.

4. Afterwards, when he completely removed the ball from the inside of the ice pail, the
leaves remained diverged.However, the metal ball was no longer charged. Since the leaves of
the electroscope that was attached to the OUTSIDE of the pail did not move when the ball
touched the inside of the pail, he concluded that the inner surface had just enough charge
to neutralize the ball.

What major conclusions can be drawn from Faraday’s Ice Pail experiment?

1. A charged metal object suspended inside a neutral metal container INDUCES an equal
but opposite charge on the inside of the container.

2. When the charged metal object is touched to the inside of the of the container, the
induced charge exactly neutralizes the excess charge on the object.

3. When a charged object is placed within a metal container, an equal charge of the same
sign is FORCED to the outer surface of the container.

4. All of the charge on any metal object resides on its outer surface if a conducting path is
provided so that the charge can move there. Remember that charges will flow between two
positions as long as there is a potential difference between those positions. When the voltage
has been equalized, all charges will cease to flow.

An important consequence of this experiment is that electric fields can be shielded that is,
the outside of a conductor acts as a FARADAY CAGE. This is why you are safe inside your
car or on an airplane during a lightning storm as well as why the man inside the cage is
safe from the electric discharges filling the air. Electrical shielding is easily accomplished by
surrounding the surface that you wish to shield with a conducting surface. The free charges
on the conducting surface will arrange themselves in such a way as to insure that the electric
field within the conductor equals zero. That is the reason why electrical components come
in metal boxes, to shield them from outside electrical activity.

This principle of electrical shielding is an important distinction between electric fields and
gravitational fields. Since there are two types of electric charges, electric fields can be shielded.

93
However, gravitational fields CANNOT be shielded. That is, the effects of gravitational
attraction between two objects can be felt through any intervening matter.

Investigating the variations of charge density (or charge distributions) involves sampling the
charge on a surface with a proof plane, inserting it into the Faraday Ice Pail, and observing
the relative charges recorded on the meter. Not all surfaces have a uniform charge density
on them.

It is wise to touch the conductive spheres (Figure 11.2) with the flat side of the proof plane
to get an accurate indication of the charge distribution. It is also recommended that the
proof plane not be grounded between samplings or the charge will be depleted. In this case
the charge will be conserved.

Figure 11.2: Conductive Spheres

Conductive Spheres are convenient objects upon which to store electrical charges. The
spheres are 13cm in diameter and made of nickel-plated ABS plastic. They are mounted
on insulating rods that are made of clear polycarbonate (about 1014 Ω) and attach to a
support base. Each sphere contains a thumbscrew terminal on the lower half of the sphere
for attaching a ground cable or a lead from a power supply.

When handling the conductive spheres, take care to keep each sphere and insulating rod free
of dirt, grease and fingerprints to minimize leakage of charge from the spheres.

The Charge Producers

The charge producers (Figure 11.3) consists of two wands, one with blue and one with white
material attached to a conductive disk. Briskly rub the blue and white surfaces of the two
charge producers together. The disk with the white surface will acquire a positive charge;
the disk with the blue surface will acquire a negative charge. Rub the white surface of the
one charge producer against the proof plane. The white disk will acquire a negative charge,
while the other disk will acquire a positive charge.

94
Figure 11.3: The Charge Producers

• If a zero charge is desirable, discharge the charge producers by touching the conductive disk
and handle to ground. To be sure the disk and handle is fully discharged, gently breathe on
the non conductive neck. The moisture from your breath will help remove any stray charge.

• Avoid touching the neck during normal use. The oils from your hands will provide a path
for charges to leak off. Occasionally clean the disk surfaces and the neck with alcohol.

• When you first use the charge producers, or just after cleaning, they may not produce
charges readily. Rub the white surface vigorously on the conductive proof plane disk.

The Proof Plane

The proof plane is conductive disk attached to insulated handle. It is used to sample the
charge density on charged conductive surfaces. By touching the proof plane to a surface, it
will acquire the same charge distribution as the surface. By measuring the charge on the
proof plane, the charge density on the surface can be determined. The greater the charge on
the proof plane, the greater the charge density on the surface where the proof plane made
contact.

When the proof plane is touched to a conductor, the proof plane becomes part of the con-
ductive surface. If the effect on the shape of the surface is significant, the sampling of the
charge density will not be accurate. Therefore, always touch the proof plane to the con-
ductor in such a way as to minimize the distortion of the conductive surface. The following
illustration shows the recommended method for using the proof plane to sample the charge
on a conductive sphere. (Figure 11.4)
To accurately sample charge density, the conductor should be considerably larger than the
disk of the proof plane and have a relatively large radius of curvature at the point from
which the sample is taken. However, the proof planes can be used to test for charge polarity
on conductors of any shape.

95
Figure 11.4:

Equipments
1 Electrometer with cables
1 Faraday Ice Pail with shield
1 White faced charge producer
1 Blue faced charge producer
1 Proof plane
2 Conductive spheres

Part I: Measuring Charge by Induction

Procedure

1. First set the Electrometer as follows:

a. Connect the GROUND wire to a pipe at the lab table.

b. Set the ON/OFF switch to OFF.
c. Check that the meter reads zero. If not, turn the mechanical zero adjust screw.
d. Set the range switch to the desired voltage range.
e. Connect the BNC coaxial cable with two clips to the INPUT.

2. Connect the Red wire to the pail and the Black wire to the shield (Figure 11.5).

3. Ground the charge producers by touching them to the pipe. The ”pail” and shield will
be grounded when you momentarily depress the Zero button to CHECK position.

4. Turn the Electrometer ON and Zero the needle. If you have trouble, ask your instructor
for help. You are ready to measure charge!

96
Figure 11.5: Experiment Setup

5. Rub the two charge producers together to create a charge on them and insert one of
them into the ice pail, but DO NOT allow the wand to TOUCH the pail. Record the
electrometer reading (Magnitude and Direction.) A charge is INDUCED on the inside pail
that is equal but opposite to that on the charge producer. Keep this is mind as you make
all measurements. The charge on the wand is proportional to the voltage reading of the
electrometer. The exact values must be calculated through capacitance equations. That is
not necessary at this point. The relative magnitudes and polarity are all that is needed in
this experiment.

6. Remove the object from the pail and again record the electrometer reading.

Part II: Measuring Charge by Contact

Procedure

7. Reinsert the object, TOUCH it to the pail, and now remove it. Record the electrometer
reading. Explain this phenomena in terms of how the process works.

8. Momentarily ground the ice-pail (hit the CHECK switch) and touch the object to the ice
pail and note the electrometer reading. Does any charge remain on the object?

9. What can you conclude about the induced charge on the ice pail as compared to the
charge on the object?

10. GROUND the charge producers.

11. Insert the charge producers into the pail and rub them together inside the pail. Note
the reading.

12. Remove one charge producer and note the reading.

13. Replace it and remove the other. Note the reading.

97
14. GROUND the charge producers again. Repeat steps 11-13 with the white charge pro-
ducer and the proof plane.

15. Do the same with the blue charge producer and the proof plane.

16. Construct a list of these 3 materials such that if a material lower on the list is rubbed
with a material higher on the list, the higher material is always positive. This list is called an
Electrostatic Series, i.e. order these 3 materials. You are determining which kind of material
is more or less receptive (and in what direction) to the transfer of electrons.

Part III: Investigating Charge Density

Procedure

1. Place the two conductive spheres perhaps 50cm apart. Connect one to the GREEN
terminal of the power supply and set the power supply to 1000 VDC. Connect the ground
terminal of the power supply to ground. The sphere at 1000 VDC will provide a charging
body.

2. The second sphere should be momentarily grounded to remove all charges. This is done
by touching it to the GROUND pipe. Sample and record the charge density at several points
on this (second) sphere. Give some thought as to what areas should be sampled.

3. Place the 1000 VDC sphere about 1 cm from the second sphere. Again, sample and record
the charge distribution as before.

4. GROUND the second sphere.

5. Move the 1000 VDC sphere as in step 1 above, say 50cm from the second sphere. Sample
and record as before.

6. What produced the charge distributions at each step of the experiment? Did any charge
remain on the second sphere even after it was grounded? Why?

98
Chapter 12

COULOMB’S LAW

Purpose
Verifying the electrostatic force-distance relationship, and the electrostatic force-charge re-
lationship and also determining the Coulomb constant.

Introduction
Let two charged particles (also called point charges) have magnitudes q1 and q2 and be
separated by a distance r. The electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between them
has the magnitude
q1 q2
F =k
r2

in which k is a constant. Each particle exerts a force of this magnitude on the other particle;
the two forces form a third-law force pair. If the particles repel each other, the force on each
particle is directed away from the other particle. If the particles attract each other, the force
on each particle is directed toward the other particle.

The Coulomb Balance (Figure 12.1) is a delicate torsion balance that can be used to in-
vestigate the force between charged objects. A conductive sphere is mounted on a rod,
counterbalanced, and suspended from a thin torsion wire. An identical sphere is mounted
on a slide assembly so it can be positioned at various distances from the suspended sphere.
To perform the experiment, both spheres are charged, and the sphere on the slide assembly
is placed at fixed distances from the equilibrium position of the suspended sphere. The
electrostatic force between the spheres causes the torsion wire to twist. The experimenter
then twists the torsion wire to bring the balance back to its equilibrium position. The an-
gle through which the torsion wire must be twisted to reestablish equilibrium is directly
proportional to the electrostatic force between the spheres.

The torsion balance gives a direct and reasonably accurate measurement of the Coulomb
force. The most accurate determinations of Coulomb’s law, however, are indirect. It can

99
Figure 12.1: The Coulomb Balance

be shown mathematically that if the inverse square law holds for the electrostatic force, the
electric field inside a uniformly charged sphere must be everywhere zero. Measurements of
the field inside a charged sphere have shown this to be true with remarkable accuracy. The
Coulomb force can be expressed by the formula:
q1 q2
F =k
r 2+n
Using this indirect method, it has been demonstrated experimentally that n = 2x10−16 .

