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Thermal energy storage

T herm al energy storage (T ES) is achiev ed with widely differing
technologies. Depending on the specific technology , it allows excess
thermal energy to be stored and used hours, day s, months later, at
scales ranging from the indiv idual process, building, multiuser-
building, district, town, or region. Usage examples are the balancing of
energy demand between day time and nighttime, storing summer heat
for winter heating, or winter cold for summer air conditioning
(Seasonal thermal energy storage). Storage media include water or ice-
slush tanks, masses of nativ e earth or bedrock accessed with heat
District heating accumulation tower
exchangers by means of boreholes, deep aquifers contained between from Theiss near Krems an der
impermeable strata; shallow, lined pits filled with grav el and water and Donau in Lower Austria with a
insulated at the top, as well as eutectic solutions and phase-change thermal capacity of 2 GWh
materials. [1 ][2 ]

Other sources of thermal energy for storage include heat or cold

produced with heat pumps from off-peak, lower cost electric power, a
practice called peak shav ing; heat from combined heat and power
(CHP) power plants; heat produced by renewable electrical energy that
exceeds grid demand and waste heat from industrial processes. Heat
storage, both seasonal and short term, is considered an important
means for cheaply balancing high shares of v ariable renewable
electricity production and integration of electricity and heating sectors
in energy sy stems almost or completely fed by renewable
energy . [3 ][4 ][5 ]

Thermal energy storage tower

inaugurated in 2017 in Bozen-
Contents Bolzano, South Tyrol

Solar energy storage

Molten-salt technology
Heat storage in tanks or rock caverns
Heat storage in hot rocks, concrete, pebbles etc
Miscibility gap alloy (MGA) technology
Electric thermal storage heaters
Ice-based technology
Cryogenic energy storage
Hot silicon technology
Pumped-heat electricity storage
Isentropic
Endothermic/exothermic chemical reactions
Salt hydrate technology
Molecular bonds
See also

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References
External links
Further reading

Solar energy storage

Most practical activ e solar heating sy stems prov ide storage from a few hours to a day 's worth of energy
collected. Howev er, there are a growing number of facilities that use seasonal thermal energy storage (STES),
enabling solar energy to be stored in summer for space heating use during winter. [6 ][7 ][8 ] The Drake Landing
Solar Community in Alberta, Canada, has now achiev ed a y ear-round 97 % solar heating fraction, a world record
made possible only by incorporating STES. [6 ][9 ]

The use of both latent heat and sensible heat are also possible with high temperature solar thermal input. Various
eutectic mixtures of metals, such as Aluminium and Silicon (AlSi12) offer a high melting point suited to efficient
steam generation, [1 0 ] while high alumina cement-based materials offer good thermal storage capabilities. [1 1 ]

Molten-salt technology
Sensible heat of molten salt is also used for storing solar energy at a high temperature. Molten salts can be
employ ed as a thermal energy storage method to retain thermal energy . Presently , this is a commercially used
technology to store the heat collected by concentrated solar power (e.g., from a solar tower or solar trough). The
heat can later be conv erted into superheated steam to power conv entional steam turbines and generate
electricity in bad weather or at night. It was demonstrated in the Solar Two project from 1995-1999. Estimates in
2006 predicted an annual efficiency of 99%, a reference to the energy retained by storing heat before turning it
into electricity , v ersus conv erting heat directly into electricity . [1 2 ][1 3 ][1 4 ] Various eutectic mixtures of
different salts are used (e.g., sodium nitrate, potassium nitrate and calcium nitrate). Experience with such
sy stems exists in non-solar applications in the chemical and metals industries as a heat-transport fluid.

The salt melts at 131 °C (268 °F). It is kept liquid at 288 °C (550 °F) in an insulated "cold" storage tank. The liquid
salt is pumped through panels in a solar collector where the focused sun heats it to 566 °C (1,051 °F). It is then
sent to a hot storage tank. With proper insulation of the tank the thermal energy can be usefully stored for up to a
week. [1 5 ] When electricity is needed, the hot molten salt is pumped to a conv entional steam-generator to
produce superheated steam for driv ing a conv entional turbine/generator set as used in any coal or oil or nuclear
power plant. A 100-megawatt turbine would need a tank of about 9.1 metres (30 ft) tall and 24 metres (7 9 ft) in
diameter to driv e it for four hours by this design.

