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~. GE DESIGN MANUAL
'
I
 BIUDG ~ lll~SI :=;r T 1\llfANlJAL ,

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-
 .
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', '!

J997

ISSUED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF

THE GENERAL MANAGER

ROAD DEVELOPJ.\IIENT AUTHORITY

SRI LANKA

. ~........ --
 This manual bas been studied and approved by the f'o Uowing committee.

01. Mr. P.B.L. Cocu·ay General Mam1gcr

IC laairma n of the Committee!
02. Dr. G.L.A.J. De Silva J)ircehw (ES) rcommittec Member]

03. Mr. L ionel Rajapakse Dirt!dor (MM&C) rcoJrnmittcc Mcmbcrj

04. Mr. K.W. fen1ando Director· W&I•M) (Cmnmittce Member)

05. Mr. S. Wceratl.ungc Dirccto1· (T) tComrnittce MenaberJ

06. M rs. II.Y. Femanc.lo Dy. Director (130)

(Secretary of the Committee)
I .
07. Mr. Asol<:. Wecnuutnc - Dy. Dir·cc;tor (C M) [Committ •c Member]

08. Mr. T.L. Chandrasiri Dy. Dircdor (J,&PM)

!Committee Member)

09. Mr. D.K.R. Swarm• Scnio1· Engineer· (DD)

(Committee Mcmbca·J

10. Mr. R.A.O.S.K. Rlln11thuuge Executive E ngineer (MM&C)

(Committee Member)

11. Mr. M. C Juuu.h·asena Hritlgc C ousuJtaut

(MS. Chandmscna & Partners)'
[Committee Memberj

12. Mr. J. Zavesb.-y Bridge Dt~ ign Expert (MS. Renardet

Consulting Engineers) (Committee Member)

This manual bas been d•·aftcd by the following mcmbC'rs.

01. M1·s. H.Y. Fcruando

02. Mr. D.K.R. Swaro:l

03. Mr. W.E.S.K. Fernando

04. M r·s. W.B.S.l-1. Fernando

OS. Mr. P.S. Sndadcbaran

06. M1·. C.C.W. JayasUiiya

 FOREWORD

This Manual is ilai.iJ4•hi l ~3sevtially to iu~roduce ba!iic bridge o~:jigu [ con~:cpts and to
pr esent guidelines ilt the technique·of bridge design fur highway bridges.

·I
 1

J.0 SCOPE & C •.l~lm i\L :

Availability of consltu clion materials & equ ipment, less maintenance and long life span
are the main factors in choosing concrete bridges abundantly io Sri Lanka. As the other
types such as steel bridges, arch b1idges & timber bridges arc limited in number, this
note mostly covers the design aspects for concrete bridges.

Bridge Design Manual is to supplement the Bridge Design Code uuopted by the Road
Development Authority, the British Standard 54 00, for the loadings and effects where
the local conditions require di1fercnt provisions 1ha11 tl.:"'': included in the British
Standard. 1besc include but ru·c no t lim ited to thr p ·s·· :.:c;ns related to design live
loadi ng ami to tlw local climatic conditions.

This is to provide a guidance to the designer in the interpretation of some of the

provisiou of the !.itru1dard and in calculation of the cO.ects prescribell by th~ standard and
to summarize and to advise the designer ou the design rn ,,~.tices ado pte~ by the Road
Developmc:nt Authority iJ\ terms of sdection of substruct:11~ and s upt·rstrwf tw·e types. It
is recommended tbal these guide li11cs an: used IJy olhel" authorilies or design of
high way bridges.

2.0 DESIGN corm :

2..1 General "

Design of Bridges and other related structures is earned out in accordance with the B.S.
5400 w ith cc:11aiP modifications to suit local conditions as sUpulated herein.
to
Perm.isr.ibk: s!n::sses to be adopted are to be in confomdty witl1 ParL 4 of BS 5400.

However in ma~s concrete ~ ubstructure the following <:ritcria could be adopted.

Where overturning effects are considered in substructures, at ru1y level, always Factor of
Safety (F.O.S.) should be greater than 1.00

Where F.O.S. = Stability Moment

Overturning Moment

When 1.0 < F C1.S. < I .5 perml!l51blt; t('ll',,if: ·.:.,.;.•_, = 0.24 N/nun2
When F.0.5. > 1.5 fJel'rni~Sible ten51le '>l:t, ,., = 0.3G N/mm2

NOTE : But it is a good practice to have the F.O.S . of 1.3 alway? to cater for
constructional deficie ncies.
Capping beant..<> are designed for bending moments and shear forees due tu loads acting
on them . Ballhst wa.ll in abutment capping beam is designed to take up horizontal
presstu·e c1eated by wht!elload behind the capping beam.

Ref. - R t:ynolds Hand Book

A 40 nm1 thick bearing seat is provided for the bearing pad. Sufiicicnt reinforcement is
provided under the seat to r"sist the s plitt ing fo t·ccs.

J
 2

2.2 Loads-

2.2.1 General -

Bridges in Sri Lanka do not need to be designed for cJTccts clue to cariliquakes as Sri
Lanka is not in a zone affected by earthquakes.

Generally the loading is to conform and applied according to US 5400 part 2. Bridges
should be able to resist the effects of the loads & actions as listed below.

(1) Dead Loads

(2) Earth t•r~ss urc
(3) Live loads
(4) Braking & Traction of vehicle
(5) Water cun·enl
(6) Floating debris & Impact
(7) Wind
(8) Temperature
(9) Shrinkage

I 2.2.2 Dead Loads -

In th~ case of precast slabs and beams, adverse stresses during handl ing, h,ranspmting and

I stacking should be considered.

ln the case of submersible bridges, the effect of horizontal forces due· to water and
I impact of debri ~ and buoyancy shou ld be considered.

Dead Loau includes self weight, kerbs, sidewalks, handru.i ls. uprights, wearing surface
and weight ofwalcr mains and lump posts when applicable.

2.2.3 L ive Loads -

The following loads given in pcu1 2 of BS 5400 are u sed tor d~sign of bridges in the local
highway udwork.
I1 (a) All bridges should be designed t.o resist the effect of HA hHtdmg spccitied in lbe relevant
code.
I (b) Bridges should be abk: to resist the cfiect of 30 units of HB loading for A & B class of
roads.

However the tollowing condition is to be applied to suit local conditions.

'1>(\o~•l>
(i) A lways the HB vehicle is to st raddle Lwo noliona llane widths.

2.2.4 Braking and tntction -

The following factors are Lo be applied to lhc full tractive force decided according to the
code in designing substructures for simply supporlcd bridges to suit local conditions.

For Abutments- 0.6 X Tructiv~ fon.:~, applied at b~;:aring level.

 .J
2

For Piers 0.~ X Tractive force, appfied at bearing level.