Tips For Accurate Results

• Perform the experiment during the time of year when humidity is lowest.

• Perform the experiment in a draft-free room.

• The table on which you set up the experiment should be made of an insulating material
(wood, masonite, plastic, etc). If a metal table is used, image charges will arise in the table
that will significantly affect the results. (This is also true for insulating materials, but the
effect is significantly reduced.)

• Position the torsion balance at least two feet away from walls or other objects which could
be charged or have a charge induced on them.

• When performing experiments, stand directly behind the balance and at a maximum
comfortable distance from it. This will minimize the effects of static charges that may
collect on clothing.

• Avoid wearing synthetic fabrics, because they tend to acquire large static charges. Short
sleeve cotton clothes are best, and a grounding wire connected to the experimenter is helpful.

• Use a stable, regulated kilovolt power supply to charge the spheres. This will help ensure
a constant charge throughout an experiment.

100
When charging the spheres, turn the power supply on, charge the spheres, then immediately
turn the supply off. The high voltage at the terminals of the supply can cause leakage
currents which will affect the torsion balance. A supply with a momentary “power on”
button is ideal.

• When charging the spheres, hold the charging probe near the end of the handle, so your
hand is as far from the sphere as possible. If your hand is too close to the sphere, it will have
a capacitive effect, increasing the charge on the sphere for a given voltage. This effect should
be minimized so the charge on the spheres can be accurately reproduced when recharging
during the experiment.

• Surface contamination on the rods that support the charged spheres can cause charge
leakage. To prevent this, avoid handling these parts as much as possible.

• There will always be some charge leakage. Perform measurements as quickly as possible
after charging, to minimize the leakage effects.

• Recharge the spheres before each measurement.

Corrections to the Data

The reason for the deviation from the inverse square relationship at short distances is that
the charged spheres are not simply point charges. A charged conductive sphere, if it is
isolated from other electrostatic influences, acts as a point charge. The charges distribute
themselves evenly on the surface of the sphere, so that the center of the charge distribution
is just at the center of the sphere.

However, when two charged spheres are separated by a distance that is not large compared
to the size of the spheres, the charges will redistribute themselves on the spheres so as to
minimize the electrostatic energy. The force between the spheres will therefore be less than
it would be if the charged spheres were actual point charges. A correction factor B, can be
used to correct for this deviation.

a3
B =1−4
r3

where a equals the radius of the spheres and r is the separation between spheres.

Equipments
The Coulomb Balance Set
A kilovolt Power Supply

101
Part I: Force versus Distance

Procedure

1. Be sure the spheres are fully discharged (touch them with a grounded probe) and move
the sliding sphere as far as possible from the suspended sphere. Set the torsion dial to 0o C.
Zero the torsion balance by appropriately rotating the bottom torsion wire retainer until the
pendulum assembly is at its zero displacement position as indicated by the index marks.

2. With the spheres still at maximum separation, charge both the spheres to a potential of
5 − 6kV , using the charging probe. (One terminal of the power supply should be grounded.)
Immediately after charging the spheres, turn the power supply off to avoid high voltage
leakage effects.

3. Position the sliding sphere at a position of 20cm. Adjust the torsion knob as necessary to
balance the forces and bring the pendulum back to the zero position. Record the distance
r and the angle θ in Table 12.1. Repeat this measurement third times until your result is
repeatable to within ±1 degree and record all your results.

4. Repeat Step 3 for 14, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6 and 5cm.

Part II: Force Versus Charge

The capacitance of an isolated conductive sphere is given by the equation:

C = 4πǫo a

where C is the capacitance, ǫo = 8.85x10−12 F/m, and a is the radius of the sphere which
is 19mm. For a capacitor, charge q and charging potential V are related by the equation:
q = CV . You can use this equation to determine the charge on the spheres from your
applied charging potential. This is the simplest method for determining the charge on the
spheres. Unfortunately, the conducting spheres of the Coulomb Balance are not isolated in
this application, so the measured values of q will be only approximate.

Note: A capacitor normally consists of two conductors. The charge on one conductor is +q
and the charge on the other is −q. V is the potential difference between the two conductors.
For an isolated sphere with a charge +q, the second conductor is a hypothetical plane at
ground potential and with charge −q, located at a distance infinitely far from the sphere.

Procedure

With the sphere separation r held at a constant value (choose a value between 7 and 10 cm),
charge the spheres and measure the resulting angle. Record your data in Table 12.2. Keep
the charge on one sphere constant, and vary the charge on the other (When charging the
spheres, they should always be at their maximum separation).

102
Part III: The Coulomb Constant

In previous parts of this lab, you determined (if all went well) that the electrostatic force
between two point charges is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the
charges and directly proportional to the charge on each sphere. This relationship is stated
mathematically in Coulomb’s Law:
q1 q2
F =k
r2

where F is the electrostatic force, q1 and q2 are the charges, and r is the distance between the
charges. In order to complete the equation, you need to determine the value of the Coulomb
constant, k. To accomplish this, you must measure three additional variables; the torsion
constant of the torsion wire (K), so you can convert your torsion angles into measurements
of force and the charges, q1 and q2 . Then, knowing F , q1 , q2 and r, you can plug these values
into the Coulomb equation to determine k.

Measuring the Torsion constant, K

A torsion constant for a wire usually expresses the torque required to twist the wire a
unit angle, and is normally expressed in newton meters per degree. However, when using
the torsion balance, the torque arm is always the same (the distance from the center of
the conductive sphere to the torsion wire), so the torsion constant for the balance is more
conveniently expressed in newtons per degree.

Figure 12.2: Calibrating the Torsion Balance

103
Procedure

1. Carefully turn the Torsion Balance on its side, supporting it with the lateral support bar,
as shown in Figure 12.2. Place the support tube under the sphere.

2. Zero the torsion balance by rotating the torsion dial until the index lines are aligned.
Record the angle of the degree plate in Table 12.3.

3. Carefully place the 20mg mass on the center line of the conductive sphere.

4. Turn the degree knob as required to bring the index lines back into alignment. Read the
torsion angle on the degree scale. Record the angle in Table 12.3.

5. Repeat steps 3 and 4, using the two 20mg masses and the 50mg mass to apply each of
the masses shown in the table. Each time record the mass and the torsion angle.

104
REPORT SHEET

EXPERIMENT 12: COULOMB’S LAW

Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:
Group Member Name(s):
Laboratory Bench Number:
Assistant’s Name and Signature:

Data and Calculations

Part I: Force versus Distance

Table 12.1

Vcharging potential = ....................

r(cm) θ1 θ2 θ3 θ (θavg ) B θcorrected r 2 (cm2 )

In this part of the experiment, we are assuming that force is proportional to the torsion
angle. Determine the functional relationship between the force, which is proportional to the
torsion angle θ and the distance r. This can be done in the following ways:

1. Plot logθ versus logr.

Explanation: If θ = br n , where b and n are unknown constants, then logθ = nlogr + logb.
The graph of logθ versus logr will therefore be a straight line. Its slope will be equal to
n and its y intercept will be equal to logb. Therefore, if the graph is a straight line, the
function is determined.

2. Plot θ versus r 2

Either of these methods will demonstrate that, for relatively large values of r, the force is
proportional to 1/r 2 . For small values of r, however, this relationship does not hold.

105
To Correct Your Data:

1. Calculate the correction factor B for each of the separations r that you used. Record
your results in Table 12.1.

2. Multiply each of your collected values of θ by 1/B and record your results as θcorrected.

3. Reconstruct your graphs relating force and separation, but this time use θcorrected instead
of θ. Make corrected your new plot on the same graph as your original plot.

Question

How does the correction factor affect your results?

Part II: Force versus Charge

Table 12.2

V1 , charging potential for the one sphere.

V2 , charging potential for the other sphere.

Capacitance of the spheres, C=............................

r = .....................

V1 (kV ) V2 (kV ) θ q1 (C) q2 (C)

Graph angle versus multiply of charges to determine the relationship.

106
Part III: The Coulomb Constant

Measuring the Torsion Constant, K

Table 12.3

m (mg) θ mg (N) mg/θ (K) (N/degree)

20
40
50
70

Complete the table as follows to determine the torsion constant for the wire:

a. Calculate the weight for each set of masses that you used.

b. Divide the weight by the torsion angle to determine the torsion constant at each weight.

c. Average your measured torsion constants to determine the torsion constant for the wire.
Use the variance in your measured values as an indication of the accuracy of your measure-
ment.

K = Kavg =...........................

Calculations for the Coulomb Constant

The Coulomb constant can now be determined by using any data pair from your force versus
distance data. Fill in the Table 12.4.

Table 12.4

Charging potential, V1 = V2 =...........................

r (cm) θ B θcorrected F (N) q1 (C) q2 (C) k (Nm2 /C 2 )

1. Convert your torsion angle measurement (θcorrected ) to a force measurement, using your
measured torsion constant for the torsion wire: F = Kθcorrected .

2. Determine the charge that was on the sphere using the equation q = CV .

107
q1 q2
3. Plug your collected data into the Coulomb equation, F = k 2 to determine the value
r
of k. Do this for several sets of data. Average your results to determine a value for k.

k = kavg =...........................

108
Chapter 13

EQUIPOTENTIAL AND ELECTRIC

FIELD LINES

Purpose
To plot the equipotential lines in the space between a pair of charged electrodes and relate
the electric field to these lines.

Introduction
The electric field is a vector field; it consists of a distribution of vectors, one for each point
in the region around a charged object. In principle, we can define the electric field at some
point near the charged object as follows: We first place a positive charge qo , called a test
charge, at the point. We then measure the electrostatic force F~ that acts on the test charge.
Finally, we define the electric field E~ at this point due to the charged object as

~
~ = F
E
qo

Thus, the magnitude of the elctric field E ~ at this point is E = F/qo , and the direction of E ~
is that of the force F~ that acts on the positive test charge. To define the electric fi eld within
some region, we must similarly define it at all points in the region.