Single tank with div ider plate to hold both cold and hot molten salt, is under dev elopment. [1 6 ] It is more
economical by achiev ing 100% more heat storage per unit v olume ov er the dual tanks sy stem as the molten-salt
storage tank is costly due to its complicated construction. Phase Change Material (PCMs) are also used in molten-
salt energy storage. [1 7 ]

Sev eral parabolic trough power plants in Spain[1 8 ] and solar power tower dev eloper SolarReserv e use this
thermal energy storage concept. The Solana Generating Station in the U.S. can store 6 hours worth of generating
capacity in molten salt. During the summer of 2013 the Gemasolar Thermosolar solar power-tower/molten-salt
plant in Spain achiev ed a first by continuously producing electricity 24 hours per day for 36 day s. [1 9 ]

Heat storage in tanks or rock caverns

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A steam accumulator consists of an insulated steel pressure tank containing hot water and steam under pressure.
As a heat storage dev ice, it is used to mediate heat production by a v ariable or steady source from a v ariable
demand for heat. Steam accumulators may take on a significance for energy storage in solar thermal energy
projects.

Large stores are widely used in Scandinav ia to store heat for sev eral day s, to decouple heat and power
production and to help meet peak demands. Interseasonal storage in cav erns has been inv estigated and appears
to be economical[2 0 ] and play s a significant role in heating in Finland. Helen Oy estimates an 11.6 GWh capacity
and 120 MW thermal output for its 260,000 m³ water cistern under Mustikkamaa (fully charged or discharged in
4 day s at capacity ), operating from 2021 to offset day s of peak production/demand;[2 1 ] while the 300,000 m³
rock cav erns 50 m under sea lev el in Kruunuv uorenranta (near Laajasalo) were designated in 2018 to store heat
in summer from warm seawater and release it in winter for district heating. [2 2 ]

Heat storage in hot rocks, concrete, pebbles etc

Water has one of the highest thermal capacities Heat capacity - 4.2 J/(cm3 ·K) whereas concrete has about one
third of that. On the other hand, concrete can be heated to much higher temperatures – 1200 °C by e.g. electrical
heating and therefore has a much higher ov erall v olumetric capacity . Thus in the example below, an insulated
cube of about 2.8 m would appear to prov ide sufficient storage for a single house to meet 50% of heating demand.
This could, in principle, be used to store surplus wind or PV heat due to the ability of electrical heating to reach
high temperatures. At the neighborhood lev el, the Wiggenhausen-Süd solar dev elopment at Friedrichshafen has
receiv ed international attention. This features a 12,000 m3 (420,000 cu ft) reinforced concrete thermal store
linked to 4,300 m² (46,000 sq ft) of solar collectors, which will supply the 57 0 houses with around 50% of their
heating and hot water. Siemens-Gamesa built a 130 MWh thermal storage near Hamburg with 7 50 °C basalt and
1.5 MW electric output. [2 3 ][2 4 ] A similar sy stem is scheduled for Sorø, Denmark, with 41-58% of the stored 18
MWh heat returned for the town's district heating, and 30-41% returned as electricity . [2 5 ]

Miscibility gap alloy (MGA) technology

Miscibility gap alloy s [2 6 ] rely on the phase change of a metallic material (see: latent heat) to store thermal
energy . [2 7 ]

Rather than pumping the liquid metal between tanks as in a molten-salt sy stem, the metal is encapsulated in
another metallic material that it cannot alloy with (immiscible). Depending on the two materials selected (the
phase changing material and the encapsulating material) storage densities can be between 0.2 and 2 MJ/L.

A working fluid, ty pically water or steam, is used to transfer the heat into and out of the MGA. Thermal
conductiv ity of MGAs is often higher (up to 400 W/m K) than competing technologies[2 8 ][2 9 ] which means
quicker "charge" and "discharge" of the thermal storage is possible. The technology has not y et been implemented
on a large scale.