The bridge is to be desi11ued lor IIJ\ Loading with I lJ\ tractive ('(,rcc aud
1
checked for
adequacy to carry the allocated HB Loading. ln checking for 1-TB, it is permissible to
decrease the HB Tr:tctive force by 25%• to allow for aJl petmissible overstress. However
as Sri 2
the live load sw·charge should be limited to l 0 kl\l/m .
:
r
3ridges ~
; 2.2.5 Horizontal Forces d~e to W:ttel' Current & debris and Log irnp:act-
f
•
(a) Horizontal Forces due to Water Current -

Any 1xu·t of a bridge slruclure w hich nuty be submerged in running water should
be dr.signecl to sustain satety the horizontal pressure due to the force of the
cuncnt

On piers parallel to the direction o f the water current, the intcnsit of pressure is
given by;

2
P = KW (V /2g)

P intensity of Pressure in kg/m 2 due 'lo tJ10 water current

3
W unit weight ofwa1er in kg/m
V velocity of current in m/sec. at the point where the pressure
intensity is being calculated
acceleration due to gravity in rnf:;~c
2
g
K a oonsta.nt depending on the sh:1pe of pier as tC.>llows

2
w ith the normal values for W &. g equatlon reduces to P == 52 KV

===========-----~~=-
=---..---- -
Type of Pier K

Square ended pier I 1.5

~
e local CircuJar piers or semi circular cutwatc rs 0.66
Triangular cutwaters 0.5 to 0.9
Trestle type piers 1.25
:levant

ff
The velocity V is asswned to vary iir K~atly from zero nt the point deepest ~cour
to a rnaximum ar the free surface. The maximum velocity at surface for lhe
purpose is to be taken .V2 times th~~ maximum mean velocity of the current. .

To provide for the possible variation of the direction of the current from the
direction assumed in the design allowance should be made in the design of tbe
piers for ~m extra variat ion in the current direction of 20 Jcgrecs. In this case
velocity is rc:.;olved into two directi()n~, parallel and nomHtl to the pier with k
assumed as 1.5 for all excep t ci rcular piers.

to the Ref. : Essentials of Bridge Engineering - D.S. Victo r

IS.

(b) Horizontal Forces due to floating Debris ,u1ll1mpact -

'~~~------------------~~---------
4

\ \

(i) Debris-
I

j
; Where debris is likdy, allow~mce shall be mad~ for the force exerted by a
I minimum depth of 1.2m debris. The JengU1 of the debris applied to any one pie r
shall be one half of the sum of U1e adjacent spans with a maxim um of 22.0m

I I
where the deck is not submerged.

For debris the formula for water current shall be us.;xllhc \'alue of the constant K
I being J.0.
j

(ii) Log h upACl -

When there is a possibility for driftwood and other drifti1 b 1tems to collide with a
bridge, collision force shall be calctLlated from e~u..t tion.

p = O.J \.V.v

Where P = Collision force (t)

w Weight of drifting item (I)
(2 t log is asswned)
v = Smface velocity of water tm

Ref.: Specification for Highway Bridges Part I - \..'onmtun 'pc!<:ificalions by

Japan Road Association

2.2.6 Wind Loa.:is

The mean ltourly wind spc..!d is t.lctermined for the location of the briJge. from the Wind
Loading zone map for Sri Lanka given in Fig. 2. 1.

This mean how-ly wind spcl.!d, to be used when calculating \\ ind pressures using BS
5400 - Part 2, is found from the followiDg table.

ZONE MEAN HOURLY WIND :::PFFD

·- - - --II
110 m.p.h. (49.0 rn/s)
2 95 m.p.h. (42.5 m/s)
3 75 m.p.h. (33.5 rn/s)
 4

------· ==---.:.- ::-:·J::::.=-·=:::.::~:-.:: ~ ~ - . ::".::-.:-:~..~=--::-::-/·

by a SRg lA f"~E:.[fi
:!
~2.0m
pier

WIND l0.14.D!NG. lON ES I

.anl K

Sc11le 1:2000000

Lion

eWind
1

i I

~CO! bl~tl ..._

\ ZONE 3

___-..
.... - -- ... ____
-..~.---
-·
_._., --~-·- .-..- ---- ---- -
---~-·--·- - -·-
~
tJ.
'·
I. ---------·.. -·-··----- -·- -~-------- -- ---··--· ----·
Fig 2· ~

I SRI L .l\Nkf A
·-- --· ----...--~-~
I ISOTHERMS OF MINIM LJt,1 SHf,OE
I
I 1 [MP[RA TUR(:.

I I . 2 000 r100
I
I LJ
N
I
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c
I
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I hIt TUN/.'r ,OI';f,
/

I tJ \r !ll./~1\: 1.1./Yi\",.... ·.
., f.;I\(I•J t( A,

. .
I <h
- •. -~ 01\'li;J:\/{J-/Wfl ft

W\INAPUi~.l

I
I
I

'
'---- - - - - -- - - - - - - -· - -· - · - . . . . . .- - - · . . - - - - - - - - -- - ·- - -· - M - . .- · -. . . . . . . . . . . . • · - - - .. · · ·- - ·- ·· __, _ _ _ .. _ _
----·~-----·-·-···-··------------

---- ------
I'.>OTHCRMS OF MAY.II\WM 51-tA.l.Jt: J.\l r\

Sl ole I : ~ 000 (JIJO

IJI\VUNIY ;,•
.l
I
t
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1 •
Al~lH! fd)t f f•P l/1~ 1\
:;+
il
M i\11•\ II LlJPt':•:! io,t..,\

fJ;\'.~b\11
...
l {-4

• · wr.~ :· ' · l l

"' '.'
Rt\ii Jt~rur~,).
'
' /
,. /

---·- --·· -- . -· ------- -- - - --···. ·-··- ..... .... -- ... ···-··--_...... .

 10

Effective Br3dgc Temperatures (Max/Min)

-
Shade Air Type of Superslmctures
Temperature
(Max/Min)
Group 1 Group2
,.
a·
08 19 16
09 19 17
18
I
lO 20
11 21 18
12 22 19
13 23 20
14 23 20
15 24 2J
16 25 22
I

17 26 22
18 27 23
19 27 24
20 28 25· I
21 29 25
22 30 26
30 27
23
24 31 27 I
25 32 28
26 33 29
27 34 29
28 34 30
29 35 31
30 36 31
31 37 32
32 38 33
33 38 33
34 39 34
35 40 35
- . ~"";t

(b) The effect of 'Non linear' Distributioal .>ftemperature across the Deck-Depth.

If the top ~m-facc of the concrete deck is butter than it's soffit surface, the ordinate
of the thermal gradient at any intermediate depth follow a nonlinear variation.

Considering lbe build up of the totul thermal gradient, it's ll11ifomt part at the
instant of consideration, is akin to the 'body mean temperatme', the effect of
change in wlrich over a long period of time, is already taken case of in case (a).
Howev~r, the variable part, better called the 'diifer~ntiaJ thermal gradient' would
heat each fibre to a different degree, the variation being non linear. If the fibers
were free of each other (i.e. unrestrained) then they could accept the
corresponding non linear themtal strruns x1 (x being the coefficient of
expansion/contraction). But since their deformations must follow a linear law
 11

(plane s.:ctions mu.l rem~in plan~::), they will not uccept th\!St,; non linearly rclatcu
strains, and the Ji ff~:rence between the 1ina l 'linear' 5train gradi~;m and the
'unrestrained' strain b'l<ldit'lll will repicscnt the un~ven 'internal uistwtlancc'. It's
straiu efiect may be CJik~d the 'Eigcnstrain' and its stress effect may be called the
Eigenstress, both o f which would b~ ~ro if only the tl1em1al gradjent were linear
(which is not). Tltis E igenstrcss and the Eigenstrain, as can be seen, is purely an
internal entity, not associated with any support reactions.