Although we use a positive test charge to define the electric field of a charged object, that
field exists independently of the test charge. We assume that in our defining procedure, the
presence of the test charge does not affect the charge distribution on the charged object, and
thus does not alter the electric field we are defining.

Michael Faraday, who introduced the idea of electric fields in the 19th century, thought of
the space around a charged body as filled with lines of force. Although we no longer attach
much reality to these lines, now usually called electric field lines, they still provide a nice
way to visualize patterns in electric fields.

109
The relation between the field lines and electric field vectors is this:

(1) At any point, the direction of a straight field line or the direction of the tangent to a
~ at that point, and
curved field line gives the direction of E

(2) The field lines are drawn so that the number of lines per unit area, measured in a plane
~
that is perpendicular to the lines, is proportional to magnitude of E.

This second relation means that where the field lines are close together, E is large and where
they are far apart, E is small.

Figure 13.1:

Figure 13.1 shows the field lines for two equal positive charges and the pattern for two charges
that are equal in magnitude but of opposite sign, a configuration that we call an electric
dipole.

Another useful concept that is introduced along with the electric field is the ”electrostatic
potential energy”. The electrostatic potential energy of a test charge qo placed at point A,
in the vicinity of a charge distribution, i.e. in the electric field of the charge distribution,
is defined as the work done to bring that charge from infinity to the point A. As is the
case with the gravitational field, one is usually interested in the potential energy difference
between two points rather than the absolute value of the potential energy at that point. The
electrostatic potential energy difference between any two points A and B, say, in the vicinity
of a charge distribution is defined as the work done to move a charge from A to B.

△U = UB − UA = WAB

where WAB is the work done to move q from A to B. The ”electrostatic potential” is the
electrostatic potential energy per unit charge. So as the electrostatic potential difference or
simply the potential difference △V between the points A and B will be just the electrostatic
potential energy difference per unit charge between A and B,

WAB
△V = VB − VA =
qo

110
Note that electric potential is a scalar, not a vector.

Adjacent points that have the same electric potential form an equipotential surface, which
can be either an imaginary surface or a real, physical surface. No net work is done on a
charged particle by an electric field when the particle moves between two points on the same
equipotential surface.

From symmetry, the equipotential surfaces produced by a point charge or a spherically

symmetrical charge distribution are a family of concentric spheres. For a uniform electric
field, the surfaces are a family of planes perpendicular to the field lines. In fact, Equipotential
surfaces are always perpendicular to electric field lines and thus to E,~ which is always tangent
to these lines. If E ~ were not perpendicular to an equipotential surface, it would have a
component lying along that surface. This component would then do work on a charged
particle as it moved along the surface.

Figure 13.2:

Figure 13.2 shows electric field lines and cross sections of the equipotential surfaces for a
uniform electric field and for the field associated with a point charge and with an electric
dipole.

Equipments
The Field Mapper Kit
Low Voltage AC/DC Power Supply
Digital Multimeter

Procedure
1. Connect the electrodes to a DC power supply as in Figure 13.3.
2. Apply a voltage of 5 − 20V to the electrodes.

111
Figure 13.3: Connections of the Electrodes to a DC Power Supply

3. Equipotentials are plotted by connecting one lead of the voltmeter (the ground) to one
of the electrode. This electrode now becomes the reference. The other voltmeter lead (the
probe) is used to measure the potential at any point on the paper simply by touching the
probe to the paper at that point.

To map an equipotential line, move the probe until the desired potential is indicated on
the voltmeter. Mark the paper at this point with a soft lead pencil. Continue to move the
probe, but only in a direction which maintains the voltmeter at the same reading. Continue
to mark these points. Connecting the points produces an equipotential line.

4. To plot electric field lines, neither lead of the voltmeter is connected to an electrode.
Instead, the two leads of the voltmeter will be placed on the conductive paper side-by-side
at a set distance of separation (one centimeter is a useful separation to use). It is best to
tape the two leads of the voltmeter together for this procedure. The technique is to use
the voltmeter leads to find the direction from an electrode that follows the path of greatest
potential difference from point to point.

Do not attempt to make measurements by placing the leads on the grid marks on the
conductive paper. Touch the voltmeter leads only on the solid black areas of the paper. It
may be necessary to use a higher voltmeter sensitivity for this measurement than was used
in measuring equipotentials.

To plot the field lines on the conductive paper, place the voltmeter lead connected to ground
near one of the electrodes. Place the other voltmeter lead on the paper and note the voltmeter
reading. Now pivot the lead to several new positions while keeping the ground lead stationary.
Note the voltmeter readings as you touch the lead at each new spot on the paper. When
the potential is the highest, draw an arrow on the paper from the ground lead to the other
lead by using a light-colored pencil (Figure 13.4). Then move the ground lead to the tip
(head) of the arrow. Repeat the action of pivoting and touching with the front lead until
the potential reading in a given direction is highest. Draw a new arrow. Repeat the action

112
of putting the ground lead at the tip (head) of each new arrow and finding the direction in
which the potential difference is highest.

Eventually, the arrows drawn in this manner will form a field line. Return to the electrode
and select a new point at which to place the voltmeter’s ground lead. Again probe with the
other lead until the direction of highest potential difference is found. Draw an arrow from
the ground lead to the other lead, and repeat the process until a new field line is drawn.
Continue selecting new points and drawing field lines around the original electrode.

Figure 13.4: Plotting the field lines

The followings are only some suggested experiments in mapping equipotentials and field
gradient using the Field Mapper.

113
a

114
REPORT SHEET

EXPERIMENT 13: EQUIPOTENTIAL AND ELECTRIC FIELD LINES

Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:
Group Member Name(s):
Laboratory Bench Number:
Assistant’s Name and Signature:

Parallel Plate Capacitor

Figure 13.5: Parallel Plate Capacitor

Plot the equipotential and the electric field lines.

1. What is the field outside the capacitor plates?

2. How does the ratio of the plate length (l) versus separation (d) affect the fringing effect
at the edges of the plates?

3. What redesign of the plates, or perhaps extra electrodes, could help eliminate the fringing
effect?

115
Circular Source in Paralel Plate Capacitor

Figure 13.6: Circular Source in Paralel Plate Capacitor

Plot the equipotential and the electric field lines.

1. How does the circular electrode distort the field?

2. What is the potential of the circular electrode? Of the area inside the electrode?

Point Charges

Figure 13.7: Point Charges

Plot the equipotential and the electric field lines.

1. Where is the electric field most nearly uniform?

2. What is the central equipotential shape?

3. What is the equipotential shape close to ”point” electrode?

116
Plot the equipotential and the electric field lines for the following electrode combinations.

Figure 13.8: Line and Sharp Point

Figure 13.9: Line and Point Source

117
Figure 13.10: Line and Circular Source

Questions
1. What is the relation between the direction of a maximum value field gradient and equipo-
tential line at the same point? (A geometrical relation is desired.)

2. What effect does the finite size of the black paper have on the field?

3. What distortion of the field is produced by the large electrode around the perimeter of
the paper?

118
Chapter 14

BASIC ELECTRICITY

Purpose
To become familiar with the Circuits Experiment Board. To learn how to construct a
complete electrical circuit and represent electrical circuits with circuit diagrams.

Introduction
The Electric Circuit

In its simplest form, an electric circuit consists basically of a source, a load and a current
path. The source can be a battery or any other type of energy source that produces voltage.
The load can be a simple resistor or any other type of electrical device or more complex
circuit. The current path is the conductors connecting the source to the load.

Figure 14.1: A simple electrical circuit

A closed circuit is one in which the current has a complete path. An open circuit is one in
which the current path is broken and the current cannot flow. An open circuit represents an

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infinitely large resistance. A switch is the device commonly used to open or close a circuit.
An open circuit sometimes is a result of the failure of a component in a circuit, such as a
burned-out resistor or lamp bulb.

Figure 14.2: Closed and open circuits

A short circuit is a near-zero resistance path and occurs when two points accidentally become
connected, and current flows through the shorted contact. A short across a component such
as a resistor will cause all of the current to flow through the short, bypassing the resistor.

Figure 14.3: Short circuit

Protective Devices and Switches

Protective devices are used in electrical and electronic circuits to protect the circuit from
damage due to overcurrent, to prevent fire hazards due to excessive current and to protect
personel from shock hazards.

Fuses are used to protect an electrical circuit or an electronic instrument from excessive
current. There are several types of fuses, each with various current ratings. The current
rating is the maximum amount of current that the fuse can carry without opening. If the
current exceeds this amount, the fuse will blow and cause an open that stops the current.

120
Two types of fuses are found in power applications such as residential wiring: the plug type
and the cartridge type.

In power applications such as commercial, industrial and residental wiring, circuit breakers
are replacing fuses in new installations. A circuit breaker can be reset and reused repeatedly,
an advantage over fuses, which must be replaced when they go out. Circuit breakers are also
commonly used in electronic equipment. There are two types of circuit breakers: magnetic
and thermal.

Switches are used to turn current on or off in a circuit. There are several types of switches.

Current

Electrical current is the net movement of electrical charge from one point to another in a
conductive material. In other words, current is the rate of flow of electrical charge in a
conductor. Electrical charge is symbolized by the letter Q, current by the letter I. Since
current is the rate of charge flow, it can be stated as follows:

Q
I=
t

Current is measured in a unit called the ampere, abbreviated by the letter A. One ampere
is the amount of current flowing in a conductor when one coulomb of charge moves past a
given point in one second.

Voltage

Normally, in a conductive material such as copper wire, the free electrons are in random
motion and have no net direction. In order to produce current, the free electrons must
move in the same general direction. To produce motion in a given direction, energy must be
imparted to the electrons. This energy comes from a voltage source connected to a conductor.
The battery is a typical energy source that provides voltage. Keep in mind that you must
have voltage in order to have current.

Voltage represents the energy required to moves a certain amount of charge from one point
to another. Voltage is also known as eletromotive force (emf) or potential difference.

