Journal of Managerial Psychology

Workplace dimensions, stress and job satisfaction

Kerry Fairbrother, James Warn,
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JMP
18,1 Workplace dimensions, stress
and job satisfaction
Kerry Fairbrother and James Warn
8 School of Economics and Management, ADFA, Canberra, Australia

Received October 2001 Keywords Occupational health, Stress, Job satisfaction, Working conditions, Navy, Training
Revised June 2002
Accepted July 2002 Abstract Applied research indicates strong connections between dimensions of the work place,
stress and job satisfaction. Yet, there is an absence of theory to provide conceptual understanding
of these relationships. In 1999, Sparks and Cooper advocated using job-specific models of stress as
a way of developing a better understanding of the relationships. The current study adopted this
recommendation and investigated a specific job context, specifically, naval officer trainees
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undergoing their sea training. The results indicate that a general model of stress is unhelpful in
identifying the predictors of stress and job satisfaction in specific job contexts. Instead, the authors
recommend identifying salient workplace dimensions rather than a broad-brush approach when
seeking workplace associations with stress.

Examining stress in a specific job context

There is extensive support in the research literature for the relationship
between workplace factors, stress, and job satisfaction (Burke, 1988; Leong
et al., 1996; Sullivan and Bhagat, 1992). Despite this wealth of information, the
application of the research findings to a particular workplace is not always
straightforward. The same workplace factors are not consistently related to
stress in all work places, and the relationship between stress and job
satisfaction can differ depending on the group being investigated (Rees, 1995;
Young and Cooper, 1995).
The lack of consistent findings could be due to research emphasising general
relationships rather than examining relationships in specific job contexts. Sparks
and Cooper (1999) advocate using more job specific models, encompassing a
range of identified job and organisation stressors, as a way of developing more
effective interventions in the workplace. The current study adopted this
recommendation and investigated the relationship between workplace factors,
stress and job satisfaction in a specific job context, specifically, naval officer in
the highly stressful environment of training at sea in a navy warship.
The study has an applied emphasis due to organisational immediacy and
importance of retaining these trainees. There is a high public cost in replacing
trainees and limited training capacity increases the dependency on a steady
flow of trainees graduating. Also, the shortage of trained officers means that
there is a high need for trainees to complete their training and to crew ships in
Journal of Managerial Psychology operational service. Staff surveys have indicated the presence of many
Vol. 18 No. 1, 2003
pp. 8-21 potential stressors in sea service and supported management perceptions of the
q MCB UP Limited
0268-3946
relevance of the impact of stress and poor job satisfaction on the continued
DOI 10.1108/02683940310459565 service of trainees.
 Stress in the workplace Workplace,
The experience of stress reactions in the workplace is not an isolated stress and job
phenomenon (Fletcher, 1988). In a large sample study of 7,099 employees from satisfaction
13 different occupations, Sparks and Cooper (1999) reported significant
statistical associations between a number of workplace factors and indicators
of mental ill health, such as free-floating anxiety, somatic anxiety and
depression.
9
A number of aspects of working life have been linked to stress. Aspects of
the work itself can be stressful, namely work overload (DeFrank and
Ivancevich, 1998; Sparks and Cooper, 1999, Taylor et al., 1997) and role-based
factors such as lack of power, role ambiguity, and role conflict (Burke, 1988;
Nelson and Burke, 2000). The quality of the social environment in the
workplace is associated with stress (Sparks and Cooper, 1999) as are certain
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behaviours of the leader (Carlopio et al., 1997; Cooper and Marshall, 1976).
Threats to career development and achievement, including threat of
redundancy, being undervalued, and unclear promotion prospects are
stressful (Nelson and Burke, 2000). The conflict between home and work and
the work impact on personal relationships is stressful (Sparks and Cooper,
1999). Also, physical conditions such as high noise levels, overcrowding in the
workplace or a lack of privacy have been associated with stress (Burke, 1988).