Electric thermal storage heaters

Storage heaters are commonplace in European homes with time-of-use metering (traditionally using cheaper
electricity at night time). They consist of high-density ceramic bricks or feolite blocks heated to a high
temperature with electricity , and may or may not hav e good insulation and controls to release heat ov er a
number of hours. [3 0 ]

Ice-based technology

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Sev eral applications are being dev eloped where ice is produced during off-peak periods and used for cooling at a
later time. For example, air conditioning can be prov ided more economically by using low-cost electricity at
night to freeze water into ice, then using the cooling capacity of ice in the afternoon to reduce the electricity
needed to handle air conditioning demands. Thermal energy storage using ice makes use of the large heat of
fusion of water. Historically , ice was transported from mountains to cities for use as a coolant. One metric ton of
water (= one cubic meter) can store 334 million joules (MJ) or 317 ,000 BTUs (93kWh). A relativ ely small storage
facility can hold enough ice to cool a large building for a day or a week.

In addition to using ice in direct cooling applications, it is also being used in heat pump based heating sy stems. In
these applications, the phase change energy prov ides a v ery significant lay er of thermal capacity that is near the
bottom range of temperature that water source heat pumps can operate in. This allows the sy stem to ride out the
heav iest heating load conditions and extends the timeframe by which the source energy elements can contribute
heat back into the sy stem.

Cryogenic energy storage

This uses liquification of air or nitrogen as an energy store.

A pilot cry ogenic energy sy stem that uses liquid air as the energy store, and low-grade waste heat to driv e the
thermal re-expansion of the air, has been operating at a power station in Slough, UK since 2010. [3 1 ]

Hot silicon technology

Solid or molten silicon offers much higher storage temperatures than salts with consequent greater capacity and
efficiency . It is being researched as a possible more energy efficient storage technology . Silicon is able to store
more than 1MWh of energy per cubic metre at 1400 °C. [3 2 ][3 3 ]

Molten silicon thermal energy storage is being dev eloped by Australian company 1414 Degrees as a more energy
efficient storage technology , with a combined heat and power (CHP) output.

Pumped-heat electricity storage

In pumped-heat electricity storage (PHES), a rev ersible heat-pump sy stem is used to store energy as a
temperature difference between two heat stores. [3 4 ][3 5 ][3 6 ]

Isentropic
One sy stem which was being dev eloped by the now-bankrupt UK company Isentropic operates as follows. [3 7 ] It
comprises two insulated containers filled with crushed rock or grav el; a hot v essel storing thermal energy at high
temperature and high pressure, and a cold v essel storing thermal energy at low temperature and low pressure.
The v essels are connected at top and bottom by pipes and the whole sy stem is filled with the inert gas argon.

During the charging cy cle, the sy stem uses off-peak electricity to work as a heat pump. Argon at ambient
temperature and pressure from the top of the cold store is compressed adiabatically to a pressure of 12 bar,
heating it to around 500 °C (900 °F). The compressed gas is transferred to the top of the hot v essel where it
percolates down through the grav el, transferring its heat to the rock and cooling to ambient temperature. The
cooled, but still pressurized, gas emerging at the bottom of the v essel is then expanded (again adiabatically ) back
down to 1 bar, which lowers its temperature to -150 °C. The cold gas is then passed up through the cold v essel
where it cools the rock while being warmed back to its initial condition.

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The energy is recov ered as electricity by rev ersing the cy cle. The hot gas from the hot v essel is expanded to
driv e a generator and then supplied to the cold store. The cooled gas retriev ed from the bottom of the cold store
is compressed which heats the gas to ambient temperature. The gas is then transferred to the bottom of the hot
v essel to be reheated.

