Vernier scale

A vernier scale is a visual aid to take an accurate measurement reading

between two graduation markings on a linear scale by using mechanical
interpolation; thereby increasing resolution and reducing measurement
uncertainty by using Vernier acuity to reduce human estimation error.

The vernier is a subsidiary scale replacing a single measured-value

pointer, and has for instance ten divisions equal in distance to nine Vernier caliper scales; main at top, vernier
at bottom. It reads 3.58 ± 0.02 mm by
divisions on the main scale. The interpolated reading is obtained by
adding 3.00 mm (left red mark) on the fixed
observing which of the vernier scale graduations is co-incident with a main scale to vernier 0.58 mm (right red
graduation on the main scale, which is easier to perceive than visual mark). The main scale reading is that to the
estimation between two points. Such an arrangement can go to higher left of the zero on the vernier scale. The
resolution by using higher scale ratios, known as the vernier constant. A vernier reading is found by locating the best
vernier may be used on circular or straight scales where a simple linear aligned lines between the two scales. The
0.02 mm engraving indicates the caliper's
mechanism is adequate. Examples are calipers and micrometers to
readability and is the "Vernier constant" for
measure to fine tolerances, on sextants for navigation, on theodolites in this scale.
surveying, and generally on scientific instruments. The Vernier principle
of interpolation is also used for electronic displacement sensors such as
absolute encoders to measure linear or rotational movement, as part of an electronic measuring system.

Contents
History
Mechanism of a vernier scale
Least count or vernier constant
Vernier acuity
Zero error
Direct and retrograde verniers
See also
References
External links

History
Calipers without a scale originated in ancient China as early as the Xin dynasty (AD 9).[1][2] The secondary scale, which
contributed extra precision, was invented in 1631 by French mathematician Pierre Vernier (1580–1637). Its use was described in
detail in English in Navigatio Britannica (1750) by mathematician and historian John Barrow.[3] While calipers are the most
typical use of Vernier scales today, they were originally developed for angle-measuring instruments such as astronomical
quadrants.

In some languages, the Vernier scale is called a nonius after Portuguese mathematician, cosmographer Pedro Nunes (Latin Petrus
Nonius, 1502–1578). In English, this term was used in English until the end of the 18th century.[4] Nonius now refers to an earlier
instrument that Nunes developed.
The name "vernier" was popularised by the French astronomer Jérôme Lalande (1732–1807) through his Traité d'astronomie (2
vols) (1764).[5]

Mechanism of a vernier scale

The use of the vernier scale is shown on a vernier caliper which measures the
internal and the external diameters of an object.

The vernier scale is constructed so that it is spaced at a constant fraction of the

fixed main scale. So for a vernier with a constant of 0.1, each mark on the
vernier is spaced nine tenths of those on the main scale. If you put the two scales
together with zero points aligned, the first mark on the vernier scale is one tenth
short of the first main scale mark, the second two tenths short, and so on up to
the ninth mark—which is misaligned by nine tenths. Only when a full ten marks
are counted is there alignment, because the tenth mark is ten tenths—a whole
main scale unit—short, and therefore aligns with the ninth mark on the main
scale.
Vernier caliper with a vernier
Now if you move the vernier by a small amount, say, one tenth of its fixed main constant of 0.1 for clarity of
operation. The standard for a caliper
scale, the only pair of marks that come into alignment are the first pair, since
is usually a constant of 0.02
these were the only ones originally misaligned by one tenth. If we move it two
tenths, the second pair aligns, since these are the only ones originally misaligned
by that amount. If we move it five tenths, the fifth pair aligns—and so on. For
any movement, only one pair of marks aligns and that pair shows the value
between the marks on the fixed scale.

Least count or vernier constant

The difference between the value of one main scale division and the value of one Vernier caliper scale with the normal
Vernier scale division is known as least count of the Vernier. It is also known as 0.02 vernier constant, showing
Vernier constant. Let the measure of the smallest main scale reading, that is the measurement of object at 19.44 mm
distance between two consecutive graduations (also called its pitch) be S and the to two decimal places

distance between two consecutive Vernier scale graduations be V such that the
length of (n − 1) main scale divisions is equal to n Vernier scale divisions. Then,

the length of (n − 1) main scale divisions = the length of n vernier scale division, or
(n − 1)S = nV, or
nS − S = nV, or
S = nS − nV, or
S/n = (S − V), or
(Pitch)/(Number of Vernier scale divisions) = (Length of one main scale division − Length
of one Vernier scale division)

S/n and (S − V) are both equal to the least count of vernier scale, and are also called the vernier constant.

Vernier acuity
Vernier scales work so well because most people are especially good at detecting which of the lines is aligned and misaligned,
and that ability gets better with practice, in fact far exceeding the optical capability of the eye. This ability to detect alignment is
called Vernier acuity.[6] Historically, none of the alternative technologies exploited this or any other hyperacuity, giving the
Vernier scale an advantage over its competitors.[7]

Zero error
Zero error is defined as the condition where a measuring instrument registers a reading when there should not be any reading. In
case of vernier calipers it occurs when a zero on main scale does not coincide with a zero on vernier scale. The zero error may be
of two types: when the scale is towards numbers greater than zero it is positive; else negative. The method to use a vernier scale
or caliper with zero error is to use the formula: actual reading = main scale + vernier scale − (zero error).

