Unit-1

Overview of optical fiber communication : The general system, Advantages of

optical fiber communication. Optical spectral band.
Optical Fiber waveguides : Introduction, Ray theory transmission Total internal
reflection, acceptance angle, numerical aperture, skew rays.
Electromagnetic mode theory for optical propagation : Electromagnetic waves, modes
in a planar guide, phase and group velocity. phase shift with total internal reflection and
the evanescent field, goos hanchen shift.
Q. 1. Draw the block diagram of optical fiber communication system. Enlist
the advantage of optical communication. [AKTU 2011-12, 13-14, Marks 5]
Or
Sketch the block diagram of optical fiber communication system.
[AKTU 2012-13, Marks 5]
List out various advantages of optical fiber communication system over the
conventional electrical communication system. [AKTU 2012-13, Marks 5]
Or
Write the advantages of optical fiber communication. Also explain the fiber
structure. [AKTU 2010-11, Marks 5]
Or
Explain block diagram of optical fiber communication system.
[AKTU 2009-10, Marks 5] [AKTU 2017-18, Marks 2]
Ans.
Communication system
Tx Rx
Information Transmitter Transmission Receiver
(a) (modulator) (demodulator) Destination
source medium

Optical fiber communication system

Transmission Medium
Optical
Information Electrical source Optical fiber
source transmitter LASER cable
/LED

(b)
Optical
detector Electrical
Destination
Photodiode receiver
/APD

Fig.1 : (a) The general communication system. (b) The optical fiber communication system
Unit-1 [2] (Buddha Series) Optical Fiber Communication

An optical fiber communication system is similar in basic concept to any type of

communication system. A block schematic of a general communication system is shown in
Fig. 1(a). In general system communication is done through twisted wire or through
wireless medium.
For optical fiber communications the system shown Fig. 1(b). In this case the
information source provides an electrical signal to a transmitter comprising an electrical
stage which drives an optical source to give modulation of the lightwave carrier. The
optical source which provides the electricaloptical conversion may be either a
semiconductor laser or light-emitting diode (LED). The transmission medium consists of
an optical fiber cable and the receiver consists of an optical detector which drives a further
electrical stage and hence provides demodulation of the optical carrier. Photodiodes (p-n,
p-i-n or avalanche) and, in some instances, phototransistors and photoconductors are
utilized for the detection of the optical signal and the optical-electrical conversion. Thus
there is a requirement for electrical interfacing at either end of the optical link and at
present the signal processing is usually performed electrically.
The optical carrier may be modulated using either an analog or digital information
signal. In the system shown in Figure 1(b) analog modulation involves the variation of the
light emitted from the optical source in a continuous manner. With digital modulation,
however, discrete changes in the light intensity are obtained (i.e., on-off pulses). Although
often simpler to implement, analog modulation with an optical fiber communication
system is less efficient, requiring a far higher signal-to-noise ratio at the receiver than
digital modulation. Also, the linearity needed for anglog modulation is not always provided
by semiconductor optical sources, especially at high modulation frequencies. For these
reasons, analog optical fiber communication links are generally limited to shorter
distances and lower bandwidth operation than digital links.

Laser Amplifier
Encoder drive and Decoder
circuit Fiber equalizer
Laser cable APD

Digital
information Digital
source output
Fig. 2 : A digital optical fiber link.

A Digital Optical Fiber Link

As shown in Fig. 2 block schematic of a typical digital optical fiber link. Initially, the
input digital signal from the information source is suitably encoded for optical
transmission. The laser drive circuit directly modulates the intensity of the semiconductor
laser with the encoded digital signal. Hence a digital optical signal is launched into the
optical fiber cable. The avalanche photodiode (APD) detector is followed by a front-end
amplifier and equalizer or filter to provide gain as well as linear signal processing and
noise bandwidth reduction. Finally, the signal obtained is decoded to give the original
digital information.
Optical Fiber Communication [3] (Buddha Series) Unit-1