Eigenstress, on its own, may be small or significant, depending on

(i) depth of section

(ii) thickness & colour of pavement
(iii) wind speed
(iv) orientation of bridge ~md incidence of sun rays.
(v) ambient temperature
(vi) material properties
thermal condition
specifie heat
thermal di trusin.ity
coeflicient oft:hcnnal expansion and contraction
coefficient of absorptivity
coefficient of surface - heat transfer
(vii) surface temperature
(viii) ~hape of thermal gradient

TI1e disttibution of Eigenslfc:.~, oot being liuear, when added to the thermal
'continu.il~,· -::tress [see under (c)j may show significant stress not only at extreme
[ibers but als<J at intem1ediatc fibi~rs (e.g. mid hei~ht rortion ofwcbs) which are
heavily loaded w1der shear. This c~m produt;c longitudinal cracks in webs.

(c) Effect of L1tennediate - support restraint on the Free Hogging (o1- Sagging)
Desire of the struct1u·c Gausecl by UJ1equal Extreme Fibre Temperatures - 'TI1e
eontinwty effect'.

ln a beam-type deck, the ditJerencc of tc1 uperature L•:lw~..-n the extreme sw·faces
causes hoggiHg (or ..;uc;~~ing) of the beam.

If the beam is ~>.i.Iltpl)' supported, it m .·rc+. l'uc:,.. (or sags) as its supports do not
prevent rotation. Thi:> free defonnt•l • ' · is 11ot a 'moment induced.' def(Hmation,
but merely a 'Strai.l induced' de format wn, anti no moment is caused.

However if ilie beam is continuous, its a forementioned desire to freely hog (or
fr~ely sag) will be 'constrained' at the in·lennediate supports (prcsc:nec of dead
load reactions will prevent it from li fling up and presenrc o f supports will
prevem it from going do'>vn at their supports. This 'w ntinuiLy' effect sets up
moments that cause additiunal slrl"::scs called 'continuity stresses'.

Ref. :Concrete Bridge Practice by Dr. V.K. Raina

I
 Stress dul.' to tempcn:uurc should be calculated as per BS 5400 cJ. 5.4. The s hade
air temperature referred to in the clause should be taken from the t<tbles given for
differt:nt ulstricls in Sri LUlka.

For m inimum effective bridge temperature same pattern is assumed as per table
I l ofBS 5400.

2.2.8 Creep and Shrinkage -

Creep and Shrinkage have to be taken in to accow1t only v.. hen they are considered to be
important. Obvious situations arc where deflections rue t•.111onant and in the design of
the articulatic-n for a bridge.

Loss of prestr~ss due to creep & shrinkage can be calculated using BS 5400 : Part 4 .
Shrinkage per unit length is obtained for normal exposure of 70% relative humidity.

Stress due to shrinkage in reinlorced concrete can be c1l· . ·l=-ted using following method.
I

(a) Shrinkage restrained by the reinforcement;

Stress in reinforcement
(cornpres:>ion)
I+ <Xe. (AJAc)

Stress in concrete =fc,=A, . fsc

(tensioa1)

Where; free shrinkage straiu

modulus of elasticity of steel
f area of tension reinforcement
area of concrete
modullu· ratio

(b) Shrinkage fuJiy r~strained;

Stress in concr~te
(tension)

Where; Static secant modulus of elasticity of concrete

NOTE The v<2l1Je of Ccs to be obtained ei tht..~r f.rom

5400 : Part 4 : Appendix C or BS 8110 : Part
for 8 0% rela tive humidity. (Fig . 2 . 5)
 fig · 2 . 5 13
.{
---=-- -----....-- ------- -----· --------...-----
6 m onth ----
30 year c1vin~--s!C X ttf
tOt 11(1 clfC'Ctilltl
shrinkage X 10° R>Ction thickr=~
Outdoor
(nirnl of
Indoor exposure
exposure in the UK 150 300 600
t 50 300 600 .---r--r-·1-- 200
-
:-r--LT 1
f-
·100
t- 45
300 1~
400 - 350 - -- --l- ~ - 125-
1 " I ~-o40·

~--!- -~-i
I-\ -- _t_r--
87.'.i
350 300 - 250 f.-·-
-f- I I 150 t-35 -

JOO 250 · 200 f-- 1 - _f__

1 ~
. - -- -+!1 - - 125 75.(} - 30-

250 200 ! I 6Vi . 25-

200 15° I I .,oo -so.o

150
- - - ·- l --1-- ·\1'1--+-~
l 75 - f- 37.5
t-20-

150 100- I r- 15-

--- - ~I-~--· ---.,~o--+--\--1--- -sa-
~
100 ' ~~
~10-
100 I
1-so- t-50- ,_so- - - .--4---"--~~ ~-
I
1 t - -•- ...++----1
I \ 1-2s- ·l i.f> _ 5_

1-0-
Shrin~a!J•~
I - -1
o- --o-• ---+-----~- -1--t - - --1-
!~ -- o- - 0-1-0-
1i Swct"" i I

?0
-_jj__, _____._ . . . ll
30 <10 SO GO '10 80 !10 ·
~001.1~· ·10~~
100

Ambient rck!tivc II•Jmidity ('>o}

f'i!)\JrC 4 3 Dryu'~ s l11111kd!)C ol nrHm.:lw~"Jhl ron, rete (l, c;n • HS
a, 10) The graoh I Cl;J\Cl> " ' c:oncrc:t• .~ 1 ll ()lm.J I W(lt~.J!Ji!tt)' Wtlh ;'I
w~IC'r content o f ai)OUI 190 l/rn1 Sh'"'~ 3'.Jt' m.a~ l11: r1;g.111kd J5o
nroportaon~l w•lhan t he ra•V.Jt~ ol 1 !'ll) Ill 1:10 l,'mJ ·

- ··-..
-~ - ---

EFFECT 1VE St:CTiON TH l CKN I~SS T S T/\KEN /\5 TwiCE THE CHOSS SECTiotJAl.
B5
rt 2 AREA D: Vl Dt::D UY T H E EXPOS ED PE£HMETElL
 3.0 INVESTfGATIONS :

3.1 Gcograpbicaf Investigation -

,•' A detail survey should be carried out at the proposed location to cover topographical
,I
I
.;,L
,. hydxological and technical details.
I ' ij

3.1.1 Topographical S urvey -

'·..,'-
~
1·:,
I (a) A rninimwn length of 150 m on both ends of the bridge or the selecled location
!: I
of the bridge should be considered for detail·?.() survey (i.e. Chain Survey,
'j ~
... including all the permanent & tempor(l.Jy features and levelling) unless there is a
I . curve encountered in the clo~e proximity o f the bridge beyond this length. If

I
there is a curve the Engineer has to justify the situation and survey should be
extended.

(b) Chain survey need not be a close traverse tmless 1t is a very import'' t location
but the levelling should be a close survey.

(c) TI1e chainage marked should be always in the direction of the road. (i.e. In
,.!I Colombo- Kandy Road cha.ioage OO+OOm should be started in the Colombo end
of the bridge) The OO+OOm chainage should be tied.