ε
V =
Q

Voltage is measured in a unit called the volt, abbreviated V . One volt is the amount of
potential difference between two points when one joule of energy is used to move one coulomb
of charge from one point to the other.

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Resistance

Resistance is the opposition to current. It is used in electric circuits to limit or control the
amount of current that flows. An electrical component having the property of resistance is
called a resistor. There are many types of resistors in common use, but generally they can
be placed in two main categories: fixed and variable.

Fixed resistors have ohmic values set by manufacturer and cannot be changed easily. Various
sizes and construction methods are used to control the heat-dissipating capabilities, the
resistance value and the precision. Fixed resistors with value tolerances of 2%, 5%, 10%,
20% are color coded with four bands to indicate the resistance value and the tolerance. This
color-code band system is shown in Figure 14.4.

Variable resistors are designed so that their resistance values can be changed easily with a
manual or an automatic adjustment. Two basic types of manually adjustable resistors are
the potentiometer and the rheostat.

Figure 14.4: Coding of a Resistor

The resistance of a resistor can be determined by the color bands printed on the resistor
according to the following rule:

R = (f irst color number)(second color number) x 10(third color number)

Ω

Resistors in Series

Resistors in series are connected end-to-end. A series connection provides only one path for
current between two points in a circuit so that the same current flows through each series
resistor. For any number of individual resistors connected in series, the total resistance is
the sum of each of the individual values:

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + ... + Rn

Resistors in Parallel

When two or more components are connected across the same voltage source, they are in
parallel. A parallel circuit provides more than one path for current. Each parallel path is

122
called a branch. When resistors are connected in parallel, the total resistance of the circuit
decreases. The total resistance of a parallel combination is always less than the value of
the smallest resistor. For any number of individual resistors connected in parallel, the total
resistance is as follows:
1
RT =
1 1 1 1
+ + + ... +
R1 R2 R3 Rn

Measurements

Current, voltage and resistance measurements are common in electrical work. Special types
of instruments are used to measure these quantities.

Current is measured with an ammeter connected in the current path by breaking the circuit
and inserting the meter. As you will learn later, such a connection is called a series connec-
tion. The positive side of the meter is connected toward the positive terminal of the voltage
source.

Figure 14.5: Current measurement with an ammeter

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Voltage is measured with a voltmeter connected across the component. Again as you will
learn later, such a connection is called parallel connection. The positive side of the meter
must be connected toward the positive terminal of the voltage source.

Figure 14.6: Voltage measurement with a voltmeter

Resistance is measured with an ohmmeter connected across the resistor. The resistor must
be removed from the circuit or disconnected from the voltage source in some way. Failure
to disconnect the voltage source will result in damage to the ohmmeter.

Figure 14.7: Resistance measurement with an ohmmeter

The Circuits Experiment Board (Figure 14.8),which you will use in this experiment, is de-
signed to implement a large variety of basic electrical circuits for experimentation.

Ohm’s Law

Ohm discovered that when the voltage across a resistor changes, the current through the
resistor changes. He expressed this as I = V /R (current is directly proportional to voltage
and inversely proportional to resistance). In other words, as the voltage increases, so does
the current. The proportionality constant is the value of the resistance. The current is
inversely proportional to the resistance. As the resistance increases, the current decreases.

If the voltage across an ”Ohmic” resistor is increased, the graph of voltage versus current
shows a straight line (if the resistance remains constant). The slope of the line is the value

124
Figure 14.8: Circuits Experiment Board

of the resistance. However, if the resistance changes (that is, if the resistor is ”non-Ohmic”),
the graph of voltage versus current will not be a straight line. Instead, it will show a curve
with a changing slope.

Kirchhoff ’s Rules

Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that the sum of all the voltages around a closed path is zero.
In other words, the sum of the voltage drops equals the total source voltage (Figure 14.9).
The general form of Kirchhoff’s voltage law is

Vs1 + Vs2 + ... + Vsn = V1 + V2 + ... + Vn

Figure 14.9:

Kirchhoff’s current law states that the sum of the currents into a junction is equal to the
sum of the currents out of that junction. A junction is any point in a circuit where two
or more circuit paths come together. In a parallel circuit, a junction is where the parallel
branches connect together. Another way to state Kirchhoff’s current law is to say that the
total current into a junction is equal to the total current out of that junction (Figure 14.10).
The general formula for Kirchhoff’s current law is

Iin(1) + Iin(2) + ... + Iin(n) = Iout(1) + Iout(2) + ... + Iout(m)

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Figure 14.10:

Part I: Resistances in Circuits

Procedure

1. Choose five resistors having different values. Enter those sets of colors in Table 14.1.

2. Determine the coded value of your resistors. Enter the value in the column labeled “Coded
Resistance”. Enter the tolerance value as indicated by the color of the fourth band under
“Tolerance.”

3. Use the Multimeter to measure the resistance of each of your five resistors. Enter these
values in the table.

4. Determine the percentage experimental error of each resistance value and enter it in the
appropriate column.

(Measured value − Coded value)

Experimental Error = x100
Coded value

Figure 14.11: Resistors in Series Circuit

126
5. Now connect the three resistors into the series circuit (Figure 14.11), using the spring
clips on the Circuits Experiment Board. Measure the resistances of the combinations as
indicated on the figure by connecting the leads of the Multimeter between the points at
the ends of the arrows. Record your values in Table 14.2. Compare these values with the
calculated values.

6. Construct a parallel circuit as in Figure 14.12. Measure the resistance values in Table
14.3 and record them. Compare with calculated values.

Figure 14.12: Resistors in Parallel Circuit

7. Now construct a combination circuit as in Figure 14.13. Measure and record the resistance
values shown in the figure. Record these values in Table 14.4 and compare with calculated
values.

Figure 14.13: Resistors in Combination Circuit

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Part II: Voltages in Circuits
Procedure

1. Connect the three resistors that you used before into the series circuit shown in Figure
14.14. Connect two wires to the Power Supply, carefully noting which wire is connected to
the negative terminal and which is connected to the positive.

2. Now use the voltage function on the Multimeter to measure the voltages across the
individual resistors and then across the combinations of resistors. Be careful to observe the
polarity of the leads (red is +, black is -). Record your readings in Table 14.5.

Figure 14.14: Voltage Measurements in Series Circuit

.
3. Now connect the parallel circuit (Figure 14.15), using three resistors. Measure the voltage
across each of the resistors and the combination, taking care with the polarity as before. Fill
in Table 14.6.

Figure 14.15: Voltage Measurements in Parallel Circuit

4. Now connect the combination circuit as shown in Figure 14.16. Measure the voltages in
the figure. Record them in Table 14.7 and compare with calculated values.

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Figure 14.16: Voltage Measurements in Combination Circuit

Part III: Currents in Circuits

Procedure

1. Connect the three resistors into the series circuit (Figure 14.17). Change the leads in your
Multimeter, so that it can be used to measure current. Be careful to observe the polarity
of the leads (red is +, black is -). Move the Multimeter to the positions, indicated in the
figure. Record your readings in Table 14.8 each time interrupting the circuit, and carefully
measuring the current.

Figure 14.17: Current Measurements in Series Circuit

2. Connect the parallel circuit shown in Figure 14.18. Review the instructions for connecting
the Multimeter as an ammeter. Connect it first between the positive terminal of the power
supply and the parallel circuit junction to measure Io . Then interrupt the various branches of
the parallel circuit and measure the individual branch currents. Record your measurements
in Table 14.9.

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Figure 14.18: Current Measurements in Parallel Circuit

Part IV: Ohm’s Law

Procedure

Ohmic Resistors

1. Choose one of the resistors that you have been given.

2. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 14.19.

Figure 14.19:

3. As the power supply is OFF, set the Multimeter to dc current range and connect it in
the circuit to read the current flowing through the resistor.

4. Open the power supply and set the voltage output to 2V.

5. Read the current and enter the value in Table 14.10.

6. Set the voltage output in turn to 4V, 6V, 8V, 10V and 12V, and record the current at
each step.

7. Now repeat the procedure with a different value of resistor connected in the circuit instead
of the previous one.

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Part V: Kirchhoff ’s Rules
Procedure

1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 14.20 using any of the resistors you have except the
10Ω one. Record the resistance values in Table 14.11. With no current flowing (the power
supply is off), measure the total resistance RT of the circuit between points A and B.

Figure 14.20: The Circuit for Kirchhoff’s Rules

2. With the circuit connected to the Power Supply and the current flowing, measure the
voltage across each of the resistors and record the values in the table. On the circuit diagram
in Figure 14.20, indicate which side of each of the resistors is positive relative to the other
end by placing a ”+” at that end.

3. Now measure the current through each of the resistors. Interrupt the circuit and place
the Multimeter in series to obtain your reading. Make sure you record each of the individual
currents, as well as the current flow into or out of the main part of the circuit, IT . Record
your data in Table 14.11.

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132
REPORT SHEET

EXPERIMENT 14: BASIC ELECTRICITY

Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:
Group Member Name(s):
Laboratory Bench Number:
Assistant’s Name and Signature:

Data and Calculations

Part I: Resistances in Circuits

Table 14.1

Colors 1 2 3 4 Coded R(Ω) Tolerance Measured R(Ω) %Error

R1
R2
R3
R4
R5

Table 14.2

R1 = ............ R2 = ............ R3 = ............

Measured Resistance, Ω Calculated Resistance, Ω

R12
R23
R123

Table 14.3

R1 = ............ R2 = ............ R3 = ............

Measured Resistance, Ω Calculated Resistance, Ω

R12
R23
R123

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Table 14.4

R1 = ............ R2 = ............ R3 = ............

Measured Resistance, Ω Calculated Resistance, Ω

R1
R23
R123

Questions

1. How does the % Error compare to the coded tolerance for your resistors?

2. What is the apparent rule for combining resistances in series circuits? In parallel circuits?
Cite evidence from your data to support your conclusions.

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Part II: Voltages in Circuits

Table 14.5

Vs = ............

R1 = ............ R2 = ............ R3 = ............

Measured value, V Calculated value, V

V1
V2
V3
V12
V23
V123

Table 14.6

Vs = ............

