Some materials when they are cooled, below certain temperature their resistivity get abolished means

they exhibit the infinite conductivity. The property / phenomenon of infinite conductivity in materials
is called superconductivity.

Properties of Superconductors

The superconducting material shows some extraordinary properties which make them very important for
modern technology. The research is still going on to understand and utilise these extraordinary properties of
superconductors in various fields of technology. Such properties of superconductors are listed below-
1. Zero Electric Resistance (Infinite Conductivity)
2. Meissner Effect: Expulsion of magnetic field
3. Critical Temperature/Transition Temperature
4. Critical Magnetic Field
5. Persistent Currents
6. Josephson Currents
7. Critical Current

Zero Electric Resistance or Infinite Conductivity

In Superconducting state, the superconducting material shows the zero electric resistance (infinite
conductivity). When the sample of a superconducting material is cooled below its critical
temperature/transition temperature, its resistance reduces suddenly to zero. For example Mercury shows zero
resistance below 4k.

Meissner Effect (Expulsion of Magnetic Field)

A Superconductor, when it is cooled below the critical temperature Tc), expel the magnetic field and doesn’t
allow the magnetic field to penetrate inside it. This phenomenon in superconductors is called Meissner
effect. The meissner effect is shown in figure below-

Critical Temperature/Transition Temperature

Critical temperature of a superconducting material is the temperature at which the materials changes from
normal conducting state to superconducting state. This transition from normal conduc ting state (phase) to
superconducting state (phase) is sudden / sharp and complete. The transition of mercury from normal
conducting state to superconducting state is shown in figure below. An example of superconductors, is
Mercury. It becomes superconductor at 4k.

Critical Magnetic Field

The superconducting state / phase, of a superconducting material, breaks when the magnetic field (either
external or produced by current flowing superconductor itself) increases beyond a certain value and sample
starts behaving like an ordinary conductor. This certain value of magnetic field beyond which
superconductor returns back to ordinary state, is called Critical magnetic field. The value of critical
magnetic field depends on temperature. As the temperature (below the critical temperature) reduces the
value of critical magnetic field increase.The variation in critical magnetic field with temperature is shown in
figure

Persistent Current:

If a ring made of a superconductor is placed in a magnetic field above its critical temperature, now cool the
ring of superconductor below its critical temperature and now if we remove the magnetic field a current is
induced in ring due to its self-inductance. By Lenz law the direction of this induced current is such that it
opposes the change in flux passing through the ring. As the ring is in superconducting state (zero resistance),
the current induced is ring will be continue to flow this current is called the persistent current. This
persistent current produce a magnetic flux which makes the magnetic flux passing through the ring constant.

Josephson Current
If two superconductors are separated by a thin film of insulating material, which forms a low resistance
junction, it is found that the cooper pairs (formed by phonon interaction) of electrons, can tunnel from one
side of junction to the other side. The current, due to flow of such cooper pairs, is called Josephson Current.

Critical Current
When a current is passed through a conductor under superconducting state, a magnetic field is developed. If
the current increase beyond certain value the magnetic field increased up to critical value at which conductor
returns to its normal state. This value of current is called critical current.

Applications of Superconductivity
In modern field of technology the superconductivity is widely used in different fields of technology. Some
of these applications are listed below-

1. Medical: MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging), Ultra-Low Field Magnetic Resonance Imaging (ULF-
MRI), Magneto-encephalography (MEG) and Magnetic Source Imaging (MSI), Magneto-
cardiography (MCG) etc.
2. Electric field: Generators, motors, transformers, relays, magnetic energy storages (SMES),
superconducting magnets, HTS Induction Heater, Fusion etc.
3. Electronics: SQUIDS (superconducting quantum interference device), High Speed computing,
Quantum computing, Sensors, filters, circuitry, radar etc.
4. Transportation: Magnetically levitated trains, Marine Propulsion (magneto-hydrodynamic), Marine
Propulsion (motor) etc.
5. Physics: Particle Accelerators, Magnets, Plasma / fusion research etc.
SUPERCONDUCTIVE MOTORS AND GENERATORS

Superconducting electric machines are electromechanical systems that rely on the use of one or
more superconducting elements. Since superconductors have no DC resistance, they typically have
greater efficiency. The most important parameter that is of utmost interest in superconducting machine is the
generation of a very high magnetic field that is not possible in a conventional machine. This leads to a
substantial decrease in the motor volume; which means a great increase in the power density. However,
since superconductors only have zero resistance under a certain superconducting transition
temperature, Tc that is hundreds of degrees lower than room temperature, cryogenics are required.