(d) Longitudinal sections along the centreline of the road and cross sections should
be recorded systematically with the chainages and the distances from the centre
line.

(e) At lcru: 05 c ross sections should be taken at intervals of 5m close to the bridge'
on both ends of dte bridge and the balance should be at IOm intervals and ISm
intervals.

(t) On a curve ofthc road also the cross sections should be taken at interyals o.f5m.

(g) The levels & chainages of every expansion joint of the bridge at the L.H.S.,
centre and R.H.S. should be taken. A lso the invert levels of the waterway sho uld
be taken.

Cross sections should be taken lo a distance .~.~ k:;,,st I 5m from the centre Line of
the road on eilher side unless there ar.;: •.;cJn~tdcrable changes in the levels. In
case if there is z. possible deviation •.if the ex.isting road is involved, the cross
section should be taken as necessary.
!
l If considerable level diftereoces are encoWJlered cross section should be
extended as necessary.

(i) The site survey should include the river banks to a distance of 30m./ If there is a
change in the direction of the stn"".Jm the length should be extended as necessary.

(j) The redu~ Level o f the M.S.L. also should be taken if it is markc? in the close
proximity of the btidge by other organisations s uch as th~ Survey· Departmenl
Irrigation Oeprutment etc.
 JS

T.O.M. must b~ on :t pem1am:nt structure in close proximity o l the bridge.

(k) The direction of north shoulJ be marked.

(I) If there are services crossing the river or cruTied by the bridge the necessary
details such as size o f the pipe, U1c distnnce from the bridge to the pipe line, type
& number o f supports e tc. should be taken.

(m) High tension power lines or any other structures closer to the bridge w hich can be
affected dming construction should be noted down.

TI1e possibility of detouring and accommodating traffic during construction

should be found out. Survey & levelling should cover the detour area.

Possible altemative locations for the bridge (apart from the existi g bridge) to be
considered and their merits/demerits noted.

3.1.2 HydrologicaJ Survey -

(a) The flow direction of the waterway over which the bridge is to be constructed
shouJd be clearly marked. The banks of the waterway nlso shuul~ be marked.

(b) Bed level and cross sections of river on upstream and downstream side·s sho·uld
be taken, to a distance of30 m approximately.

(c) The lowest water level, the duration of the same and high llood level and
ltequeiH:y of floods shouiJ be gatht:red from nood gauges and rhe natives. The
flood n.l':!.d\ .; on the existing stnJci.ure s hould be noted where ever possible.

(d) Scouring of riwr bed & river men.nJ ering paltems should be (;hccked & any local
scour panems documented.

(e) Th!.! approximate siz{: ofl.hc tloating ckbris if there arc any should be inquired &
noted.

3.1.3 Technical S urvey & Dehails of thll Existing Bridge -

(a) Type ofbed mataiul. rock outcrop/boulders •1 \ullld be noted down.

..

(b) Environmen tal coudition, salinc/m.tn :Jt. atmosphere windy condition etc. should
be taken.

{c) Any visible settlemenl of the existing structure should he marked. · In doing so
particular attention to be given for alignment ofparapeb/h andrails, kerbs etc.

(d) Sketches of tl,e bridge foundat ions, substntcturc and ~:.~pcrstructure must be
given "vith al1 dimensions. Wh··:ever possible existing briJgc fotmdalion type
should be indicated through inspection or /Tom data colkcle<.l by the neighbors.

Conditions of existing stnrctw·es nearby to be noted if any.

 16

(e) Bearing points on the C}.b ling c:-.ppiug beam or the briJge shc~uld be marked
clearly with dimen:;ions.

(.f) Ddails o f existing briJg~:: sho uld be taken in lh~o: fotm of photographs.

3.2 Geotechnical Investigation -

(a) Subsurface btvestigation -

Ddailecl sub surface investig<~tions arc carried oul. n• th-:: iorm of bore hol~s using
rotary .;on~ percussion drilling machines. In ct'a tain cases where good soil
conditions or bed rock arc expected at shallow depths, soil investigations may be
carried out by digging test pi~.

Bore holes should be carried out at suitable imer·vals in tl1e J orm of a grid
I
I covering the entire area The spacing of tht> :~: 1 L .:.. decided on ~e natw·e of the
stmcture ~md the variation of soil conditions aL .11e site.

The Geotechnical Report prepared by the Geoteclmical Consultant at the

completion of tl1e geoteclmica.l investigation should include :

Description oftl1c: geotechnical investigation undertaken.

Dctai.led assessment of stratigraphy and subsurfJce condition.

Site pl ..H\ and longitudinal pro11le/profiles of stratigraphy.

Datum tor bore holes and co-ordinates of the location of boreholes.

It is desirable to sink all t.h~ bort: holes to bed rock in o rder to oht.aih all necessary
information unless bed roc! is at a large depth aud bridge could be founded a t a shallow
depth.

Additional boreholes mny be reqmred nl sites where the bNcs incJicate variability of sub-
surface conditions.

The site inv~stigation sho1.1.ld include :

In situ field tes1s which may incluae sl.andaJd penetration tests or static cone
penctrom~:: ter soundings.

Definition of bedrock prope11ies, where applicab.le.

Colour pho!ographs of corc..o;;.

Laboratory classiticaiion of main soil typt:s.

The following soil conditions should be detennined as appropriate.

 17

Physical descrip tion ;md ~rutt distribulio n o f each slra twn.

T hickness and elevation at various locations of top and bot1om of.'c.::acb stratum.

Narum! moisture contents.

Atterberg limits.

Shearing stren gths (usually quick, undistm bed shear s trengths will be necessary).

Extent and magnitude of preconsolidarion.

Consolidation characteristics (usually these should be rdat d to a simpler

parameter such as mo isture c<mH:nt).

Presence of organic materials or evidence of desiccation or previous soil

disturbance.

Sw~lling char"dCteristic.

Factors affecting timetab!~ of consolidation ~uc.;h as internal stratjfication,

especially thin sand members not otherwise identified.

In shu density, average ami n:.t.nge.

Grain size distributions.

Grain shape uniformity etc.

She,u· strength characteristics, which usually rrwy he ~xpressed as <m angle of

internal fi'i ction.

Presence of or~!<mic or other dcletedo'v ·.:atenaJs.

Pit:zometric surface.over :site area, existing, past and probable range ·in future.

Pl!rmeability.

Somc~::s of inflow to each aquif(:J. wl1ere determinable.

Temperatme.
 Depth over t:ulire site.

Type of rock aJl{l physical propeliies of intact rock.

ExLenl and character o f weathering.

Joints including distribution, spacing, and whether open or closed.

Faul!s.

Solution effect in limestone or other soluble rocks.

Rock quality designation.

Special conskkll"ati on~

Chemistry of soil or grow1d water as it would affect buried structures,

sulphate attack. on t:oncrete, or acids as encountered in industrial are.as.

Dynamic soil parameters, if required.

Ambient "ibration levels, if such could be a soui·co:: of distr~ss to the prop

structw·e or to the public.

Prohk n1soils or conditions.

The tmderground iJwt:stigation that ha ve been obtained by the Eugineer should be

uvailablc to tltc Goolechni<:al Consultant.