Advantage of Optical Communication

Optical fiber communication offers a number of advantages over other
communication systems because it has very low attenuation :
(a) Enormous potential bandwidth : The optical fiber communication offers
frequency in the range of 1013 to 1016 Hz which yields a far greater potential transmission
bandwidth. At present, the bandwidth available to fiber system is not fully utilized but
modulation over three hundred kilometer without repeaters is possible.
(b) Small size and weight : Fiber cables have very small diameter, just like a hair,
rather than when it cover with jackets for protection still they are very light and small
diameter.
(c) Electrical Isolation : Optical fibers are fabricated from glass or sometimes a
plastic polymer, they are electrical insulators and they do not exhibit earth loop.
(d) Immunity to Interference and cross talk : Optical fiber from a dielectric
waveguide and are therefore free from electromagnetic interference (EMI), radio
frequency interference (RFI) or switching transients electromagnetic pulses.
(e) Signal Security : The light from optical fiber does not radiate significantly and
therefore they provide a high degree of signal security.
(f) Low transmission loss : The attenuation in optical fiber cable is very low
(around 0.2 dB/km) as compare to other communication channels.
(g) Ruggedness and flexibility : Optical fibers are manufactured with very high
tensile strength. The fiber may bent to quite small radii or twisted without damage.
(h) System reliability and ease of maintenance : It reduces the requirement of
intermediate repeaters or live amplifiers to boost the transmitted signal strength. The
reliability is high due to predicted life time of 20 years to 30 years.
Disadvantages
(a) Optical cables can be handled with a skilled hand, the perfect joining of cable is
most important otherwise signal lost in between the cable.
(b) The detection of faulty area is very hard because these cable situated under
Mud.
(c) The whole establishment of optical cables is very expensive.
(d) Bending loss occurs, so cable must be properly aligned.
Q. 2. Define refractive index of fibre. [Marks 2]
Ans. The refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the velocity of light in
a vacuum to the velocity of light in the medium.
A ray of light travels more slowly in an optically dense medium than in one that is less
dense, and the refractive index gives a measure of this effect.
Q. 3. What is Total Internal Reflection? Explain Snell’s law.
[AKTU 2013, 14 Marks 5]
Or
How does light will propagate in optical fiber.
Unit-1 [4] (Buddha Series) Optical Fiber Communication

Or
Define
(i) Reflection
(ii) Refraction
(iii) Snell’s law of refraction
(iv) Critical angle
(v) Total internal reflection
Ans. (i) Reflection : When a ray is incident on the interface between two dielectrics
of differing refractive indices and back into the originating dielectric medium is called as
reflection of wave as shown in Fig. 3.(a).
(ii) Refraction : When a ray is incident on the interface between two dielectrics of
differing refractive indices (e.g., glass-air), and goes to other medium is known as
refraction as shown in Fig. 3(a).
(iii) Snell’s law : It may be observed that the ray approaching the interface is
propagating in a dielectric of refractive index n1 and is at an angle ϕ1 to the normal at the
surface of the interface. If the dielectric on the other side of the interface, has a refractive
index n2 which is less than n1, then the refraction is such that the ray path in this lower
index medium is at an angle ϕ2 to the normal, where ϕ2 is greater than ϕ1. The angles of
incidence ϕ1 and refraction ϕ2 are related to each other and to the refractive indices of the
dielectrics by Snell’s law of refraction, which states that :
n 1 sin φ1 = n 2 sin φ2
sin φ1 n 2
=
sin φ2 n1
Refracted Refracted No Refracted
Rarer n < n ray
ray ray
medium 2 1
φ2
Air φ2 = 90°
θ2
θ1 θ1 θ1 = θc θ1 = θc θ1 θ1
Denser n1
medium φ1 < φc φ1 = φc
Glass φ1 > φc
Incident Reflected
Reflected
ray ray
ray (b) (c)
(a)
Fig.3 : Light rays incident on a high to low refractive index interface (e.g., glass-air) : (a) refraction; (b)
the limiting case of refraction showing the critical ray at an angle ϕc; (c) total internal refection where
ϕ > ϕc.