Stress and occupational outcomes

Stress is associated with impaired individual functioning in the workplace.
Negative effects include reduced efficiency, decreased capacity to perform,
dampened initiative and reduced interest in working, increased rigidity of
thought, a lack of concern for the organisation and colleagues, and a loss of
responsibility (Greenberg and Baron, 1995; Matteson and Ivancevich, 1982).
Stress has been associated with important occupational outcomes of job
satisfaction, organisational commitment and employee withdrawal behaviour
(Naumann, 1993; Sullivan and Bhagat, 1992; Tett and Meyer, 1993; Williams
and Hazer, 1986). Satisfaction and commitment have invariably reported a
negative relationship to intent to leave and turnover (Arnold and Feldman,
1982; Hollenbeck and Williams, 1986). High levels of work stress are associated
with low levels of job satisfaction (Landsbergis, 1988; Terry et al., 1993) and job
stressors are predictive of job dissatisfaction and a greater propensity to leave
the organisation (Cummins, 1990).
The research literature supports the prediction that workplace factors will
have direct effects on stress and job satisfaction as well as stress influencing
job satisfaction (Kirkcaldy et al., 1999; Leong et al., 1996; Lyne et al., 2000).
Despite the strength of such findings, interpretation of the relationships is still
data and not theory driven (Sutton and Staw, 1995). Lacking is a theoretical
basis on which to explain why the associations have been found. Likewise, job
satisfaction has been described as a theory free concept compared to other
 JMP variables in organisational research. This atheoretical approach creates
18,1 difficulty in predicting which factors in a specific workplace will contribute to
stress and which to job satisfaction. In the absence of an integrated theory, the
implication of the recommendation by Sparks and Cooper (1999) is that the
prominence of workplace factors in the experience of stress may depend on
occupational groupings or particular aspects of the workplace. For instance, in
10 a study on occupational stress among senior civil servants, mental ill health
was predicted by the pressure associated with the role of management, and a
low level of perceived control (i.e. externality), whereas job dissatisfaction was
predicted by organizational climate, organizational influence and job
constraints (Bogg and Cooper, 1995). Similarly, Kirkcaldy and Martin (2000)
pointed to salient features of the occupational environment in hospitals to
identify potentially potent stressors for nurses, namely dealing with death and
dying on a regular basis, and workload.
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Stress in training at sea

Internal staff surveys (Royal Australian Navy, 1996) indicate that 35 per cent of
seagoing personnel and 25.9 per cent of officer trainees report that there was
too much stress associated with their job. In the current study, an
understanding of the stressors identified in capsule environments (Suedfeld
and Steel, 2000) has been used to identify salient aspects of the workplace for
naval trainees. The comparison is relevant because the crew on an oceanic ship
is a small isolated community that works and lives in uncomfortable and
restricted conditions.
Physical discomfort is a feature of capsule environments (Suedfeld and Steel,
2000). Similarly, on board ship bare metal surfaces predominate in the physical
workplace, and personnel experience noisy, confined work environments.
Exposure to environmental conditions include high temperatures, rough
movement, and the close proximity of chemicals, vapours, ammunition or
explosives, fuel, electromagnetic radiation and working in the absence of light
(Warn, 1994).
Capsule environments are typically remote from home and can involve
prolonged separation from family and friends (Suedfeld and Steel, 2000).
Sea-going personnel experience disrupted interaction and communication with
loved ones. The capsule environment contains living and work quarters as well
as arrangements on site for all the daily needs of a community (Suedfeld and
Steel, 2000). The shift to minimum crewing on ships also means that work roles
are overlapping and include varied responsibilities. Although crew numbers
have shrunk the range of tasks has increased.
Naval trainees have a busy schedule on board ship, as they are required to
learn the many facets of being a naval officer. The role is demanding and
varied since there are many secondary duties that have to be covered. The
ambiguity of the trainee role and the varied task demands of minimum crewed
ships indicate that work role is a potential stressor. Trainees can be faced with
 overlapping demands and also find that their duties interfere with their sleep Workplace,
and capacity to keep a regular personal routine. Typically, 50 per cent of stress and job
personnel performing duties on board naval vessels obtain only broken periods
of sleep (Gilks and Buckley, 1995). Suedfeld and Steel (2000) note that
satisfaction
disruption to personal sleep routines and capacity to undertake exercise were
identified as stressors in capsule environments.
Inadequate leadership, a breakdown in the interpersonal climate and the 11
resultant conflict can be very stressful within the confines of a capsule
environment (Suedfeld and Steel, 2000). However, these are extreme events and
represent crisis conditions. Under typical operating conditions in a capsule
environment, these factors are controlled to a large extent by the presence of
clearly defined work roles. Interpersonal interactions are defined and organised
around work role. Subsequently it is predicted that leadership, the climate on
board ship and perception of teamwork are not related to stress under normal
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conditions.
The operational hypothesis is that the following dimensions of the working
at sea will correlate with stress amongst navy trainees: physical discomfort,
work ambiguity and role confusion, isolation from loved ones, disruption of
personal routine.
In the absence of a theoretical framework, and given the complex
relationship between stress and job satisfaction (Bogg and Cooper, 1995),
separate hypotheses for job satisfaction are not considered. However, Lyne et al.
(2000) outline a model suggesting that the same workplace factors are expected
to impact on job satisfaction and as do on stress.