Notwithst~Ulding the above, the responsibility for the locatio n of undergroW1d u

lies with the geotechnical Consultant who should make:: aU appropriate arrangemc
cnsw·e that undl!rgrouuJ nli lilies will not be damaged in the cow-se of geotec
investigation.

(i) Standard Peoetr..tt.Jon Test.

Due to the extrt:rne difficulty in obtaining undisturbed smnples from gr.

soils, their stren[:.>ths are determined by taking disturbed samples and carryi•
standard penetration tests. Penetration tests should be done not Jess than
1.5m and at. least one in each of the different soil strata. Once the bedr
reached, to ~::nsure the rock i(mnation the bore hole is carried io a dt:
anotht:r J.O.m.

(ii) RQD, Core recovery & fractw·e ij•dex

Once the bed rock is reached RQD, core recovet)' and fraclw·e index val
obtained to classify the quality of rock.
 19

(b) E:,Limntionof Allow<tbk !k:ll'ing Pressw-e

f oLmdation and other rt:comrnendations should include the fu llowing as

appropriate :

Assessment of alternative totu1dation systems.

Allowable bearing capacities and the appropriate levels uf the 1b undation system.

Estimates of setllements and lateral stability.

Relevant soil/rock design parameters.

Comment on relative cost of alternatives.

Assessment of possible construction problems (e.g. dewatering, using/permanent
casing, preboring, excavation stability). 1
I
tures, Empi1icaJ Charts are referred to obtain shear strength parameters (C,<jl) in relation to
standard Penetration test value, in calculating U1e allowable bearing pressure. Ullimate
bearing capacity is calculated usillg T t!1.t.nghi or Meyerhof equations and a factor of
safety of 3 is adopted when computing the allowable bearing capacity. A lso empirical
charts are used in estimating the allowi:lble bearing prcssw·e using lhe S.P.T. values for
an allowable value ofsettlement.

Ref: Design of Pile Foundations by M.J. Tomlinson

Foundation Analysis & Design by E.J. Bowels

Jd be
3.3 Waten vay & Length of Bridge-

Piers and abutments should be so located as to make the best use of foundation condition
available and also not to obstntct water llow. Decision on the number of spans depends
not only on the requirement of Lhe waterway, but, economy too should be considered lor
reduction in ,JVingwal\ lengths lor increased number of spans. A cost cun1parison bas to
be canied out to dt:ci,de 011 the span lt:nglh and the nurni)CJ of supports, whether to select
less number of supports 1-vi1h h•rgc span lengths or t-· im-rense the mi.mber of supports
and provide small spaJ; lenell1s.
om grel
carryir (a) Determination oflcugth ami level or t.S,.idge-
;s tlaan ·'
te bedn.• For bridges across water courses or rivers the lcngtl1 has to be decided, taking
) a de1. into consideration the nalure of the water course. A knowledge ofthc waterway
rl.:'quired at site is also nccc~;sa.ry. lt1 gerwrnl the bridge is constmcted to provide
this waterway. TI1e width of waterway provided is the distmu:c between the
abutments less the total \vidth of lhe piers with allowances madt: for the cJTccls
due to the edges. If the waler·.• ay provided by the bridge is restricted, it will
ex val~ create an afflux upstream and also cause additional scour due to increased
velocities. The afflux crealed should not have any b:umful effects in lhe region
prepared for the bridge. T he effect of the additional scour or Lhe stabi lity of the
foundation should also be chc..:cked.
 Jn dt:lennining th , . -'-l'' ''~m~nls of bridges, the ::olream s(riv~rs should
b~ JiviueJ into three group!>.

(i) Stream/river those banks anu bed with hard and inerodibk
( ii) Stream/river with inc.::rodible banks but with erodible beds.
(iii) Stream/rivt:r witb erodible bank!; w1d bed.

As U1e extra watcrvvay required during the floods may create partly by rising
water level and partly by the flood water causing scour in the bed and banks, it is
necessary to study L11c nature and the action of the scour in river(stream banks
and bed. Depth of scour should be detenn in~.-d, and if the bridge is founded
~hove: the scour depth a suitable protection for bridge piers/abutments should be
Joul!.

While designing the water way lhrough bridges, ",tnlto't'' has to be calculated in
ca::;e of bridges w h<;re there is a reduction in tl~· ~v~r<tll width of the waterway
over tlto.! natural width. The afflux should be kCJJt minimum and limited as far as
possible to 150 mm, otherwise whc:u there is a higher afflux, the rm>re will be the
vclocil.>' produc;r.d through the obstruction. Hen~ an estimation of the afflux is
necessary in determining U1e soffic of the deck.

Ref.: Considerations in the Design & Sinking of Well Foundations, for Bridge
Piers by B. Balwant R..ao & C. Muthuswamy.

(b) Det~nnination OfDcsigu Maximwn Discharge-

A numb,·r of ~mp1 rical fOJ muJae are available for estimating the maximum
cli:;churg~, <~l tl point on a river or ru1y other water cowse. TI1ese fonnulae cannot
be nppiit:d indiscriminately as they have been detivcd for specified conditio n.
Hence tor a particular bridge sik the formula Hppl i~ble to specific conditions of
tbl! catchment has tn h~ 3dc:cted and used. This is v ry important as otherwise
spurivu.s result may be obtained. It is also necessary to check the vaUdity of the
results thus obtained by tl1e following oonunonly usetl nsethods tor estimation of
maximwtt llood d ischaJ'~c.

ti) Area Velocity McthoJ.

(ii) Using Tuu;onal formulae ··uu!viJlg the rainfall aJtd other Characteristics.

(iii) U.;ing rc.;orded data on existing structures vn the same wuterway in tbr
vicinity (Jr by collecting data through inspection and inve~tigation.

(i) Area Vdocity Method :

The cross ~!t'clioua.l area of the river is measured in a straight reach an...
th~ is m uJliplied by the velocity calcuJatcd from the Maning'::o Formula.

(ii) RalwnaJ Fon.mla :

The catch:nem is the area upstream of a poi.lt in the river from which
rain wat~1 fnlJmg in thai area will tend to now to that poin.t. This
cumputl!d with the help o fTopogrnphy sheets.
 Jld
21

Th!! rainlrul rewrds in the ,·u,.:hm.:ul are obtained from the Irrigation D.:partment
.:>r the Meteorological Ocpwimt:nL

ring Ref: 01. Bridge Engineering by S. Ponuuswamy

it is 02. Essentials o f Bridge Engineering by D.J. Victor
mks 03. Design of lrrigation head works for small catchments by - A.J.P.
ided Ponrajah
jbe
(c) Spacing and Location of Piers & Abutments :

:din The positioning and spadng of the piers and abutments arc finally decided taking
way into considemtion the requirements of the waterway outlined above and the result
aras of the bore bole investigations and available standard beam lengths after
e the considering the economic aspects for alternate proposals for djflerent rype of
l.lX IS super structure as wcil as subst.Juctures.