(iv) Critical angle : It may also be observed in Fig. 3(a) that a small amount of light
is reflected back into the originating dielectric medium (partial internal reflection). As n1
is greater than n2, the angle of refraction is always greater than the angle of incidence.
Thus when the angle of refraction is 90° and the refracted ray emerges parallel to the
interface between the dielectrics, the angle of incidence must be less than 90°. This is the
limiting case of refraction and the angle of incidence is now known as the critical angle ϕ c ,
as shown in Fig. 3(b). Critical angle is given by :
Optical Fiber Communication [5] (Buddha Series) Unit-1

n2
sin φc =
n1
(v) Total internal reflection : At angles of incidence greater than the critical angle
the light is reflected back into the originating dielectric medium is known as total internal
reflection as shown in Fig. 3(c).
(vi) Propagation of light in optical fiber : Total internal reflection occurs at the
interface between two dielectrics of differing indices when light is incident on the dielectric
of lower index from the dielectric of higher index, and the angle of incidence of the ray
exceeds the critical value. This is the mechanism by which light at a sufficiently shallow
angle (less than 90° - ϕc) may be considered to propagate down an optical fiber with low
loss. Fig 4 illustrates the transmission of a light ray in an optical fiber via a series of total
internal reflections at the interface of the silica core and the slightly lower refractive index
silica cladding. The ray has an angle of incidence ϕ at the interface which is greater than
the critical angle and is reflected at the same angle to the normal. The light ray shown in
Fig. 4 is known as a meridional ray as it passes through the axis of the fiber core.
Low refractive index cladding n2

φ φ φ φ
Core axis
φ φ
High refractive index core n1

Fig. 4 : The transmission of a light ray in a perfect optical fiber.

Q. 4. Explain the concept of acceptance angle in optical fiber with the help of
proper diagram. How it is related to the numerical aperture of optical fiber?
[AKTU 2012-2013, Marks 5] [AKTU 2017-18, Marks 2]
Or
What do you mean by Acceptance Angle of an optical fiber, show how it is
related to refractive index of the fiber core, cladding and medium where fiber is
placed?
Or
What do you mean by Acceptance Angle of an optical fiber? Derive an
expression for numerical aperture of optical fiber. [AKTU 2013-14, Marks 5]
Or
What is Acceptance Angle? Discuss its importance. [AKTU 2015-16 Marks 2]
Ans. Acceptance Angle and Acceptance Cone : The geometry concerned with
launching a light ray into an optical fiber is shown in Fig. 5., which illustrates a meridional
ray A at the critical angle ϕc within the fiber at the core-cladding interface. It may be
observed that this ray enters the fiber core at an angle θa to the fiber axis and is refracted
at the air-core interface before transmission to the core-cladding interface at the critical
angle. Hence, any rays which are incident into the fiber core at an angle greater than θa
will be transmitted to the core-cladding interface at an angle less than ϕc, and will not be
Unit-1 [6] (Buddha Series) Optical Fiber Communication

totally internally reflected. This situation is also illustrated in Fig. 5, where the incident
ray B at an angle greater than θa is refracted into the cladding and eventually lost by
radiation.
Thus for rays to be transmitted by total internal reflection within the fiber core they
must be incident on the fiber core within an acceptance cone defined by the conical half
angle θa. Hence θa is the maximum angle to the axis at which light may enter the fiber in
order to be propagated, and is often referred to as the acceptance angle θa for the fiber.

A
Conical
half Lost by radiation
Acceptance Cone

angle
θa
φc Core (n1) n1 > n2

Cladding (n2)

Fig. 5 :The acceptance angle θa when launching light into an optical fiber.

Expression for Numerical Aperture of Optical Fiber

Fig. 6 shows a light ray incident on the fiber core at an angle θ 1 to the fiber axis which
is less than the acceptance angle for the fiber θa.
Air [refractive index (n0)]

Cladding (n2) (n1 > n2)

Cone (n1) n1 (Denser medium)

θ1 A C
θ2 φL φ

B
n2 (Rarer medium)

Fig. 6 : The ray path for a meridional ray launched into an optical fiber in air at an input
angle less than the acceptance angle for the fiber.
The ray enters the fiber from a medium (air) of refractive index n 0 , and the fiber core
has a refractive index n 1, which is slightly greater than the cladding refractive index n 2 .
Using Snell’s law given by
n 0 sin θ 1 = n 1 sin θ 2
Considering the right-angled triangle ABC indicated in Fig. 6, then :
π
θ = − θ2
2
Optical Fiber Communication [7] (Buddha Series) Unit-1