Methodology
Sample
The sample consisted of a group of 100 naval officer trainees, comprising 65
males and 35 females. The median age for the group was 21 years and 90 per
cent of the group was 25 years or younger. The median length of tenure was
three years since most of the trainees had just completed a three-year bachelors
degree. Of the sample, 80 per cent were not married.

Measures
A questionnaire was administered at the end of the sea phase of the naval
officer training. Questions were devised addressing the dimensions specified in
the operational hypothesis. Coefficient alphas (standardised) and examples
items for each dimension are listed below:
.
Clarity of the work role (7 items) alpha ¼ 0.81: “I was unsure of what was
expected of me”; “My work was assessed fairly”; “I was responsible for
the tasks I was carrying out”.
.
Disruption of everyday routine (5 items) alpha ¼ 0.61: “I went without
fresh food”; “I missed meals”; “I did not get as much exercise as I would
have liked”.
 JMP .
Ship climate (12 items) alpha ¼ 0.74: “My ship was high in morale”; “I
18,1 was fearful of others aboard”; “The attitude of others was positive
towards helping people to learn”.
.
Disruption of personal relationships (3 items) alpha ¼ 0.79: “Navy
demands impaired my personal life”; “I would have liked less separation
12 from my family and friends”; “I felt I had to surrender control of my life
by being in the Navy”.
.
Teamwork (5 items) alpha ¼ 0.86: “I was a member of a close-knit group”;
“I received support for my personal goals”; “I had significant conflict with
my peers”.
.
Leadership by immediate supervisor (12 items) alpha ¼ 0.93: “My
immediate supervisor respected me”; “My immediate supervisor provided
feedback on my performance“; “My immediate supervisor had a sexist
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attitude”.
.
Physical environment (7 items) alpha ¼ 0.77: “Whilst performing my
tasks I was exposed to conditions of extreme cold”; “My sleeping area was
overcrowded”; “My sleeping area was an uncomfortable temperature”.
The following three questions were used to measure job satisfaction: “I am
satisfied with my sea training”; “I am satisfied with being in the Navy”; and “I
am satisfied with my specialisation”. The standardised coefficient alpha was
0.87 for this scale.
The GHQ-28 version of the general health questionnaire (Goldberg and
Williams, 1988) was included to measure stress. The GHQ is a self-
administered screening test and represents an individual’s subjective response
to social or environmental stressors (Gardiner and Tiggeman, 1999; Graham,
1988). It contains four sub-scales: somatic symptoms; anxiety and insomnia;
social dysfunction; and severe depression. However, because of the underlying
general factor structure, a single severity score can be derived from the GHQ-28
(Banks et al., 1980). The correlation matrix of the questionnaire results is shown
in Table I.
Self-report questionnaires can obtain valid measures of stress. Frese (1985)
demonstrated that self-reported measures of stressful workplace factors do
correlate with observations made by other people in the workgroup and those
made by trained observers. Also additional steps were taken to enhance the
reliability and validity of the scales. Responses to the questions were made
using a five-point Likert scale that was anchored using frequency descriptors
(never, rarely, occasionally, often, and constantly). These descriptors were
chosen to neutralise any tendency to over-report difficult conditions.
Additionally, the researchers attempted to include items that were written in
a positive direction as well as items that were written in a negative direction.
However, the final workplace scales did not reflect this balance as some items
were eliminated if they did not contribute to the reliability of the scale.
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Work dimensions
Clarity of the work role 1 1.00
Ship climate 2 0.62 1.00
Disruption of personal relationships 3 0.24 0.43 1.00
Teamwork 4 0.47 0.47 0.24 1.00
Leadership 5 0.55 0.50 0.25 0.55 1.00
Physical environment 6 0.24 0.32 0.22 0.19 0.20 1.00
Disruption of everyday routine 7 0.17 0.24 0.50 0.17 0.15 0.35 1.00
GHQ scales
Somatic symptoms 8 20.35 2 0.27 20.25 20.12 2 0.31 20.15 20.35 1.00
Anxiety 9 20.34 2 0.40 20.50 20.27 2 0.22 20.24 20.47 0.49 1.00
Social dysfunction 10 20.54 2 0.56 20.43 20.42 2 0.32 20.28 20.42 0.38 0.50 1.00
Severe depression 11 20.30 2 0.37 20.39 20.25 2 0.12 20.24 20.28 0.17 0.57 0.37 1.00
Stress 12 20.50 2 0.51 20.51 20.34 2 0.33 20.30 20.51 0.75 0.86 0.73 0.62 1.00
Job Satisfaction 13 0.42 0.66 0.63 0.44 0.30 0.23 0.40 2 0.36 20.51 20.65 2 0.40 20.63 1.00
satisfaction
Workplace,
stress and job