Two new types of HTS electric machines are considered. The first is hysteresis rotors containing bulk HTS
elements. The Second is reluctance motors with component HTS Ferromagnetic rotors, consisting of joined
alternating bulk HTS (YBCO) and ferromagnetic (iron) plates, provide a new active material for
electromechanical purpose. Such rotors have anisotropic properties (ferromagnetic in one). Magnetic fields
in conventional motors and generators are created by large coils of copper or aluminum wire. HTS wires
have much higher current capacities, which means considerably smaller and more powerful motors and
generators can be built. In addition, due to the much lower value of electrical resistance in superconductive
machines, they have higher efficiencies compared with conventional copper machines. Fig.7. is cross section
view of the generator build at Emerson Electric. The rotor has 8 iron posts. The stator of the generator was
wound with copper wire in a 3 phase, 8 pole configuration. The generator was submerged in a container of
liquid nitrogen, and was driven by an external motor mounted above the generator. The generator was
loaded with three phase variable resistance bank. The bearing system consisted of conventional open ball
bearing that had been cleaned of all grease. The liquid nitrogen acted as the bearing lubricant.

Comparison between super conductor and conventional tech generators

Cost comparison is done between the generators working on super conducting technology and those
working on conventional tech and is shown in the “Superconducting Generator Cost Comparison”
chart.

The results obtained from the comparison show that the conventional technology costs cheaper when
dealing with low power levels. This is so because the cost of copper cable used in the conventional
machines is much less than that of the superconducting cable.
The cost of superconducting generators also increases because of the use of cryogenics to cool the
machine up to a specific temperature while the cooling cost of old generators is much less.

Compared with a conventional conductor machine[edit]

Superconducting electric machines typically have the following advantages:

1. Reduced resistive losses but only in the rotor electromagnet.

2. Reduced size and weight per power capacity without considering the refrigeration equipment.
There are also the following disadvantages:

1. The cost, size, weight, and complications of the cooling system.

2. A sudden decrease or elimination of motor or generator action if the superconductors leave their
superconductive state.
3. A greater tendency for rotor speed instability. A superconducting rotor does not have the inherent
damping of a conventional rotor. Its speed may hunt or oscillate around its synchronous speed.
4. Motor bearings need to be able to withstand cold or need to be insulated from the cold rotor.
5. As a synchronous motor, electronic control is essential for practical operation. Electronic control
introduces expensive harmonic loss in the supercooled rotor electromagnet.

SUPERCONDUCTIVE TRANSFORMERS:

Superconductive transformers are some of the other successful applications of superconductors in power
industry. Superconductive transformers have more current density than conventional ones and less copper
losses. This makes applicable the power transformation with more efficiency and less volume.
Moreover it is possible to use more wire turns in these transformers corresponding to less “V / T ” –
Volt per Turn – to reduce the core dimensions. With respect to the fact that size and weight of the
transformers are mostly dependent upon their core, this reduced core dimensions would in turn contribute to
great reduction in the final size and weight of the device.
Superconductive transformers usually have less impedance that improves the dynamic of the system.
Since they are very similar in construction to the SFCLs they can limit the fault currents as well. This would
prevent later damages to other devices and the transformer itself.
Another attractive feature of Superconductive transformers is their capability to work oil free. This is
valuable in places that transformers are subjected to fire hazards which is an ordinary case in chemical and
petroleum plants. Other advantages of these transformers are: capability to work continuously in overload
conditions without any lifetime loss –because of the ultra-cold operating environment-, improvement in volt-
age regulation, possibility to remove the core and etc

SUPERCONDUCTIVE MAGNETIC ENERGY STORAGE (SMES)

In last decades proper attention is being given to energy storage systems so as to improve the power system
performance. These storage systems include: flywheels, magnetic fields, batteries, SMES and etc. the latter
being more interested for its attractive characteristics.
SMES is a magnetic energy storage system that stores the energy in the magnetic field of a
superconductive coil and offers a high efficiency up to 95% in the energy storing / releasing process. The
rapid operation and high efficiency of this device in converting the energy would play a significant role in
improving the system dynamics. Vast studies are now performed in the large scale use of SMES in power
grids to solve the existing problems in transient modes as well as long term operations.

SUPERCONDUCTIVE CABLES

Cables are probably the first potential use of superconductors in power since these materials don’t have
electrical resistance. Therefore use of HTS for power transmission cables was among the first large-scale
applications that were envisaged after the discovery of high-Tc superconductivity. Having great advantages
over conventional cables like: more transmission capacity up to a factor of 3 to 5 and reduction of size up to
50%, superconductive cables received enhanced attention by utility companies. Figure 1 shows the structure
of a 3 phase induction cable. Scientists in Japan have recently managed to produce a low cost
superconductive cable using the Magnesium-Diboride powder, which is very flexible. Figure 2
schematically shows the process of manufacturing this brand new cable