R1 = ............ R2 = ............ R3 = ............

Measured value, V Calculated value, V

V1
V2
V3
V12
V23
V123

Table 14.7

Vs = ............

R1 = ............ R2 = ............ R3 = ............

Measured value, V Calculated value, V

V1
V23
V123

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Questions

1. What is the pattern for how voltage gets distributed in a series circuit? Is there any
relationship between the size of the resistance and the size of the resulting voltage?

2. What is the pattern for how voltage distributes itself in a parallel circuit? Is there any
relationship between the size of the resistance and the size of the resulting voltage?

3. Do the voltages in your combination circuit follow the same rules as they did in your
circuits which were purely series or parallel? If not, state the rules you see in operation.

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Part III: Currents in Circuits

Table 14.8

Vs = ............

R1 = ............ R2 = ............ R3 = ............

Measured value, mA Calculated value, mA

Io
I1
I2
I3

Table 14.9

Vs = ............

R1 = ............ R2 = ............ R3 = ............

Measured value, mA Calculated value, mA

Io
I1
I2
I3
I4

Questions

1. What is the pattern for how current behaves in a series circuit? At this point you should
be able to summarize the behavior of all three quantities resistance, voltage and current in
series circuits.

137
2. What is the pattern for how current behaves in a parallel circuit? At this time you should
be able to write the general characteristics of currents, voltages and resistances in parallel
circuits.

Part IV: Ohm’s Law

Ohmic Resistors

Table 14.10

Voltage (V ) Current through R1 (mA) Current through R2 (mA)

2
4
6
8
10
12

Plot a graph of current against voltage for the readings obtained. Find the value of the
resistance.
From your graphs obtain the current that would flow trough the one of the resistors for an
applied voltage of 7V.

138
Part V: Kirchhoff ’s Rules

Table 14.11

Resistance, Ω Voltage, V Current, mA

R1 V1 I1
R2 V2 I2
R3 V3 I3
R4 V4 I4
R5 V5 I5
RT VT IT

1. Determine the net current flow into or out of each of the four ”nodes” in the circuit.

2. Determine the net voltage drop around at least three of the six or so closed loops.
Remember, if the potential goes up, treat the voltage drop as positive (+), while if the
potential goes down, treat it as negative (-).

3. Use your experimental results to analyze the circuit you built in terms of Kirchhoff’s
Rules. Be specific ans state the evidence for your conclusions.

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140
Chapter 15

CAPACITORS AND RC CIRCUITS

Purpose
Determining how capacitors behave in a RC circuit and experimentally obtaining the charg-
ing and discharging voltage curves for a capacitor. By using these curves, to determine time
constant value of a RC circuit.

Introduction
You can store energy as potential energy in an electric field, and a capacitor is a device you
can use to do exactly that. Capacitors have many uses in our electronic age beyond serving
as storehouses for potential energy. They can be many sizes and shapes. The basic elements
of any capacitor are two isolated conductors of any shape. No matter what their geometry,
flat or not, we call these conductors plates.

When a capacitor is charged, its plates have equal but opposite charges of +q and −q.
However, we refer to the charge of a capacitor as being q, the absolute value of these charges
on the plates. (Note that q is not the net charge on the capacitor, which is zero.)

Because the plates are conductors, they are equipotential surfaces; all points on a plate are
at the same electric potential. Moreover, there is a potential difference between the two
plates. For historical reasons, we represent the absolute value of this potential difference
with V .

The charge q and potential difference V for a capacitor are proportional to each other; that
is,

q = CV

The proportionality constant C is called the capacitance of the capacitor. Its value depends
only on the geometry of the plates and not on their charge or potential difference. The
capacitance is a measure of how much charge must be put on the plates to produce a certain

141
potential difference between them: The greater the capacitance, the more charge is required.

Capacitance is directly proportional to the physical size of the plates as determined by the
plate area, A. A larger plate area produces a larger capacitance. Capacitance is inversely
proportional to the distance between the plates. The plate separation is designated d. A
greater separation of the plates produces a smaller capacitance.

The insulating material between the plates of a capacitor is called the dielectric. Every
dielectric material has the ability to concentrate the lines of force of the electric field existing
between the oppositely charged plates of a capacitor and thus increase the capacity for energy
storage. The measure of a material’s ability to establish an electric field is called the dielectric
constant or relative permittivity, symbolized by ǫr . Capacitance is directly proportional to
the dielectric constant. An exact formula for calculating the capacitance in terms of these
three quantities is as follows:

Aǫr (8.85x10−12 F/m)

C=
d

The SI unit of capacitance is the coulomb per volt. This unit occurs so often that it is given
a special name, the farad (F).

Series Capacitors
When capacitors are connected in series, the effective plate separation increases, and the
total capacitance is less than that of the smallest capacitor. If n capacitors are in series in
a circuit, the total capacitance can be found as;

1
CT =
1 1 1 1
+ + + ... +
C1 C2 C3 Cn

Parallel Capacitors
When capacitors are connected in parallel, the effective plate area increases, and the total
capacitance is the sum of the individual capacitances. If n capacitors are in parallel in a
circuit, the total capacitance can be found as;

CT = C1 + C2 + C3 + ... + Cn

Charging a Capacitor

A capacitor charges when it is connected to a dc voltage source. As this charging process

continues, the voltage across the plates builds up rapidly until it is equal to the applied
voltage, Vs , but opposite in polarity. When the capacitor is fully charged, there is no current.
A capacitor blocks constant dc. When the charged capacitor is disconnected from the source,

142
it remains charged for long periods of time, depending on its leakage resistance, and can cause
severe electrical shock.

Discharging a Capacitor

When a wire is connected across a charged capacitor, the capacitor will discharge. In this
particular case, a very low resistance path (the wire) is connected across the capacitor. The
charge is neutralized when the numbers of free electrons on both plates are again equal. At
this time, the voltage across the capacitor is zero, and the capacitor is completely discharged.

Current during Charging and Discharging

Direction of the current during discharge is opposite to that of the charging current. It
is important to understand that there is no current through the dielectric of the capacitor
during charging or discharging, because the dielectric is an insulating material. Current
flows from one plate to the other only through the external circuit.

The RC Time Constant

In a practical situation, there cannot be capacitance without some resistance in a circuit. It

may simply be the small resistance of a wire, or it may be a designed-in resistance. Because
of this, the charging and discharging characteristics of a capacitor must always be considered
in light of the associated resistance. The resistance introduces the element of time in the
charging and discharging of a capacitor.

When a capacitor charges or discharges through a resistance, a certain time is required for
the capacitor to charge fully or discharge fully. The voltage across a capacitor cannot change
intantaneously, because a finite time is required to move charge from one point to another.
The rate at which the capacitor charges or discharges is determined by the time constant
of the circuit. The time constant of a series RC circuit is a time interval that equals the
product of the resistance and the capacitance. The time constant is symbolized by τ , and the
formula is as follows:

τ = RC

Recall that I = Q/t. The current depends on the amount of charge moved in a given
time. When the resistance is increased, the charging current is reduced, thus increasing the
charging time of the capacitor. When the capacitance is increased, the amount of charge
increases; thus, for the same current, more time is required to charge the capacitor.

The Charging and Discharging Curves

A capacitor charges and discharges following a nonlinear curve, as shown in Figure 15.1. In
these graphs, the percentage of full charge is shown at each time-constant interval. This

143
type of curve follows a precise mathematical formula and is called an exponential curve.
The charging curve is an increasing exponential, and the discharging curve is a decreasing
exponential. As you can see, it takes five time constants to aproximately reach the final
value.

Figure 15.1:

The general expressions for either increasing or decreasing exponential curves are given in
the following equations:

Vc (t) = Vs (1 − e−t/RC )

Vc (t) = Vi e−t/RC

Equipments
Circuits Experiment Board
Digital Multimeter
Power Supply
Capacitors (100µF , 330µF )
Resistors (100kΩ, 220kΩ)

Procedure
1. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 15.2 using a 100kΩ resistor and a 100µF capacitor.
Use one of the spring clips as a ”switch”. Keeping the switch at open position, turn on the
power supply and set its output voltage to 5V . Connect the Multimeter to the circuit which
reads the voltage across the capacitor.

2. Start with no voltage on the capacitor. If there is a remaining voltage on the capacitor,
use a piece of wire to ”short” the two leads together, draining any remaining charge.

144
Figure 15.2:

3. Now close the ”switch” by touching the wire to the spring clip and start the stopwatch.
Observe the capacitor voltage in every five seconds until the voltage increases to a value of
5V . Record your data in Table 15.1.

4. If you now open the ”switch” by removing the wire from the spring clip, the capacitor
should remain at its present voltage with a very slow drop over time. This indicates that
the charge you placed on the capacitor has no way to move back to neutralize the excess
charges on the two plates.

Figure 15.3:

5. Now, you will discharge the capacitor that you charged above, allowing the charge to
drain back through the resistor. Observe the voltage readings on the Multimeter as the
charge flows back and record them in Table 15.1.

6. Now, do the same procedure for the following circuits; recording the time taken to move
from 0.0V to the %63 of the power supply output voltage (which is 3.2V ) while charging.

145
This time is the ”time constant” (τ ) of the circuit measured experimentally. Record your
times along with the resistance and capacitance values in Table 15.2.

Calculate the time constants of the circuits and record them in the table. Compare with the
experimental values.

• Replace the 100µF capacitor with a 330µF capacitor.

• Return to the original 100µF capacitor, but put a 220kΩ resistor in the circuit.

• Repeat the procedure 220kΩ resistor with a 330µF capacitor.

• Return to the original 100kΩ resistor, but use the 100µF capacitor in series with the 330µF
capacitor (Figure 15.3).

• Repeat the procedure with the 100µF and the 330µF capacitors are in parallel (Figure
15.4).

• Now repeat the procedure with the 220kΩ resistor and the capacitors as they are in series
and parallel in the circuit.