1dge
4.0 ALIGNMENT AND GEOM E'J.:RlCAL CONSIDERATION :

The superstmcturc is the visibl~ Jca1 un! of the bridge. By selecting lhe correct shape for
the superstJucture aesthetic appearanl;e of the bridge is t:nhanced. S uperstructure
unum consists of the deck, kerbs, hand raiJs, uprights and lamp posts. Service ducts are also
.annot provid~d in the superstructure a::; a mc.:ru1s for carrying service mains across the river.
lition.
:>ns of A bridge may be right or sk~w. Skt:w <Utgle is defir t~d as the inclinatio n of the abutment
!rwise to 1hl! pt::rpenJic ular to iLc; lice ~tlgc. A bridge with a skew angle of zero degrees is a
of the right bridge. In simply s uppor1ed bridges U1c effect of skew in general is nt:glt::cted up to
jon of 20 degrees and if the skew angle is nw11.: tlum that, bridge deck 5hould be desie,rt1ed to
resist the cf1ects.

The bridge deck may be either o f rcinLorccd or prcst.J·cssetl concrete. f-actors that atfect
the choice o f deck are the spans. fmmdation condition, aesthetics ct.c..
i tics. I
The c<UTiageway wtdths that should be proviued on bridg-.·!. alung the road network ba-;ed
fin lht' on the traffic rcquircm~.:n ls a m g iven below. f'orcastinL of iitture traffic to be carried out
in accordance with the' ,,~-.).n.~tric Design Standard:::.,. ~toaJs.

. [: -==-~-r:--
...... . -· =
:tch anc
mula. f
ADTPCU/day 25000 -
72000
300-
25000 ~
Carriageway width (m) 2x7.4 2x3.7
. 2d
thich all However for Bridges on Na1ionnl Highways it is preferred to hav\! a caJriageway width
lrus t of 7.4m which may be reduced only up () 6.8 m depending on the site con_tlitions. The
minimum foot walk width adopte-d is l.2m which varies to a larger width depending on
tbe specific location with resp..!ct to the pctlestrian volume.

.b
 22

for briugcs over highway <md r:UI\\ay a mjnimurn vertical clearance of 5.25m should be
provided.

The approach road layout along wit h the bridge centre line should be designed in
accordance with the Geometric Designs Standards of Roads which includes design of
horizontal and vertical a ligrunent.;. Longitudinal camber a lso depends on the aestheti c
requirements and type of construction. Cross camber is so designed (to a slope of I :60
'I for concrete bridges) to lead the wntl!r to the lower kerb which serves as a swface <.lJ·ain
leading water U1rough the rwnwntcr o utlets.

I
a
5.0 SELECI'ION OF BRIDGE TYPES AND OESJGN CONSIDJl~RATJON :

Types of bridges are classified depending on the material used an~ the "type of I
construction adopted. The common types of bridges are : · I

'
I) Concrete Btidges
2) Steel Bridges
3) Stone or brick masonry arch Dridgcs
4) Concrete arch Bridges
5) Timber Bridges
6) Box culverts

Concrete bridges are used in most of rhe places, becaillle of long li fe span and speed of
construction. The materials for const1 uction of concrete bridges are readily available. It
has also been connd that the maintenance of concrete bridges is less costly than for other
I ·
types ofbridges. .

On account of the shortage of steel involvement of foreign exchange and non availabi lity
of rolled sections, it is preferable to avoid use of steeJ bridges as far as possible. A steel
bridge is used only if it is the best ~uit~.:d for a particulars sit11ation. However, where
steel trusses in good condition !rom dismantled bridges are available. these can be used
on certain class of roads. A disadvantage in using steel bridg~s is the high cost of
maintenance.

For small culvertS and bridges of moderate span, wh1..rt.; the avail&ble headway is
adequate, stone or brick masonry arches can be U!'! ':! .,•llh advantage when bricks or
stones are locally available. Services of siJIIul workmen are required for this type
construction.

Concr~te arch bridgt!s are generally used in places to fit into the aesthetic appearance
the area. In hilly areas, where the velocity of flowing water is such that it is not L)V;);)HII~
to construct any intermediate pil.!rs, a concrete arch bridge is advantageous
convtmient.

Use of timber bridgi!S is limited w artas n hen timber logs are found in pleuty.
gets easily deteriorated under no1-mal weather conditions, such bridge:; arc generally bui
for temporary construction anJ for light loarungs.

At places where t11e flood spr~d is large, since providing a all weaLher bridge
Wleconomical, a submersiblt! bridge is acceptable. lt effects great
 be
23

Ill construcrion. J hl\\~\W tl1~ f(,rm<etil •j• levd of th~ slmcture should bt: fixed dcptmd ing on
1 of the pcrioJ of inundatiun oflhe s1111chm:.
etic
. :60 In addition, the type of' bridge, 10 he prO\i~k·d uta site is genrr:11ly cle~.:iucd on economic
rain analysis, avai lability of malc:ri<lls and t•usc: l) f cun"tmction. l lse of precast pretensioned
beam in the btidge deck has the advantage of ease of construction due to the factory
made product as well as the low thickness of deck in the case of design of the v ertical
prorue for low level approaches. However the difficulties that may have to be
encountered in the transportation of precast beam w ith respect to the location of the
bridge should be considered. Refore dccision is t~tkcn to adopt a po:.t tensioned beam
deck for the bridge, the possibili ty of providing a bea :11 casting yard close to the bridge
e of location should be looked into. Standard precast pretensioned beams are avai1able from
4.3 m upto 16.23 m. A combination of pretcnsioned/post tensioned beam with precast,
16.23 m w1it is available for spans of 19 m.

The commonly used bridge types and components are de~..:rih ·d here in deta il. It is the
decision of the designer to adopt or to deviate from the types indicated herein as
appropriate to tb~ circwnstances.

5.1 Foundations :
eed of
ble. It Types of foundations commonly used are;
r other
(a) Shallow foundations
Spr~d looting tow1<led 0 11 rock or on suitabk soil strata.

[ (b) Deep Foundations

f.
(1) Pile Foundations
I f
f
(i) Cast l.nsitu or Bored Pile
(ii) Precast driven Piles

~-
(iii) Timber Pi les

(2) Caisson roundations

(i) C'irculcu·
(ii) Rectangular

The choice of thl! l)'pl.! of l~'ltl ltda<ion depends primuP1~ u 11 fo llowing:

(a) Nature of Suil Straw

(b) Magnitude of the lo<~ds to~ carrieu
(c) Site condit1ons
(d) Economy
(t:) Availability ofConstmction Techniques.
(t) Maximum likely scour <.kpth
(g) Minimum grip length requircu in the cas<.· of deep fo11nd:ttions

Foundation types can be classified as shaJiovt & deep. Spread footing & side by sid
caissons can be considered :1s shallow lounc.Jalions and spread footing t:fUl be provide
where a suitable soil stratum can be toulld at a shallow depth within about 3-4 m bdo1
ground/bed level. Where the founding layer is bch·;ccn ·LO- 6.0 m side by s ide cuissoro..:
an improvise method uf spread foundation couiJ b.; adopted. Where water table is higl
 <- •

the Ph'bk.h.• of cotJerdw, .. .vatl:ring shouiJ be vOJT::.iu.:red when adopting

thest! types of loundatiorts.

Pile foundations may be aJopted when suitable bt:aring strata are found deeper than 6.0
m from ground level. Bored piles should be adopted when driven piles are liable to
damage existing stru.::ture:;.

Pre-cast piles or ('ased c.;a:.t in situ piks are preferred where p..:at ovcrlarers are found or
I when foundations have to be constn1ctcd in water.