Correlation matrix
Table I.
13
 JMP Statistical analysis
18,1 A just-identified (saturated) recursive path analysis was used to estimate the
relationship between workplace dimensions and the two occupational
outcomes of stress and job satisfaction (Joreskog and Sorbom, 1989; Kline,
1998). Recursive means that the causal effects are unidirectional (work
dimensions influence stress and job satisfaction, and stress influences job
14 satisfaction). In a just-identified recursive model, path analysis yields the same
values for coefficients as does multiple regression (Kline, 1998). The advantage
of path analysis is that it provides for the simultaneous estimation whereas
multiple regression requires separate analysis for each criterion variable,
namely stress and job satisfaction.
The work dimensions provided useful estimates of occupational outcomes
since they predicted 50 per cent of the score for stress ðR 2 ¼ 0:50Þ and stress
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plus work dimensions predicted 65 per cent of the score for job satisfaction
ðR 2 ¼ 0:65Þ. Overall, stress had a significant negative relationship with job
satisfaction ðb ¼ 20:28, se ¼ 0:09, t ¼ 23:18Þ (see Table II).
Stress was associated with the lack of clarity in the work role, disruption of
everyday routine, disruption of personal life, but not discomfort due to the
physical environment, nor were the psychosocial factors of leadership,
teamwork and social climate associated with stress or the absence of it. Job
satisfaction was influenced by a supportive work climate, the perception of
being part of a team, and an absence of feelings that one’s personal life had
been disrupted.

Interpretation of results
The hypothesis that the arduous physical aspects of the workplace are
associated with stress was not supported. This latter finding is surprising
given that the physical hardships of the at sea environment are well
documented. However, examination of the mean scores for the items indicated
that the naval trainees did not report a particularly harsh existence on board