Figure 15.4:

146
REPORT SHEET

EXPERIMENT 15: CAPACITORS AND RC CIRCUITS

Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:
Group Member Name(s):
Laboratory Bench Number:
Assistant’s Name and Signature:

Data and Calculations

Table 15.1

Vs =...................... R=...................... C=......................

Vc (charging), V t(s) Vc (discharging), V t(s)

Using the data in Table 15.1, plot the graphs of the voltage on the capacitor versus time for
both charging and discharging curents. Find the time constant of the circuit from the both
graphs. Find also the theoretical value of the time constant using the formula τ = RC, and
compare it with the values you have found from the graphs.

147
Table 15.2

Resistance (Ω) Capacitance (µF ) τexperimentally (s) τtheoretically (s)

Questions
1. What is the effect on charging and discharging times if the capacitance is increased?
What mathematical relationship exists between your times and the capacitance?

2. What is the effect on charging and discharging times if the resistance of the circuit is
increased? What mathematical relationship exists between your times and the resistance?

3. What is the effect on the total capacitance if capacitors are combined in series? What if
they are combined in parallel?

148
Chapter 16

MAGNETIC FORCE ON A
CURRENT-CARRYING WIRE

Purpose
A current-carrying wire in a magnetic field experiences a force that is usually referred to
as a magnetic force. In this experiment we will determine that how the magnitude and the
direction of this force depends on the magnitude of the current I; the length of the wire L;
the strength of the magnetic field B; and the angle between the field and the wire θ.

Introduction
A magnetic field exerts force on electrons in a conductor. Since the electrons cannot escape
the wire, this force must be transmitted to the wire itself. Consider a wire carrying current I
placed in a region of uniform magnetic field of magnitude B and the direction is perpendicular
to the wire. Consider a length L of the wire and one of the conduction electrons drifting
with an assumed drift speed vd .

L
Charge q = It = I moves through the segment of wire during the time interval t. The
vd
magnetic force on this conductor is

L
FB = qvd B = (I )vd B
vd

Finally, the force is FB = ILB.

If the magnetic field is NOT perpendicular to the current- carrying wire,

F~B = I Lx
~ B~

~ is a vector of magnitude L and the direction of the conventional current. The

where L
magnitude of the force on a current carrying wire is

149
FB = ILB sin θ

where θ is the angle between the direction of current and the magnetic field.

In this experiment we will use the Basic Current Balance (Figure 16.1). With it you can vary
three of the variables in the equation; the current, the length of the wire, and the strength
of the magnetic field and measure the resulting magnetic force.

Figure 16.1: Basic Current Balance

By adding the Current Balance Accessory (Figure 16.2), you can also vary the angle be-
tween the wire and the magnetic field, thereby performing a complete investigation into the
interaction between a current carrying wire and a magnetic field.

Figure 16.2: Current Balance Accessory

150
Equipments
Basic Current Balance
Current Balance Accessory
Lab stand
DC power supply (capable of supplying up to 5A)
DC ammeter (capable of measuring up to 5A)
Balance (capable of measuring forces with an accuracy of 0.01g mass equivalent)

Part I: Force versus Current

Procedure

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 16.3

Figure 16.3: Setting up the Basic Current Balance

2. Determine the mass of the magnet holder and magnets with no current flowing. Record
this value in the column under ”Mass” in Table 16.1.

3. Set the current to 0.5A. Determine the new ”mass” of the magnet assembly. Record this
value under ”Mass” in Table 16.1.

4. Subtract the mass value with the current flowing from the value with no current flowing.
Record this difference as the ”Force ”.

5. Increase the current in 0.5A increments to a maximum of 5.0A, each time repeating steps
2-4.

151
Part II: Force versus Length of Wire
Procedure

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 16.3 again.

2. With no current flowing, determine the mass of the Magnet Assembly. Record this value
on the line at the top of Table 16.2.

3. Set the current to 2.0A. Determine the new ”Mass” of the Magnet Assembly. Record
this value under ”Mass” in Table 16.2.

4. Subtract the mass that you measured with no current flowing from the mass that you
measured with the current flowing. Record this difference as the ”Force.”

5. Turn the current off. Remove the Current Loop and replace it with another. Repeat
steps 2-4.

Part III: Force versus Magnetic Field

Procedure

Use the shortest length current loop.

1. Mount a single magnet in the center of the holder.

2. With no current flowing, determine the mass of the Magnet Assembly. Record this value
in the first column under ”Mass” in Table 16.3 on the appropriate line.

3. Set the current to 2.0A. Determine the new ”Mass” of the Magnet Assembly. Record
this value in the second column under ”Mass” in Table 16.3.

4. Subtract the mass you measured when there was no current flowing from the value you
measured with current flowing. Record this difference as the ”Force”.

5. Add additional magnets, one at a time. (Make sure the north poles of the magnets are all
on the same side of the Magnet Assembly.) Each time you add a magnet, repeat steps 2-4.

152
Part IV: Force versus Angle
Procedure

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 16.4

Figure 16.4: Setting up the Current Balance Accessory

2. Determine the mass of the Magnet Assembly with no current flowing. Record this value
in Table 16.4 on the appropriate line.

3. Set the angle to θ with the direction of the coil of wire approximately parallel to the
magnetic field. Set the current to 1.0A. Determine the new ”Mass” of the Magnet Assembly.
Record this value under ”Mass” in Table 16.4.

4. Subtract the mass measured with no current flowing from the mass measured with current
flowing. Record the difference as the ”Force”:

5. Increase the angle in 5◦ increments up to 90◦ , and then in -5◦ increments to -90◦. At each
angle, repeat the mass/force measurement.

153
a

154
REPORT SHEET

EXPERIMENT 16: MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT-CARRYING WIRE

Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:
Group Member Name(s):
Laboratory Bench Number:
Assistant’s Name and Signature:

Data and Calculations

Part I: Force versus Current

Table 16.1

Current (A) Mass (g) Force (N)

0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0

Plot a graph of Force (vertical axis) versus Current (horizontal axis).

What is the nature of the relationship between these two variables? What does this tell
us about how changes in the current will affect the force acting on a wire that is inside a
magnetic field?

155
Part II: Force versus Length of Wire

Table 16.2

Mass(g)=.........................

Length (cm) Mass (g) Force (N)

1.2
2.2
3.2
4.2
6.4
8.4

Plot a graph of Force (vertical axis) versus Length (horizontal axis).

What is the nature of the relationship between these two variables? What does this tell us
about how changes in the length of a current-carrying wire will affect the force that it feels
when it is in a magnetic field?

156
Part III: Force versus Magnetic Field

Table 16.3

Mass (g) Mass (g)

# of magnets I = 0 I 6= 0 Force (N)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Plot a graph of Force (vertical axis) versus Number of Magnets (horizontal axis).

What is the relationship between these two variables? How does the number of magnets
affect the force between a current-carrying wire and a magnetic field? Is it reasonable to
assume that the strength of the magnetic field is directly proportional to the number of
magnets? What would happen if one of the magnets were put into the assembly backwards,
with its north pole next to the other magnets’ south poles? If there is time, try it.

157
Part IV: Force versus Angle

Table 16.4

Angle (θ) Mass (g) Force (N) Angle (θ) Mass (g) Force (N)
0 0
10 -10
20 -20
30 -30
40 -40
50 -50
60 -60
70 -70
80 -80
90 -90

Plot a graph of Force (vertical axis) versus Angle (horizontal axis).

What is the relationship between these two variables? How do changes in the angle between
the current and the magnetic field affect the force acting between them? What angle produces
the greatest force? What angle produces the least force?

158
Chapter 17

ELECTROMAGNETISM AND
ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION

Introduction
What is Electromagnetism?

Electromagnetism describes the relationship between electricity and magnetism. Nearly ev-
eryone, at some time or another, has had the opportunity to play with magnets. Most of
us are acquainted with bar magnets or those thin magnets that usually end up on refrig-
erators. These magnets are known as permanent magnets. Although permanent magnets
receive a lot of exposure, we use and depend on electromagnets much more in our everyday
lives. Electromagnetism is essentially the foundation for all of electrical engineering. We use
electromagnets to generate electricity, store memory on our computers, generate pictures on
a television screen, diagnose illnesses, and in just about every other aspect of our lives that
depends on electricity.

Electromagnetism works on the principle that an electric current through a wire generates
a magnetic field. This magnetic field is the same force that makes metal objects stick to
permanent magnets. In a bar magnet, the magnetic field runs from the north to the south
pole. In a wire, the magnetic field forms around the wire. If we wrap that wire around a metal
object, we can often magnetize that object. In this way, we can create an electromagnet.

Electromagnetic Induction

Electromagnetic induction is the production of an electrical potential difference (or voltage)

across a conductor situated in a changing magnetic field. Michael Faraday was the first to
describe this phenomenon mathematically: he found that the size of the voltage produced
is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux. This applies whether the flux
itself changes in strength or the conductor is moved through it. Electromagnetic induction

159
underlies the operation of generators, induction motors, and most other electrical machines.
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction states that

dφ
ε=N
dt

where ε is the electromotive force (emf) in volts, N is the number of turns of wire, and φ is
the magnetic flux in webers.

Further, Lenz’s law gives the direction of the induced emf, thus:
The emf induced in an electric circuit always acts in such a direction that the current it
drives around the circuit opposes the change in magnetic flux which produces the emf.

Transformers

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers energy from one electrical circuit to
another by means of magnetic coupling. An electrical transformer is the name given to any
device for producing by means of one electric current another of a different character. It
typically transforms between high and low voltages and accordingly between low and high
currents.

Transformers usually have two induction coils or windings. As the changing current flows
through the powered or primary winding, it produces a changing magnetic field that grows
through the unpowered or secondary windings. This changing magnetic field induces a
current in the secondaries. The winding with fewer turns of wire has higher current, at a
lower voltage. The winding with more turns of wire has less current, at a higher voltage.
The ratio of voltages is proportional to the ratio of the numbers of turns of wire.