I Timbcf piks are used w here there is no risk of d~.:..:.ty 1>f timb~::r Wld loads to tx
transmitt:.:d fr,tm the stru\:ture are not exct~ssive.

ln the ticsign 01 driwn piles in pa.rt.icuJar, 1wo different capacitks shuuld be taken imc
account.

(a) The capacity of the pile as a structural member

(h) Th...: cap..city ... f thl' pile 'o lransmit loads to the foundation mateda1.

In lh~ C(.I.Se of piles on good rock the ~JJacity is governed by condition (a). Wbert
:.ignificant horizontul forces ar~· p1..::::;cnt, raked piles could be used

C..iisson foundations and Jru·gc.: Jimoct~..t" bored piles arc u:;..:J when heavy loads have v
be lran:.tnitted and wl tCio the foundati.ms have to bt~ t~arried very de\;;p.

F-
5.2 Substructtue
~
The snbsuucture maiuly con3•.sts of tlwc\! components, abutrmmts and wingwalls a1
piers. Abuttm,;nts, wiu!.;walls :1Ji: l pttns lt11ASl be so proportioned :,o as to satisfy both d
practical us wdl ru. theoreLical COJL"ltuerations. ScJectjon of th~ :ypc of substructu .
should be carried out to suit lit.:: par trculr1r site conditions. A hcruative proposals sho ·
l
be consjo~r~ for cconolnic tcasJui hiy The overall dimcn~ions w-e lirst determined frc
practical constdcm.:ron:, l:lnd components are desigued to , :.isi ti ..: t.arious forces acu
on ;hem.

f he height of abulmen•.ttldlor piers should be selv~.\. u to give.~ a suffici.;nt cleara1

bet\v~en the highe:sl Jh·.. J 'n· d and th- .~..iug level, unless designed as a s ubmersi
bridg..::. 111is free b()<..t.f rs \i::illcslly tuk~n ,,s 1 .0 m, or a minimum of 0.6 m dut
rcstticteJ conditions. Purtial 01 ftlli flo\.1ciing i'> u \ tl a~.:c~ptabJ e on Class A & B rc
unkss a ~.:on!>idcrab lc ~av:ug., nu <on~truction may be achieved on bridges of It:
dasstiication Gy ~rov idiug r~ducl!d wa1etway area and accepting sh011 dllration flooc
by flo<,Js vJlth shvd •.·· than U1c Lull iJI!sign Recu1rence Jnteival. Th~ sdcction dep~
on the nun1~r of parmn~.;L~.-rs, includiug uvailahli ity of altemati•·e routes, short 1
inconvenience Ct•nuc~ted v.rilh o;llort d11ration t1ooding weighed ~rgains l the cost s:n
1l1e v..i.Jth and lcnbul u. th :;ubstructu·· ..::; art: governed by the luads to be carried
venical and horizontul) sdi ,,~!gh1 (nec.:ssary to reduce loads on foundation), ecoll
in construction, use of IUt:al lil<ttcrial to a m<tXilt!um and possible o bstructin
wat.!I'Waj in the case of piers .
 .I 25
ptiog

5.2.1 Abutments -
m6.0
ble to Di fferent types of abutments commonly used arc;

(a) Mass concrete

und or Reinforced concrete
(b)
1. Re inforced concrete wall
2. Reinfo rced concrete column (open abutments)
. to be
Assessment of Loads :
:en intc.. Open abutments are more economical if there is no risk of earth fill being wa.<>hcd a way
as in the case of11yover o r bridges w ith protected banks.

( 1) Vettical Loads

(i) Dead Load reactions from SuperstTucture

(ii) Live Load reactions from Superst:ructw·c
Where
(ii i) Sclf\Veight
(iv) Buoyancy
s have ·:
(2) Horizontal Loads

(i) Earth Pressure

(ii) Pressure due to Surcharge
(ui) Tractive Force
(iv) Tcmperamre effects
~walls <:4 ( v) Slu in!wgc et Ieels.
fy both
Jbstrucr: Eruth pressw·e and pressure due to sutcharge arc dctcrminl'd f'rorn H.ankiue formula. For
sals sho: tractive force nnd live loads rcfl:reuce should be made to the notes giyen under loads.
nined f:-J
1rct:s ac ~ ln audition, abutment should be checked for vertical and horizontal forces act ing during
construclion stage.

1t cleru..a Propped ahutmcnt type structmes often provide an economi..:ul solution for single shon
s ubme1 :;pan bridgl!s, provided that complete scouring of' th·· fi ll hchind abutment:, can be
6 m d• eliminated. Signiiicanl pari of the horizonlnl i~ .,. , ,: l!:i Lranst~rrcd th rough the dt:ck.
•& B I U\!twccn lhe abutments HJlcJ o nly the uuhul.t.·:·l,l ltunwntal forces JH:l·d h1 h(: resisted by
~e!l or 1..:1 the foundations.
tion flo~.:
tion ocr~
5.2.2 Wingwalls -
;, short •
: cost sa• Differcot types of,~,-·ingwalls ~ommon!y .used an;;
carried
:m), eco1 (a) Wingwalls can(i)C\ (:reJ from abutments
>Structi01 Mass concrete \Vingwalls
~b)
(c) Reinforced concrete wingwnll!:i.
(d) Sh~et pile wingwalls.
 For short wingwalls of medium ltcJglrls and where there is no risk of sl:our cantilever
type may be used.

Wingwalls are to be designed as ~arth re taining sttuctw·es suujected to active earth

p ressure. The mass concrete stepped section is to be designed as sloped back retaining
wall on lhe stepped siue. H owev~r to be conservative the vert ical component of the
earth pressure muy be ignored and the.: full pressure assw11ed to act horizontally.

Sheet p ile wingwaJls are designed according to standard desigu practice.

Ref. - Reynolds Hand Book

Weep hoks are provided in abutments and wingwalls to reduce the build up of porewater
pressure in th0 earth fill behind. They are usually spaced at 1.5 m centres horizontally
and vertically as appropriate. The low~::sl row of weep holes is provided at 0.3 m above
the normal water level. II
When abutments and wingwalls tue founded at different levels on soil~ of different
bearing capaciti~s. a s lip joint between the abutment and the wingwalt from top to
bottom is provided.

5.2.3 Piers -

Ditierent types of piers commonly used are;

(a) Mass concrete stems

(b) Reint(H~~;J 0oncrete walls
(c) Reinforcl.d rcncrete colwn.ns

Piers should be checked for the fo llowing loads.

( 1) Vertical Loads -
(i) Dead load •·eaction
(ii) Self weight
(iii) Live load renclion
(a) Doth spans loaded
(b) One spardoaded
(iv) B uoyancy

(2) Horizontal Forces -

Longitudinal Direction
(i) Tractive fo rce
(ii) Force due to water current
(iii) Fore~ du~ to tloating debris & impact.
(iv) Temperature eftects
(v) Shrinkage eftecls

Transverse Direction
(i) Force du~ to water cuncnt
(ii) Force due lo Heating debris & impact
(iii) Wind
 .
(2) Pres tressed concrete beam with end Md intermediate diaphragms wi th

(i) Prcsu·~ssc::u cuncrctc deck slab or

ff
(ii) ReinJorcl.!d concrete deck slab ...
[
(c) Steel concrete compo.si1c th;ck

The deck comprises of s~veml longitudinal steel bt.:-runs with concrete slab on
top.