Where φ is greater than the critical angle at the core-cladding interface. Hence above
eq. becomes :
n 0 sin φ1 = n 1 cos φ
n 0 sin θ 1 = n 1( 1 − sin 2 φ )1/2
∴ sin 2 φ + cos 2 φ = 1
When the limiting case for total internal reflection is considered, φ becomes equal to
the critical angle for the core-cladding interface also in this limiting case θ 1 becomes the
acceptance angle for the fiber θa. Combining these limiting cases into above eq. gives :
n 0 sin θ a = ( n 12 − n 22 )1/2
Apart from relating the acceptance angle to therefractive indices, serves as the basis
for the definition of the importance optical fiber parameter, the numerical aperture (NA).
Hence the NA is defined as :
NA = n 0 sin θ a = ( n 12 − n 22 )1/2
The NA may also be given in terms of the relative refractive index difference ∆
between the core and the cladding which is defined as :
n 12 − n 22
∆=
2n 12
n1 − n 2
≅ for ∆ << 1
n1
Hence combining Eqn.
NA = n 1( 2∆ )1/2
Q. 5. Define Numerical Aperture for an optical fibre mathematically and
what does its signify? [AKTU 2015-16, Marks 5]
Ans. Numerical Aperture (NA) : is relationship between acceptance angle and
refractive indexes. Fig shows a light ray incident on the fiber core at an angle θa to the fiber
axis which is less than the acceptance angle for the fiber. The ray enters to the fiber from
medium (air) of refractive index number. NA is given by;
NA = n 0 sin θ a = ( n 12 − n 22 )1/2
Q. 6. What is skew ray and write expression for NA for Skew ray?
Ans. Skew Rays : Skew rays are the rays which does not follow the fiber axis. These
rays are not easy to visualize, only the direction can be predicted in helical path of direction
change of 2γ at each reflection. γ is the angle between the projection of the ray in the two
dimension and the radii of the fiber core at the point of reflection as shown in Fig. 7. When
the light input to the fiber is non uniform, rays will therefore tend to have a smoothing
effect on the distribution of light as it is transmitted, giving more information output. NA
in case of skew rays,
NA = η 0 sin θ as cos γ = ( η12 − η 22 )1/2
Unit-1 [8] (Buddha Series) Optical Fiber Communication

where θ as as is acceptance angle of skew ray and γ is angle

Skew ray
Cladding

n1 n2 α
γ
γ
Core

φz
Fig. 7 : Skew ray

Q. 7. Discuss Skew rays. An optical fiber in air has NA 0.4 compare the
acceptance angle for skew rays which changes direction by 100° at each
reflection. [AKTU 2015-16 Marks 5]
Or
Differentiate between meridional and skew rays. An optical fiber in air has
NA 0.4 compare the acceptance angle for skew rays which changes direction by
100° at each reflection. [AKTU 2011-12, Marks 5]
Ans. Skew Rays : See Qn. 6
Differentiate between meridional and skew rays : See Qn. 8.
Numerical :
Given that,
NA = 04
.
Since skew rays changes direction by 100° at each reflection, therefore
r = 50
The acceptance angle for skew rays is given by
 NA 
θas = sin −1  
 cos γ 
 04 . 
= sin −1  
 cos 50 
θas = 385
. °
Q. 8. With the suitable ray diagram, explain the propagation of skew rays in
the optical waveguide and compare it with meridional ray.
[AKTU 2012-13, Marks 5]
Or
Differentiate between skew rays and meridional rays. Explain the nature of
light. [AKTU 2010-11, Marks 5]
Ans. Difference between skew rays and meridional rays are listed ahead :
Optical Fiber Communication [9] (Buddha Series) Unit-1