Uses of Transformers

If electrical power needs to be transmitted over long distances, the loss is much lower if high
voltage is used. But high voltage is dangerous in the home, so transformers are employed to
step the voltage up at the power station and back down at the consumer’s premises.

Small transformers are often used to isolate and link different parts of radios.

Some transformers are designed so that one winding turns or slides, while the other remains
stationary. These can pass power or radio signals from a stationary mounting to a turning
mechanism, such as a machine tool head or radar antenna.

Some moving transformers are precisely constructed in order to measure distances. Most
often, they have several primaries, and electronic circuits measure the shape of the wave in
the different secondaries.

160
Construction

Transformers often have silicon steel cores to channel the magnetic field. This keeps the field
more concentrated around the wires, so that the transformer is more efficient. The core also
keeps the field from being wasted in nearby pieces of metal.

Laminated cores are made of many stamped pieces of thin steel. This prevents eddy currents
from forming in the cores and wasting power by heating the core. Other types of core are
made of nonconductive magnetic materials, such as a ceramic material called ferrite.

High-frequency transformers in low-power circuits where moderate losses are acceptable may
have air cores. These save weight and cost.

Power transformers are usually more than 98% efficient which makes them the most efficient
devices man can make. The higher-voltage transformers are bathed in nonconductive oil
that is stable at high temperatures. This used to be polychlorinated biphenyl, the famous
toxic waste, ”PCB”. Nowadays, nontoxic very stable fluorinated hydrocarbons are preferred.
The oil cools the transformer, and helps prevent short circuits. It has to be stable at high
temperatures so that a small short or arc will not cause a breakdown or fire.

Equipments

The Complete Coils Set

Low voltage AC/DC power supply
Digital multimeter
Banana connecting leads for electrical connections

Procedure

When an alternating current passes through a coil of wire, it produces an alternating mag-
netic field. This is precisely the condition needed for the electromagnetic induction to take
place in a second coil of wire.

1. Set up the coils and core as shown in Figure 17.1. The coil to the left will be referred
to as the primary coil and the one to the right will be the secondary coil. Note that we are
putting in an alternating current to the primary at one voltage level, and reading the output
at the secondary.

2. With the 400-turn coil as the primary and the 400-turn coil as the secondary, adjust the
input voltage to 6 VAC. Measure the output voltage and record your result in Table 17.1.

3. Repeat step 2 after inserting the straight cross piece from the top of the U-shaped core.
Record your result. (See Figure 17.2.)

161
Figure 17.1: Induction Proceed by Passing Magnetic Field Between the Two Coils

4. Repeat step 2 after placing the coils on the sides of the open U-shaped core. Record your
result.

5. Finally, repeat step 2 after placing the cross piece over the U-shaped core. Record your
result.

6. Using the core configuration which gives the best output voltage compared to input
voltage, try all combinations of primary and secondary coils. Use a constant input voltage
of 6 VAC. Record your data in Table 17.2.

Figure 17.2:

162
REPORT SHEET

EXPERIMENT 17: ELECTROMAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Student’s Name:
Experiment Date:
Group Member Name(s):
Laboratory Bench Number:
Assistant’s Name and Signature:

Data and Calculations

Table 17.1

Number of turns

Primary Coil Secondary Coil Input V Output V Core

Table 17.2

Core Configuration :————————————–

Number of turns

Primary Coil Secondary Coil Input V Output V

163
Questions

1. Which core configuration gives the maximum transfer of electromagnetic effect to the
secondary coil? Develop a theory to explain the differences between configurations.

2. From your data in Table 17.2, for a primary having a constant number of turns, graph
the resulting output voltage versus the number of turns in the secondary. What type of
mathematical relationship exists between numbers of turns of wire and the resulting output
voltage? Is the data ideal? Why or why not?

3. Consider further improvements to your transformer. What additional changes might you
make to increase the transfer from one coil to the other?

164
Chapter 18

MAGNETIC INDUCTION AND

MAGNETISM OF MATTER

Introduction
Magnetic Induction Principles

Faraday found that if a conductor ”cuts across” lines of magnetic force or if magnetic lines
of force cut across a conductor, a voltage or emf is induced into the conductor. Consider a
magnet with its lines of force from the north pole to the south pole. A conductor, which can
be moved between the poles of the magnet, is connected to a galvanometer, which can detect
the presence of voltage, or emf . When the conductor is not moving, zero emf is indicated
by the galvanometer.

If a coil of copper wire is rotated in a magnetic field in such a way as to cut across the lines
of magnetic force, an electric charge is created or induced in the wires. This is the basic
principle by which practically all our present day electric current is generated.

Generators use magnetic induction to produce electrical energy. Electrical current is gen-
erated by moving wires through a magnetic field. The wire loop inside the generator is
mechanically driven by some source of rotary motion. The source of power for the rotation
might be fossil fuels, falling water or nuclear energy. As the wire loop spins inside the mag-
netic field, an electric current is produced in the wire. This current becomes the basis for
commercially available electrical energy.

One formula describes all of these explanations of magnetic induction; Faraday’s Law of
Induction.

dφ
ε = −N
dt

emf (around loop) = - (rate of change of magnetic flux)

165
Eddy Currents

An eddy current is a swirling current set up in a conductor in response to a changing magnetic

field. By Lenz’s law, the current swirls in such a way as to create a magnetic field opposing
the change; to do this in a conductor, electrons swirl in a plane perpendicular to the magnetic
field. Because of the tendency of eddy currents to oppose, eddy currents cause energy to be
lost. More accurately, eddy currents transform more useful forms of energy, such as kinetic
energy, into heat, which is generally much less useful. In many applications the loss of useful
energy is not particularly desirable, but there are some practical applications. One is in the
brakes of some trains. During braking, the metal wheels are exposed to a magnetic field
from an electromagnet, generating eddy currents in the wheels. The magnetic interaction
between the applied field and the eddy currents acts to slow the wheels down. The faster
the wheels are spinning, the stronger the effect, meaning that as the train slows the braking
force is reduced, producing a smooth stopping motion.

Magnetism of Matter

Magnetic materials are magnetic because of the electrons within them. Each electron in
an atom has an orbital magnetic dipole moment and a spin magnetic dipole moment that
combine vectorially. The resultant of these two vector quantities combines vectorially with
similar resultants for all other electrons in the atom, and the resultant for each atom combines
with those for all the other atoms in a sample of a material. If the combination of all these
magnetic dipole moments produces a magnetic field, then the material is magnetic. There
are three general types of magnetism: diamagnetism, paramagnetism, ferromagnetism.

1. Diamagnetism is exhibited by all common materials but is so feeble that it is masked

if the material also exhibits magnetism of either of the other two types. In diamagnetism,
weak magnetic dipole moments are produced in the atoms of the material when the material
is placed in an external magnetic field B ~ ext ; the combination of all those induced dipole
moments gives the material as a whole only a feeble net magnetic field. The dipole moments
and thus their net field disappear when B ~ ext is removed. The term diamagnetic material
usually refers to materials that exhibit only diamagnetism.

2. Paramagnetism is exhibited by materials containing transition elements, rare earth ele-

ments and actinide elements. Each element of such a material has a permanent resultant
magnetic dipole moment, but the moments are randomly oriented in the material and the
~ ext can
material as a whole lacks a net magnetic field. However, an external magnetic field B
partially align the atomic magnetic dipole moments to give the material a net magnetic field.
The alignment and thus its field disappear when B ~ ext is removed. The term paramagnetic
material usually refers to materials that exhibit primarily paramagnetism.

3. Ferromagnetism is a property of iron, nickel and certain other elements (and of com-
pounds and alloy of these elements). Some of the electrons in these materials have their
resultant magnetic dipole moments aligned, which produces regions with strong magnetic
~ ext can then align the magnetic moments of such regions,
dipole moments. An externel field B

166
producing a strong magnetic field for a sample of the material; the field partially persists
when ~xBext is removed. We usually use the term ferromagnetic material and even the com-
mon term magnetic material, to refer to materials that exhibit primarily ferromagnetism.

Compared to ferromagnetism, diamagnetism and paramagnetism are weak effects. However,

when a diamagnetic material is placed in a strong magnetic field, it is possible to see that
the material is repelled by the magnetic field. On the other hand, paramagnetic materials
submerged in a strong magnetic field will be noticeably attracted to the magnetic field.

In this experiment we will use the Variable Gap Magnet (Figure 18.1) and the Magnetic Force
Accessory (Figure 18.2). They facilitate the teaching of the concepts of magnetic induction,
eddy currents, diamagnetism, paramagnetism, and magnetic force on a current-carrying wire.

Figure 18.1: Variable Gap Magnet

The Variable Gap Magnet consists of two 3/4 inch diameter neodymium magnets on an iron
base. Two flat pole pieces are supplied to provide a uniform field when needed. The gap
may be varied from 0.5cm to 8.9cm by turning the screws. The magnet will not have a great
effect on its surroundings because the field drops off to about 30 Gauss at the outside edges
of the magnet.

Strength of the Magnetic Field with Various Gap Sizes between the Poles

Gap (cm) Magnetic Field at Poles Magnetic Field at Midpoint

(Tesla/Gauss) between Poles(Tesla/Gauss)
0.5 0.75/7500 0.75/7500
1.0 0.60/6000 0.50/5000
8.9 0.40/4000 0.007/70

167
Figure 18.2: Magnetic Force Accessory

The Magnetic Force Accessory consists of five components;

• Set of three aluminum paddles (solid, closed slotted, and open slotted) for demonstrating
induction and magnetic damping.
• Swing for demonstrating the magnetic force on a current-carrying wire.
• Mounting rod.
• Paramagnetic material (aluminum)
• Diamagnetic material (glass)

Part I: Magnetic Induction

Equipments

Variable Gap Magnet

Base and Support Rod
Magnetic Forces Accessory

Procedure

1. Slide the support rod through the hole on the mounting rod and tighten the set screw to
hold it in place.

2. Hang the solid paddle on the end of the black bar by placing the hooked end of the paddle
in the slot in the black bar.