Stress Job satisfaction

(R2 ¼ 0.50) (R2 ¼ 0.65)
Standard Standard
b error t b error t

Clarity of the work role 2 0.30 0.10 2 2.96** 0.03 0.09 0.35
Ship climate 2 0.15 0.11 2 1.42 0.45 0.09 4.78**
Table II. Disruption of personal relationships 2 0.21 0.09 2 2.33* 0.38 0.08 4.74**
Path analysis Teamwork 2 0.04 0.09 2 0.40 0.19 0.08 2.37*
coefficients – work Leadership 0.03 0.10 0.29 2 0.15 0.09 21.70
dimensions as Physical environment 2 0.02 0.08 2 0.28 2 0.04 0.07 20.57
predictors of stress Disruption of everyday routine 2 0.31 0.09 2 3.44** 0.09 0.08 1.17
and job satisfaction Notes: * p , 0:05; ** p , 0:01
 ship. Life on board ship involved physical deprivation (trainees reported not Workplace,
receiving enough sleep, going without fresh food, and insufficient exercise) but stress and job
otherwise, trainees did not experience the incessant harshness of a capsule satisfaction
environment.
The psychosocial dimensions of teamwork, leadership and supportive
climate were not associated with stress in the current study. However, two of
these dimensions, teamwork and supportive climate on board ship were
15
important for maintaining job satisfaction. The general model described by
Lyne et al. (2000) was not useful for predicting the relationship between
workplace dimensions, stress and job satisfaction amongst navy trainees. This
general model predicts that the same workplace factors are expected to impact
on job satisfaction as do on stress. This was not the case in the current study
since disruption of personal relationships was the only workplace dimension
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that predicted both stress and job satisfaction. Kirkcaldy and Martin (2000)
obtained similar results with a group of nurses. In that study, home/work
conflict was associated with loss of job satisfaction and psychological ill health
whilst a climate of organisational support was associated with job satisfaction.
It would appear that job satisfaction is influenced by factors distinct from those
related to stress, as well as being influenced by stress.
A positive working atmosphere was particularly important for the job
satisfaction of trainees. They reported a positive learning environment aboard
ship and rare or no incidence of harassment, or being fearful of others on board.
Indeed, they reported a prevalent attitude of the crew being positive towards
men and women working well together. This positive perception could be
attributed to the success of Navy policy promoting “good working relations” in
the workplace.
The hypothesis that stress detracts from job satisfaction for navy trainees
was supported. Although often reported, a negative relationship is not always
the case (Brown et al., 1996). The job strain model (Karasek, 1979) postulates
that the potentially stressful demands of a job can be moderated if a worker has
decision latitude. In a recent study, De Jonge et al. (2000) showed that the risk of
emotional exhaustion, psychosomatic complaints and job satisfaction
increased with the combination of heightened job demands and lessening
control over determining elements of the job. The current study involved a
homogeneous group of trainees who lack decision latitude and who work in a
demanding training environment. Decision latitude is unlikely to change with
experience due to the practice of relying on standard operating procedures and
the need to achieve coordination. However, job demands might be perceived as
less ambiguous and less strenuous as a result of experience and increased
competency in performing required tasks. Indeed, Beland and Quester (1991)
indicate that the experience level of a crew is associated with the efficient
functioning of the ship, as measured by the percentage of time free of serious
failures. This relationship poses problems for managing stress at sea. Increased
 JMP time at sea is needed to improve competency in the work role but at the expense
18,1 of continued disruption of personal life.
The current study indicates that aspects of the daily work life at sea
contribute to stress in a systematic way and that stress cannot be regarded
solely as an individual weakness or lack of suitability. Stress has been
associated with a number of dysfunctional outcomes in the workplace so there
16 exists good reasons to rectify work practices that contribute to it. Disruption to
personal rest and sustenance, and uncertainty about work role aboard a navy
ship can stem from resource constraints. One clear example is the shift to
minimum crew ships on which crews have to cover additional tasks to
compensate for the downsizing of crew numbers. Other problems relate to job
design issues and the failure to match training activity with competency level
or the readiness of trainees for a task. According to the integrative model of
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stress, successful interventions would need to increase the individual’s

certainty over desired job related outcomes, and shorter training cycles may
impair this confidence.
The experience of stress was also found to negatively influence the job
satisfaction for naval trainees. This link with job satisfaction has important
implications for turnover and provides an additional reason for reducing the
levels of experienced stress. Conflict between the demands of navy life and the
expectations of personal relationships contributed to lower job satisfaction.
Key problems were the amount of separation from family and friends, and loss
of control over one’s personal life. The nature of the job makes it difficult to
reduce separation from family and friends. However, important features of
stress are uncertainty and loss of control. Alleviating these aspects of
separation is likely to help reduce stress. Finally, the results of the current
study suggest that different strategies are required for alleviating stress in the
at sea environment for navy trainees than that required for improving job
satisfaction.