Meridional Rays Skew Rays

(i) These rays pass through the axis of the fiber These rays do not pass through the axis of
core. fiber.
(ii) It does not follow helical path through the It follows the helical path.
fiber.
(iii) These rays are less in number. These rays out number the meridional rays.
(iv) They can be viewed in 2-D and do not They cannot be visualized easily in 2-D and
change direction. also change direction at each reflection.
(v) The meridional rays point of emergence The skew rays point of emergence depend
depend on input conditions of the fiber. upon no. of reflections they undergo.
(vi) These are accepted at smaller axial angle. These are accepted at larger axial angles.
(vii) These rays do not increase the light These rays increase the light gathering
gathering ability. ability.
Q. 9. Describe the structure of optical waveguide?
Ans. Optical fiber is a dielectric waveguide or medium in which information (voice,
data or video) is transmitted through a glass or plastic fiber, in the form of light,. The basic
structure of an optical fiber is shown in fig. 10. It consists of a transparent core with a
refractive index n1 surrounded by a transparent cladding of a slightly less refractive index
n2. The refractive index of cladding is less than 1%, lower than that of core. Typical values
for example are a core refractive index of 1.47 and a cladding index of 1.46. The cladding
supports the waveguide structure, protects the core from absorbing surface contaminants
and when adequately thick, substantially reduces the radiation loss to the surrounding
air.
Glass core fibers tend to have low loss in comparison with plastic core fibers.
Additionally, most of the fibers are encapsulated in an elastic, abrasion-resistant plastic
material which mechanically isolates the fibers from small geometrical irregularities and
distortions. A set of guided electromagnetic waves, also called the modes of the
waveguide, can describe the propagation of light along the waveguide. Only a certain
number of modes are capable of propagating through the waveguide.
φ 245 µm
φ 125 µm
φ 50 µm

Core
Cladding
Coating
Fig. 8 : Structure of Optical Fiber
Unit-1 [10] (Buddha Series) Optical Fiber Communication

Q. 10. Describe the phenomenon of light propagation in optical fiber?

Ans. Light Propagation in Optical Fiber : This is the most interesting thing
about optical fiber cables. Such an indispensable part of modern day communication
system works on an extremely simple property of light ray i.e., Total Internal Reflection.
As we all know that when light ray is passing from denser (refractive index is higher)
dielectric medium to a rarer (refractive index is lower) dielectric medium then from the
point of incidence at the interface it bends away from the normal. When the incidence
angle is sufficiently high such that the angle of refraction is 90° then it is called critical
angle. Now if light ray falls at the interface of the two mediums at an angle greater than
the critical angle then the light ray falls at the interface of the two mediums at an angle
greater than the critical angle then the light ray gets reflected back to the originating
medium with high efficiency (around 99.9%) i.e., total internal reflection occurs. With the
help of innumerable total internal reflections light waves are propagated along the fiber
with low loss. In this context, two parameters are very crucial namely Acceptance Angle
and Numerical Aperture.

Cladding n = 1.47

TIR
θ1

θA
Core n = 1.5

Cladding

Fig. 9 : Propagation of light in a fiber-optic.

Q. 11. Define optical mode?

Ans. Modes : In a planar guide, TE ( E 2 = 0) and TM ( H 2 = 0) modes are obtained
within the dielectric cylinder. Thus two integers, 1 and m are necessary in order to specify
the modes, the single integer (m) required for the planar guide, for cylindrical waveguide
we refer TE 1m and TM in modes. Modes in Fiber: There are two fiber modes exists.
(a) Single mode Fiber
(b) Multi mode Fiber
The optical fiber is a dielectric waveguide that operates at optical frequencies. The
fiber waveguide is normally cylindrical in form. Single mode fiber sustains only one mode
of propagation, whereas multimode fibers contain many hundreds of modes. The diameter
of core of SMF is comparatively very small from MMF. A disadvantage of MMF is that they
suffer from intermodal dispersion but it can be reduced.
Optical Fiber Communication [11] (Buddha Series) Unit-1

n1

n2

Single Mode Fiber

n2
n1

n1

n2

Multi Mode Fiber

Fig. 10
Q. 12. Write short notes on Mode theory for circular waveguide.
Ans. Mode Theory for Circular Waveguide : In optical fibers, the core cladding
boundary conditions lead to a coupling between the electric and magnetic field
components. This gives rise to hybrid modes, which means optical waveguide analysis is
more complex than metallic waveguide analysis. Fibers are constructed so that the
TE0 TE1 TE2
Exponential
Cladding n2 decay