3. Adjust the magnet poles so the gap between the poles is just wide enough to allow the
paddle to fit without touching (Figure 18.3).

168
Figure 18.3:

4. Keeping the magnet away from the solid paddle, swing the paddle to show that it swings
freely.

5. Slowly bring the magnet into position so that the paddle hangs between the poles of the
magnet. (If the magnet is moved into position too quickly, the paddle will move). Point out
to the class that the paddles are made of aluminum, which is not a ferromagnetic material
and is not attracted to magnets.

6. With the magnet in place, swing the paddle (Figure 18.4) to show that the oscillations
are now damped because of the induced eddy currents in the moving paddle.

7. Repeat Steps 1 through 3 using the other two paddles. The open slotted paddle is only
slightly damped. The closed slotted paddle is very damped, although it is less damped than
the solid paddle.

Note: Two paddles may be used at the same time.

169
Figure 18.4:

Part II: Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Wire Swing

Equipments

Variable Gap Magnet

Base and Support Rod
Magnetic Forces Accessory
(2) patch cords
12 volt DC power supply

Procedure

1. Slide the support rod through the hole on the mounting rod and tighten the set screw to
hold it in place.

2. Plug the swing into the two holes in the mounting rod.

3. Place the Variable Gap Magnet (with the flat pole pieces installed) on its end so the
magnetic field between the poles is vertical. Position the magnet so the horizontal wire of
the swing is between the poles of the magnet. Adjust the poles of the magnet so the gap is
just large enough for the swing to swing freely between the poles.

4. Connect a power supply (12V, 6A) to the top banana jacks on the bar (Figure 18.5).

5. Switch the current on. The swing will move out of the magnet. The direction the swing
moves depends on the direction of the current.

170
Figure 18.5:

6. Reverse the position of the patch cord connections on the mounting rod. The swing will
move in the opposite direction.

Part III: Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism

Equipments

Variable Gap Magnet

Base and Support Rod
Magnetic Forces Accessory

Procedure

1. Tie pieces of thread (supplied with set) around the glass rod and the aluminum tube and
secure the thread with a small piece of tape to prevent the sample from slipping out of the
thread loop.

2. Hang the glass (diamagnetic) sample from a stand so it is at the same level as the Variable
Gap Magnet when the magnet is placed on its side (Figure 18.6).

3. For large class viewing, put the magnet and the stand with the sample on an overhead
projector and focus the projector on the sample. The stand will not obstruct the view
because it is out of focus.

171
Figure 18.6:

4. For the glass sample, show that when you place the glass rod parallel to the magnetic field
lines, the rod rotates and oscillates about an equilibrium position which is perpendicular to
the magnetic field lines of the magnet (Figure 18.7).

Eventually the glass rod will come to rest in this equilibrium position but it takes longer
than you will want to wait. So, using your hand, stop the glass rod in the equilibrium
position. Then, to show that the rod is held in this position by the magnet, gently rotate the
magnet about the axis formed by the thread. The glass rod will also rotate, always keeping
perpendicular to the magnetic field lines.

5. Follow the same procedure for the aluminum (paramagnetic) sample except, instead of
initially aligningthe tube with the magnetic field, put the aluminum tube perpendicular to
the field at the beginning of the demonstration to show that it will rotate into the equilibrium
position which is parallel to the magnet’s field lines (Figure 18.8). Then rotate the magnet
to show that the aluminum is locked into the equilibrium position, aligned with the poles of
the magnet.

Note: The slot in the aluminum sample is necessary to reduce the damping effects due to
eddy currents induced in the aluminum as the tube rotates in the magnetic field.

172
Figure 18.7: A diamagnetic material in a magnetic field

Figure 18.8: A paramagnetic material in a magnetic field

173
APPENDIX
Photogate Timer

Figure 18.9: Photogate Timer

The Photogate Timer uses a narrow-beam infrared photogate to provide the timing signals.
An LED in one arm of the photogate emits a narrow infrared beam. As long as the beam
strikes the detector in the opposite arm of the photogate, the signal to the timer indicates that
the beam is unblocked. When an object blocks the beam so it doesn’t strike the detector, the
signal to the timer changes. The timer has several options for timing the photogate signals.
The options include Gate, Pulse and Pendulum modes, allowing you to measure the velocity
of an object as it passes through the photogate or between two photogates, or to measure
the period of a pendulum. There is also a START/STOP button that lets you the timer as
an electronic stopwatch.

When two measurements must be made in rapid succession, use the memory function of the
Photogate Timer. It can be used in either the Gate or the Pulse mode. To use the memory:

1. Turn the MEMORY switch to ON.

2. Press RESET.
3. Run the experiment. When the first time t1 is measured, it will be immediately displayed.
The second time t2 will be automatically measured by the timer, but it will not be shown
on the display.
4. Record t1 , then push the MEMORY switch to READ. The display will now show the
TOTAL time, t1 + t2 . Subtract t1 from the displayed time to determine t2 .

174
Accessory Photogate

Figure 18.10: Accessory Photogate

Accessory Photogate plugs directly into the Photogate Timer and triggers the timer in the
same manner as the built-in photogate. In Pulse Mode, the Accessory Photogate lets you
measure the time it takes for an object to travel between two photogates. In Gate Mode, it
lets you measure the velocity of the object as it passes through the first photogate and then
again when it passes through the second photogate.

Air Track

An air track is a device that can provide a (near) frictionless surface on which to investigate
how objects move. Jets of air forced out of holes along the tracks length can allow a ”car”
or ”glider” to float above its surface. You can find out using an Air Track:

· Is a force really needed to keep an object moving?

· What would it be like in space (where there is no friction) if two objects collided?
· Does the continued presence of a force keep an object moving at a constant speed?
· What forces are experienced in collisions and why should we wear seat belts?

Air Supply

Air Supply is for use with the Air Track. Its variable output lets you precisely match the
air flow to the experiment. Adjust the air flow until gliders just glide freely on the track. If
the air flow is too low, the glider will touch the track and lose energy. A higher air flow may

175
Figure 18.11: Air Track

cause the gliders to move randomly in response to air turbulence around the surface of the
track.

Figure 18.12: Air Supply

FREE FALL TIMER

With its automatic release mechanism and accurate digital timer, Free Fall Timer allows you
to measure the acceleration due to gravity. It includes a ball release mechanism, a receptor
pad, an electronic timer and two steel balls with diameters of 13 and 16mm.

In the basic free fall experiment, a steel ball is clamped into the spring loaded release mecha-
nism. The ball is in series with the triggering circuit for the timer. When the thumbscrew is
turned, the mechanism pops open, releasing the ball and starting the timer. When the ball
strikes the receptor pad, the top plate of thee pad is forced against the metal base, stopping
the timer. The timer display shows the time it took for the ball to drop from the release
mechanism to the pad. Timing is to the nearest millisecond with 1 percent accuracy.

176
Figure 18.13: Free Fall Timer

MINI LAUNCHER

Figure 18.14: Mini Launcher

Mini Launcher has been designed for projectile experiments. The only additional equipment
required is a Universal Table Clamp for clamping the launcher to a table.

Balls can be launched at any angle from 0 to 90 degrees measured above the horizontal. The
magnetic piston holds the steel ball in position for launch at any angle from 0 to 45 degrees
measured below the horizontal.

The angle is easily adjusted using the thumbscrew. The built-in protractor and plumb bob
on the side of the launcher give a convenient and accurate way of determining the angle of
inclination.

Use only 16mm steel balls with the Mini Launcher. Place the ball in the barrel. Push the
ball down the barrel with the pushrod until the trigger catches the piston. One audible

177
click indicates that the piston is cocked in the shortest range setting, two clicks indicate the
medium range and three clicks set the piston on the long range setting.

Never look down the front of the barrel because it may be loaded. Before launching the ball,
make certain that no person is in the way.

TIME OF FLIGHT ACCESSORY

Figure 18.15: Time of Flight Accessory

Time of Flight Accessory is for use with the Mini Launcher and is designed to be used with
a Photogate Timer to measure the time of flight of a projectile from the launcher to the pad.
It consists of a piezo-electric speaker circuit mounted on a 20x20cm plastic plate. The plate
has a signal cable with a 6mm stereo phone plug. When a ball hits the plate, the speaker
circuit generates a Photogate-like pulse. The cable sends the signal to a timer.

ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS APPARATUS

Rotational Dynamics Apparatus provides a quantitative and nearly friction free introduction
to rotational motion. The rotating system consists of two disks, isolated from each other and
from the base plate by cushions of air. The two disks can spin independently or together,
or the upper disk can spin while the lower disk does not. These options are controlled using
the two valve pins that are provided with the unit.

Highly accurate quantitative data is provided by two optical readers which monitor the
motion of the rotating disks. Each disk has on its side black and white bars. The optical
reader counts the black bars as they pass, and the frequency is displayed in bars per second.
This data allows easy calculation of the angular velocity of the rotating disks.

The LED’s on the top of the display housing will flicker on and off. Each LED comes on
when the corresponding optical reader senses a black bar and goes off when it detects a white

178
Figure 18.16: Rotational Dynamics Apparatus

bar. The measurement is made and the display is updated every 2 seconds. Therefore, there
is 2 seconds between each reading.

The display will show the counts/second reading for either the upper or the lower disk,
depending on the position of the switch on the top of the display housing. Start the disks
rotating at different velocities. Flip the switch back and forth to monitor each disk. Notice
that intermediate readings, when you first flip the switch, do not give an accurate reading.
To be sure your reading is accurate after flipping the switch, always wait a full two seconds
before reading data.

Applying a Constant Torque

Two torque pulleys are provided with the Rotational Dynamics Apparatus, one with a radius
of 1.27cm and the other with a radius of 2.54cm to apply a constant torque to the rotating
disk. The weight of the mass supplies a constant torque that accelerates the rotating disk.
For most purposes, the torque can be calculated using the equation:

τ = mgr

This is just the weight of the hanging mass acting on the disk with a lever arm equal to the
radius of the torque pulley.

179

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