Theoretical issues
Individual traits and learnt coping skills have been associated with decreased
propensity to stress or strain although most studies perceive selected
individual qualities as moderators of the relationships between stressors and
stress symptoms (Beehr and Newman, 1978; Cooper and Marshall, 1976;
Kirkcaldy et al., 1999).
The influence of some workplace contingencies may interact with the coping
styles of the individual. Although Munro et al. (1998) found that the absence of
social support was an important source of stress for nurses, Kirkcaldy and
Furnham (1995) established an interaction effect between the individual’s
preference for social support as a coping style, and both physical and mental ill
health. Also, their explanation of the double-edged nature of social support,
(“the more you receive the more you are usually expected to give” (Kirkcaldy
 and Furnham, 1995, p. 124)) cautions against expecting that all effects will be Workplace,
monotonic. stress and job
The personality traits of external locus of control and type A behaviours satisfaction
are associated with higher perceived levels of stress originating from work
place dimensions (Kirkcaldy et al., in press). Internal locus of control linked
to better psychological health and a lower level of occupational stress, and
greater job satisfaction. However, in the same study, different trait
17
combinations responded differently to the various workplace dimensions.
This pattern of results indicates that there are general effects due to
personality traits, as well as interactions with environmental dimensions.
Emphasising the role of individual differences in relation to stress in the
workplace could present the temptation to see stress as a personal
weakness or failing not as a systematic problem of work design. Taylor
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et al. (1997) maintain that individual characteristics are nested within social
environments and reject the notion that health effects of environments can
be reduced or explained by individual-level factors. Furthermore, when
these environments come under the control of management practices within
the organisational setting, there exists the opportunity for management to
take action that can influence the workplace risk factors. Occupational
health and safety initiatives typically identify the physical risk factors in
the environment. Likewise, personnel practices can be used to minimise the
risk factors in the occupational and social environments of the organisation
(Frank, 2000).
Potentially, the person-situation triad (Funder, 2001) provides a useful model
for handling both individual differences and the presence of workplace design
issues. The situation has physical as well as psychosocial dimensions (Emslie
et al., 1999). The physical environment scale in the current study referred to
features of the workspace and was similar to the physical working conditions
scale used by Emslie et al. (1999). The disruption of everyday routine scale used
in the current study identified another aspect of the work place, namely the
direct impact of work on bodily cycles (e.g. food and sleep). Additionally there
are work design characteristics, such as decision latitude, that are distinctly
different to psychosocial perception and could be expected to interact with
personality traits such as locus of control. Defining dimensions in this manner
may provide an alternative typology for classifying the salient characteristics
of the situation.

Implications
The results of the current study justify the observation by Sparks and Cooper
(1999) on the need to develop more job specific accounts of the relationship
between workplace dimensions and stress. Although comparison with capsule
environments provided a rationale for generating specific hypotheses, an
underlying theoretical explanation was not used. The next step is to attempt to
 JMP explain the results by reference to a model of stress. Beehr and Bhagat (1985)
18,1 describe an integrative model of stress that is potentially relevant. They
propose that stress is a function of the perceived uncertainty in obtaining
outcomes, perceived importance of these outcomes, and duration. According to
this model, stress was experienced due to loss of control over obtaining desired
outcomes on the job (due to ambiguity of work role, lack of experience with
18 work patterns and lack of control over managing the impact of absence on
personal relationships).
The concept of controllability provides a basis for developing theoretical
linkage between stress and job satisfaction. Bussing et al. (1999) outline a
model of work satisfaction in which a person builds up a state of steady
relaxation as a result of met expectations and needs or conversely, indistinct
dissatisfaction as a result of unsatisfied needs and expectations. The met
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expectations depend on aspirations and controllability over aspects of the work

situation. Controllability serves as primary means of regulating the person-
work interaction and influences the development of forms of work satisfaction.
Different work practices have been found to increase sense of control
experienced by workers. The attraction of this approach is that aspects of
workplace design can be used to predict the level of uncertainty without
reference to individual factors such as personality or coping skills (Lazarus,
1993), although interaction effects may still be present (Kirkcaldy et al., in
press).

Limitations
Several limitations of the study need to be considered. First, it was cross-
sectional. This limitation was addressed by referring to the literature on
capsule environments in order to specify the prominent factors in the
workplace. This approach avoided a shotgun approach. Another limitation of a
cross-sectional design is that it is not possible to determine the causal
relationship between stress and job satisfaction. However, this problem stems
principally from the lack of clear theory defining the relationship between the
two variables. The current study contributes by identifying potential grounds
for theoretical links.
Second, the measures were self-report which could result in a possible
inflation of the relationships between independent and dependent variables.
Self-report measures mean that cause and effect can be inflated due to common
method variance. This limitation was handled through survey design,
discussed in the method section, and the choice of statistical analysis that
enabled variance to be partitioned. A strength of the current study is that
respondents did not rate their satisfaction with workplace dimensions but
rather rated the frequency of certain behaviours or events. The importance of
this approach is that distinct dimensions of the workplace were being
measured without reference to stress or satisfaction.
 Conclusion Workplace,
The authors recommend that workplace surveys measuring job satisfaction stress and job
and occupational stress incorporate distinct measures of workplace dimensions satisfaction
in order to avoid confounding the two sets of measures. Relevant workplace
dimensions can be identified by comparison with workplaces that share salient
characteristics. This approach identifies important similarities that provide the
basis for generalisations that can be tested to evolve theoretical understanding.
19

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