Harmonic
Core n1 variation

Cladding n2 Exponential
decay

Fig. 11
Unit-1 [12] (Buddha Series) Optical Fiber Communication

difference in the core and cladding indexes of refraction is very small, i.e., “η1 − η2 << 1”.
The field components are called linearly polarized (LP) modes and labeled as LP jm, where
j and m are integers designating mode solutions. Figure shows a electric field distribution
for several of the lower order guided modes in a symmetrical slab waveguide.
The core of this waveguide is a dielectric slab of index η1 that is sandwiched between
two dielectric layers which have refractive indexes η2 < η1. Fig shows the field patterns of
several of the lower order transverse electric (TE) modes. The order of a mode is equal to
the ray congruence or same corresponding to this mode makes with the plane of the
waveguide. The plot shows that the electric fields of the guided modes are not completely
confined to the central dielectric slab. The field varies harmonically in the guiding region of
the refractive index η1 and decay exponentially outside of the region. For low order modes
the fields are tightly concentrated near the center of the slab, will little penetration into
the cladding region. On the other hand, for higher order modes the fields are distributed
more towards the edges of the guide and penetrate faster into the cladding region.
Q. 13. A silica optical fiber with a core diameter large enough to be
considered by ray diameter large enough to be considered by ray theory analysis
has a core refractive index of 1.5 and cladding refractive index of 1.47. determine
(i) Critical angle at core cladding interface
(ii) NA for the fiber
(iii) Acceptance angle [AKTU 2014-15, Marks 5]
Ans. Given that,
n 1 = 15
.
n 2 = 147
.
(i) Critical angle
n2
sin φc =
n1
φc = sin −1 ( 147150
. /. )
= sin −1 ( 098
. )
φc = 785
. °
(ii) NA for the fiber
NA = n 12 − n 22

. 2 − 147
= 150 . 2
= 009
.
NA = 030
.
(iii) Acceptance angle
θa = sin −1 NA
= sin −1 030
.
Optical Fiber Communication [13] (Buddha Series) Unit-1

θa = 174
. °
Q. 14. An optical fiber has numerical aperture of 0.344. What is the
acceptance angle for meridional rays? Calculate the acceptance angle for skew
rays which change direction by 100° at each reflection. [AKTU 2014-15, Marks 5]
Ans. Given that,
NA = 0344
.
2γ = 100°
γ = 50°
The acceptance angle for meridional ray is given by
θa = sin −1 ( NA)
= sin −1 ( 0344
. )
θa = 2012
. °
Now acceptance angle for skew rays
 NA 
θas = sin −1  
 cos γ 
 0344
. 
= sin −1  
 cos 50 
θas = 3234
. °
Q. 15. What is Phase and group velocity with suitable diagram and also write
their expression.
Or
Write short notes on Phase velocity and group velocity. Drive the relation
between group velocity and group index.
Ans. Phase velocity : Within all electromagnetic waves, whether plane or
otherwise, there are points of constant phase. For plane waves these constant phase points
form a surface which is referred to as a wavefront. As a monochromatic lightwave
propagates along a waveguide in the z direction these point of constant phase travel at a
phase velocity V p given by :
ω
vp =
β
where ω is the angular frequency of the wave.
Group velocity : It is impossible in practice to produce perfectly monochromatic
lightwaves, and light energy is generally composed of a sum of plane wave components of
different frequencies. Often the situation exists where a group of waves with closely
similar frequencies propagate so that their resultant forms a packet of waves. The
formation of such a wave packet resulting from the combination of two waves of slightly
different frequency propagating together is illustrated in Fig. 12. This wave packet does
not travel at the phase velocity of the individual waves but is observed to move at a group
velocity V g given by :
Unit-1 [14] (Buddha Series) Optical Fiber Communication

Envelope

Fig. 12 : The formation of a wave packet from the combination of two waves with nearly equal
frequencies. The envelope of the wave packet or group of waves travels at a group velocity vg.