Zero error may arise due to knocks that cause the calibration to be thrown off at the 0.00 mm when the jaws are perfectly closed
or just touching each other. Perfection is not necessarily equal (to scalar) to zero error. "Knocks" seem an excellent example of
mathematical imperfection. Alignment of linear and rotational mathematics is a difficult but interesting task as previously
described by Pierre Vernier and much elaborated in later ages.

Positive zero error refers to the case when the jaws of the vernier caliper are just
closed and the reading is a positive reading away from the actual reading of
0.00 mm. If the reading is 0.10 mm, the zero error is referred to as +0.10 mm.

Negative zero error refers to the case when the jaws of the vernier caliper are
just closed and the reading is a negative reading away from the actual reading of
0.00 mm. If the reading is 0.08 mm, the zero error is referred to as +0.08 mm.

If positive, the error is subtracted from the mean reading the instrument reads.
Thus if the instrument reads 4.39 cm and the error is +0.05, the actual length will
be 4.39 − 0.05 = 4.34. If negative, the error is added to the mean reading the Vernier micrometer reading
5.783 ± 0.001 mm, comprising
instrument reads. Thus if the instrument reads 4.39 cm and as above the error is
5.5 mm on main screw lead scale,
−0.05 cm, the actual length will be 4.39 + 0.05 = 4.44. (Considering that, the
0.28 mm on screw rotation scale,
quantity is called zero correction which should always be added algebraically to and 0.003 mm added from vernier.
the observed reading to the correct value.)

Zero error (ZE) = ±n × least count (LC)

Direct and retrograde verniers

Direct verniers are the most common. The indicating scale is constructed so that
when its zero point coincides with the start of the data scale, its graduations are
at a slightly smaller spacing than those on the data scale and so none but the last When the jaws are closed and if the
graduation coincide with any graduations on the data scale. N graduations of the reading is 0.10 mm, the zero error is
referred to as +0.10 mm. The method
indicating scale cover N−1 graduations of the data scale.
to use a vernier scale or caliper with
zero error is to use the formula
Retrograde verniers are found on some devices, including surveying
'actual reading = main scale + vernier
instruments.[8] A retrograde vernier is similar to the direct vernier, except its
scale − (zero error)' thus the actual
graduations are at a slightly larger spacing than on the main scale. N graduations reading is 19.00 + 0.54 − (0.10) =
of the indicating scale cover N+1 graduations of the data scale. The retrograde 19.44
vernier also extends backwards along the data scale.

Direct and retrograde verniers are read in the same manner.

See also
 Pierre Vernier
Micrometer
Nonius – device invented by Pedro Nunes
Transversal (instrument making) – technique in use prior to vernier scales

References
1. Ronan, Colin A.; Needham, Joseph (24 June 1994). The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China: 4 (https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=PehoSnJfstUC&pg=PA36#v=onepage&q&f=false). Cambridge University Press. p. 36.
ISBN 978-0-521-32995-8. "adjustable outside caliper gauge... self-dated at AD 9". An abridged version.
2. "Bronze Caliper of the Wang Mang Regime" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140831052938/http://history.cultural-
china.com/en/56H2758H7991.html). Archived from the original (http://history.cultural-china.com/en/56H2758H79
91.html) on 31 August 2014. Retrieved 26 November 2013.
3. Barrow called the device a Vernier scale. See: John Barrow, Navigatio britannica: or a complete system of
navigation … (London, England: W. and J. Mount and T. Page, 1750), pp. 140–142 (https://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=u5CBsgTxtIMC&pg=PA140#v=onepage&q&f=false), especially page 142.
4. Daumas, Maurice, Scientific Instruments of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries and Their Makers,
Portman Books, London 1989 ISBN 978-0-7134-0727-3
5. Lalande, Jérôme (1746), Astronomie, vol. 2 (Paris, France: Desaint & Saillant), pages 859-860 (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=Z6I-AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA859#v=onepage&q&f=false).
6. Vernier acuity definition (http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?Vernier+acuity) at the Online Medical Dictionary
7. Kwan, A. (2011). "Vernier scales and other early devices for precise measurement". American Journal of
Physics. 79 (4): 368. doi:10.1119/1.3533717 (https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.3533717).
8. Davis, Raymond, Foote, Francis, Kelly, Joe, Surveying, Theory and Practice, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1966
LC 64-66263

External links
Use of vernier scale in mm and cm – simulator (http://iwant2study.org/ospsg/index.php/interactive-resources/phy
sics/01-measurements/5-vernier-caliper)
Use of vernier scale in inch – simulator of measurement and interpretation (http://stefanelli.eng.br/en/vernier-calip
er-inch-fractional-measures-use.html)
How to read a vernier caliper (http://www.miniphysics.com/how-to-read-a-vernier-caliper.html)
Calculation of Least Count in Metric & Imperial Scales of Vernier Caliper (http://vernierscaliper.com/vernier-calipe
r-calculation-of-least-count-in-metric-imperial-scales-213.html)

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