The compression and expansion processes are prov ided by a specially designed reciprocating machine using
sliding v alv es. Surplus heat generated by inefficiencies in the process is shed to the env ironment through heat
exchangers during the discharging cy cle. [3 4 ][3 7 ]

The dev eloper claims that a round trip efficiency of 7 2-80% is achiev able. [3 4 ][3 7 ] This compares to >80%
achiev able with pumped hy dro energy storage. [3 5 ]

Another proposed sy stem uses turbomachinery and is capable of operating at much higher power lev els. [3 6 ] Use
of Phase Change Material (PCMs) as heat storage material would enhance the performance further. [1 7 ]

Endothermic/exothermic chemical reactions

Salt hydrate technology

One example of an experimental storage sy stem based on chemical reaction energy is the salt hy drate
technology . The sy stem uses the reaction energy created when salts are hy drated or dehy drated. It works by
storing heat in a container containing 50% sodium hy droxide (NaOH) solution. Heat (e.g. from using a solar
collector) is stored by ev aporating the water in an endothermic reaction. When water is added again, heat is
released in an exothermic reaction at 50 °C (120 °F). Current sy stems operate at 60% efficiency . The sy stem is
especially adv antageous for seasonal thermal energy storage, because the dried salt can be stored at room
temperature for prolonged times, without energy loss. The containers with the dehy drated salt can ev en be
transported to a different location. The sy stem has a higher energy density than heat stored in water and the
capacity of the sy stem can be designed to store energy from a few months to y ears. [3 8 ]

In 2013 the Dutch technology dev eloper TNO presented the results of the MERITS project to store heat in a salt
container. The heat, which can be deriv ed from a solar collector on a rooftop, expels the water contained in the
salt. When the water is added again, the heat is released, with almost no energy losses. A container with a few
cubic meters of salt could store enough of this thermochemical energy to heat a house throughout the winter. In
a temperate climate like that of the Netherlands, an av erage low-energy household requires about 6.7 GJ/winter.
To store this energy in water (at a temperature difference of 7 0 °C), 23 m3 insulated water storage would be
needed, exceeding the storage abilities of most households. Using salt hy drate technology with a storage density
of about 1 GJ/m3 , 4–8 m3 could be sufficient. [3 9 ]

As of 2016, researchers in sev eral countries are conducting experiments to determine the best ty pe of salt, or
salt mixture. Low pressure within the container seems fav ourable for the energy transport. [4 0 ] Especially
promising are organic salts, so called ionic liquids. Compared to lithium halide based sorbents they are less
problematic in terms of limited global resources, and compared to most other halides and sodium hy droxide
(NaOH) they are less corrosiv e and not negativ ely affected by CO2 contaminations. [4 1 ]

Molecular bonds
Storing energy in molecular bonds is being inv estigated. Energy densities equiv alent to lithium-ion batteries
hav e been achiev ed. [4 2 ]

See also
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District heating
Thermal battery
Eutectic system
Fireless locomotive
Geothermal energy
Geothermal power
Heat capacity
Ice storage air conditioning
Liquid nitrogen economy
List of energy storage projects
Phase change material
Pumpable ice technology
Steam accumulator
Storage heater
Uniform Mechanical Code
Uniform Solar Energy and Hydronics Code
US DOE International Energy Storage Database

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External links
ASHRAE white paper (https://web.archive.org/web/20050818190039/http://pwi-energy.com/main/whitepapers/tsdere
g.htm) on the economies of load shifting
MSN article on Ice Storage Air Conditioning (https://archive.is/20130119140153/http://msn-cnet.com.com/Ice-powere
d+air+conditioner+could+cut+costs/2100-1008_3-6101045.html?part=msn-cnet&subj-ns_3-6101045&tag=msn_hom
e&GT1=8486) at Archive.today (archived 19 January 2013)
ICE TES Thermal Energy Storage - IDE-Tech (http://www.ide-thermalenergystorage.com/?page_id=12)
http://thermalbatterysystems.com/featured-systems/laramie-wyoming-thermal-battery-system-
example/#.U8Whdo1dXx8
"Prepared for the Thermal Energy-Storage Systems Collaborative of the California Energy Commission" Report titled
"Source Energy and Environmental Impacts of Thermal Energy Storage." Tabors Caramanis & Assoc energy.ca.gov
(http://www.energy.ca.gov/reports/500-95-005_TES-REPORT.PDF)

Further reading
Hyman, Lucas B. Sustainable Thermal Storage Systems: Planning, Design, and Operations. New York: McGraw-
Hill, 2011. Print.
Henrik Lund, Renewable Energy Systems: A Smart Energy Systems Approach to the Choice and Modeling of 100%
Renewable Solutions, Academic Press 2014, ISBN 978-0-124-10423-5.

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