δω
vg =
δβ
Relation between group velocity and group index : If propagation in an infinite
medium of refractive index n1 is considered, then the propagation constant may be written
as:
2π n 1ω
β = n1 =
λ c
where c is the velocity of light in free space, we assume propagation in the z direction
only and hence cos θ is equal to unity. we obtain the following relationship for the phase
velocity :
c
vp =
n1
δω dω
Similarly, employing above eq. where in the limit becomes , the group velocity :
δβ dβ
−1
dλ dω d  2π   −ω 
vg = ⋅ =  n1   
dβ dλ dλ  λ   λ 
−1
−ω  1 dn 1 n 1 
=  − 2
2πλ  λ dλ λ 
c c
= =
 dn 1  N g
 n1 − λ 
 dλ 
The parameter N g is known as the group index of the guide.
Optical Fiber Communication [15] (Buddha Series) Unit-1

Q. 16. Write short notes on evanescent field.

Ans. Evanescent Field : The amplitude of the field in the cladding is observed to
decay exponentially* in the x direction. Such a field, exhibiting an exponentially decaying
amplitude, is often referred to as an evanescent field. Fig. 13 shows a diagramatic
representation of the evanescent field. A field of this type stores energy and transports it in
the direction of propagation ( z ) but does not transport energy in the transverse direction
( x ). Nevertheless, the existence of an evanescent field beyond the plane of reflection in the
lower index medium indicates that optical energy is transmitted into the cladding.

Evanescent field

n2 Cladding
n1>n2 Guide

Wave vector
of the incident
plane wave
Standing wave

Fig.13 : The exponentially decaying evanescent field in the cladding of the optical waveguide.

Q. 17. What is requirement of cladding material with reference to

penetration of energy into cladding material.
Ans. The penetration of energy into the cladding underlines the importance of the
choice of cladding material. It gives rise to the following requirements :
1. The cladding should be transparent to light at the wavelengths over which the
guide is to operate.
2. Ideally, the cladding should consist of a solid material in order to avoid both
damage to the guide and the accumulation of foreign matter on the guide walls.
These effects degrade the reflection process by interaction with the evanescent
field. This is part explains the poor performance (high losses) of early optical
waveguides with air cladding.
3. The cladding thickness must be sufficient to allow the evanescent field to decay to a
low value or losses from the penetrating energy may be encountered. In many
cases, however, the magnitude of the field falls off rapidly with distance from the
guide-cladding interface. This may occur within distances equivalent to a few
wavelengths of the transmitted light.
Therefore, the most widely used optical fibers consist of a core and cladding, both
made of glass. The cladding refractive index is thus higher than would be the case with
liquid or gaseous cladding giving a lower numerical aperture for the fiber, but it provides a
far more practical solution.
Unit-1 [16] (Buddha Series) Optical Fiber Communication

Q. 18. Define Goos-Haenchen shift with proper figure.

Ans. Reflected beam is shifted laterally from the trajectory predicted by simple ray
theory analysis, as illustrated in Fig. 14. This lateral displacement is known as the
Goos-Haenchen shift, after its first observers. The geometric reflection appears to take
place at a virtual reflecting plane which is parallel to the dielectric interface in the lower
index medium, as indicated in Fig. 11. Utilizing wave theory it is possible to determine this
lateral shift. Although it is very small (d ≈ 006
. to 0.10 µm for a silvered glass interface at a
wavelength of 0.05 µm) and difficult to observe. However, this concept provides an
important insight into the guidance mechanism of dielectric optical waveguides.

Virtual reflecting plane

Reflecting
interface Penetration
n2
depth
n1>n2
φ1 φ1

Lateral shift
Q. 19. What is difference between Single Mode Fiber and Multimode Fiber.
Ans. Comparison between Single Mode Fiber and Multimode Fiber
Specification Single mode fiber Multimode fiber
Cost of fiber Less Expensive Expensive
Transmission Equipment More Expensive (laser diode) Basic and Low Cost (LED)
Attenuation Low High
Transmission wavelengths 1260 nm to 1640 nm 850 nm to 1300 nm
Application of Use Connections are more complex Larger core, easier to handle
Distance Access/medium/long haul Ocal networks (< 2 km)
networks (> 200 km)
Bandwidth Nearly infinite bandwidth (> 1 Limited Bandwidth (10 Gb/s
Tb/s for DWDM) over short distances)
Advantages/disadvantages Provides higher performance, The fiber is more costly, but the
but building the network is network deployment is
expensive relatively inexpensive.

Q. 17. What is difference between Step index and Graded index fiber.
Optical Fiber Communication [17] (Buddha Series) Unit-1

Ans. Difference between Step index and Graded index fiber are listed
below :
S. No. Step Index Fiber Graded Index Fiber
1. The refractive index of the core is uniform The refractive index of the core is made to
throughout and undergoes on abrupt vary gradually such that it is maximum at
change at the core cladding boundary the center of the core.
2. The diameter of the core is about 50-200 The diameter of the core is about 50 µm in
µm in the case of multimode fiber and 10 the case of multimode fiber
µm in the case of single mode fiber
3. The path of light propagation is zig-zag in The path of light is helical is manner
manner
4. Attenuation is more for multimode step Attenuation is less.
index fiber but for single mode it is very Explanation:
less. Here the light rays travel with different
Explanation : velocity in different paths because of the
when a ray travels through the longer variation in their refractive indices. At the
distances there will be some difference in outer edge it travels faster than near the
reflected angles. Hence high angle rays center. But almost all the rays reach the
arrive later than low angle rays causing exit at the same time due to helical path.
dispersion resulting in distorted output. Thus, there is no dispersion.
5. This fiber has lower bandwidth This fiber has higher bandwidth
6. The light ray propagation is in the form of The light propagation is in the form of
meridional rays and it passes through the skew rays and it will not cross fiber axis.
fiber axis.
7. No of modes of Propagation : No of modes of Propagation :
2 2 2
d × NA V d × NA
N slep = 4.9   = 4.9  
 λ  2  λ  v2
N Graded = =
where d = diameter of the fiber core 2 4
λ = wavelength N step
or N graded =
NA = Numerical Aperture 2
V − V -number is less than or equal to
2.405 for single mode fibers and greater
than 2.405 for multimode fibers.

Q. 21. Write applications of optical fiber.

Unit-1 [18] (Buddha Series) Optical Fiber Communication

Ans. Applications of Fiber-Optic : Fiber-optical communications systems are

being used more and more each day. Their primary use is in long-distance telephone
systems and cable TV system. Fiber-optic cables are no more expensive or complex to
install than standard electrical cables, yet their information carrying capacity is many
times greater.
In all cases, the fiber-optic cables replace conventional coaxial or twisted-pair cables.
Below are some applications which use fiber-optic cables :
1. TV studio to transmitter interconnection eliminating a microwave radio link.
2. Closed-circuit TV systems used in building for security.
3. Secure communications systems at military bases.
4. Computer networks, wide area and local area.
5. Shipboard communications.
6. Aircraft communications.
7. Aircraft controls.
8. Interconnection of measuring and monitoring instruments in plants and
laboratories.
9. Data acquisition and control signal communications in industrial process control
systems.
10. Nuclear plant instrumentation.
11. College campus communication.
12. Utilities (electrical, gas, and so on) station communications.
13. Cable TV systems replacing coaxial cable.
Q. 22. What is refractive index.
Ans. Refractive Index which we use to help us calculate the amount of bending which
takes place. Refractive index is defined as :
c
n=
v
where
n is the refractive index
C is the speed of light in a vacuum
v is the speed of light in the material
Q. 23. Calculate the critical angle at core-cladding interface within the fibre if core
refractive in = 146
. and relative index difference = 1%. Hence find NA.
Ans. Core refractive index n 1 = 146 .
Relative index difference ∆ = 1%
n 12 − n 22
∆=
2n 12
Optical Fiber Communication [19] (Buddha Series) Unit-1

n1 − n 2
∆≅
n1
1 146
. − n2
=
100 146
.
146
.
= 146
. − n2
100
146
.
n 2 = 146
. −
100
n 2 = 1445
.
n 
(i) Critical angle φc = sin −1  2 
 n1 
 1445
. 
= sin −1  
 146. 
= 818
. °
1/2
(ii) N.A. = n 1( 2∆ )
1/2
 1 
= 146
. 2 × 
 100 
N.A. = 2064
o