5.3.1 Design of Superstructure -

AnaJysis of SUJX!rstructure is carried oul us.ing the following methods.

01. Elastic Analysis : eg. Load Distribution theories

02. Plastic Analysis : eg. Yield line theory

Permissible stresses to be adopted an~ to be in conformity with Prut 4 of BS 5400. b

prestressed concrete decks in general, pcrmi~sible stresses to be in accordance with Clasi
ll n.·qt,iremems of BS 5400.

(a) Slab Decks -

Slab decks are design d as one way spannmg, ~ith~r -.ituply supported
continuous.

(b) Beam and Slab Oecks -

Reinforced concret~ deck slab is designed in the same way as the slab bridge.

In the Posl tensioned slab presltcssing steel is designed using empirical metht
proposed hy Guyon in "Prestressed Concrete". However nominal r~inforccmcnt ofO.I~
is also provided in the diru(;liou of pre~lre.s!>. ln the p~..:rp~nJiculcu· dirc:dion s teel
provided to resist the Bending Moments and Shear forces m dmt d irectiun.

Composik action of thC' slab rnay be taken into acco~w~ ia 1 th~ dcsigr: of the longitudn
beams. Beam is dcsigni.Ailo cater for lhc pot1ion <''' • • .... lvad depending on the spacinf

The diaphragms are plaCl;(l m supports, nlicl sp:m and quarter s pan points.

Tr~msverse moments and longitudinal moments due to HB loading is worked out llS
det:k analysis.

Ref. : Concrete Bridge Design hy R.E. Rowe

5.4 Bridge Bearings -

Loads imposed by the veh icle o n the superstructure are trnnsmilled to substroJ
tlu·ough th e bearing.
 29

Bearings may bt: of ~tee! concrd~ or ruhlx:r.

Bearings should u~::signed in accord ance with BS 5400 Part 9. I.

5.5 Other Fenturcs of Superstructure -

Hand rails, Uprights & Parapets -

Parapets and Handmils may be of masonry or concrete. Shape of hand rail and
upright or parapet. is an ru·chitccntral feature. T he minimum height of the rai ling
or parapet of a highway bridge should be 1.0 m.

Parapets arc not nomKtlly designed for collision loads and m ay be designed for
pedestrian loads. Where the situation demands crash barriers ~~ould be used .
)400. }:;
ithCI~ End Pilasters -

End pilasters may be of ruasonry or reinforced concrete. The s ize and shape is
designed to give a goou a ppearance to the bridge.

ported Kerbs-

Kerhs are provided at. tl1e edge of carriageway to de11ect Lhe vehicle back. Kerbs
should be a solid scct.ion not kss than 225 nu)t wide at base and not less than 225
mm high above the adjacent road surtace.
ridge.
Service duclli -
met.b~
nt of O 1 ' Service ducts are provl.tkd w1der Ihe sidc::walks to ~any C:3ble~; and water mains.
::>n stee
Lamp Posts -

J ngitud 1 Spacing of lrunp posts, height of lamp posts, etc. arc designed according to the
e spac illurniual io n rl! JUi J\~ments. Provision shaU he mwk in the: deck or the sub-
stru-.:lure to a t·colHIIlOd.tlC the lamp post.

Expansion Joint:,-
d out
ln the case of .;i.li(Jiy supportctl ::>1.1 .I tS there is a complete separation betwec::n
abutting spans which permits t:bange tn length of superstructure due to
temperature variation. T he gap in-between should b<! sufficient to accommodate
the expansion of t ill: d ct.k within tempemture range expected. Expansion joints
should extcnc' over the entire width of the deck. 1t should not allow penetration
or water to capping beams. As it is very ilifficult to achiev~ ful l water proofing
of the expansioll joints and parucularly to maintain thr0ngh o ut the lite of the
subs structure, it may lx: acceptable c. ·t some briJges and much more economical and
easier to allow the surlact; waler to pcnctrat.e the Joint anJ to make appropriate
provisions for its draiuage.
 . ---=
- -- --
Raiu wate1 outlets -
I.
•• Rain water outlets arc usua lly kept nt 4.5 to 6m centres. Rainwater o utlets shoulc
p roject outside the deck su fficiently to prevent water drip ping on any part o f dec
or substructure.

·I~·
6.0 DESIGN OF SUBMERSIBLE 'BJUDGES

!II
6.1 Scope

These Guidt:lines are intended to be used tor low level bndgl!s subj~cted to submergen~
by floods tlc-qucntiy.

I These Guidelines are not intended for use as a code of prdcticc ,>r a desigJ;t code.
responsibility of rbe designer to consider and evaluate nil •••pects rclevar l to the bridg
under considerc1tion. 1l1e design process may need f<' i:,.;hsdc seeking the opinion o f al
the usl:rs of the bridge, on questions such ns the level of service, location and choice a
1 barriers.
I
I 6.1 Introduction
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i -
!
Bridge Type Flooding Freq uency
~

Low-l.e vel bridge Frequently submerged

Hi!Y1-fevel bridge 100 year

.. . .

Bridges subjected to submergence at~: us ually adopted for reasons of l!conom y oi

where the di ilerenc~ betwcell no11ml wat~::r level anJ tJ1c flood kvd i!:> large but
floods are of relatively short duration, or where it is impractical to 1aise tht: bridge 1
approaches above Llood level becaus~ of the n.:sulting backwater eifccei. This ty~,
crossing may abo be chvscn where usugc is limited and flood tree alternatives exist.
I

6.2 Bridge location, Propm·iioning & Orientation

II
I
6.2.1 Location

Submersible bridges arc sui1able for flnt aHJ cuiJ m-eas inland where large fl oods <
infrequently or in remote forested hilly arel:ls where UctSh noods could be frequer
hst only a short t ime. Stshmersible hridgcs arc also suitable on large flood plains as
ovc::r the approach roads is oficn acceptable and velocities arc generally nut high.

6.2.2 Proponionlng BriJ ge & Approarhcs

The t::ntire btidge structure sho uld be <k:.lgt:ed to minimize ~rching debris or at !:
allow easy removal of any debris caught. Bridges with short individual spans II
catch more debris than those with longer individual spans. Where debris loaJ
significant span lengths less than IOm should he :woidcd. The span lengths t
shouJd at least exceed th~ expected lengths of dt:bris to lx: passed.
 31

hould
f deck A compromise foa the caJcufttkd h<~~Lw:~kr, tutti drug effects mu!>t be made between the
advantages of lougt.•r spru1: \\ ilh fcwa pit.:r') (but incurring a de\:11er :.~pcrslructure) and
shorler spans with more p ier~ (hul allowing a ~hal lower superstructure).

6.2.3 Deck Level & Tra fficability

If static plus velocity head at the crown or highest edge of a carriageway exceeds 300nun
overtopp ing flood depths must always be indicated with gauge markers.

Thus overtopping of submersible bridges and their road :1pproach embankments may be
tOlerated to provide tra11icability for u river crossing t:ut~j~d to low serviceability Hoods.
AJtemativdy, the bridge deck could be placed above low flood Jcvel (but tor economic
I
I
reasons, below larger fl ood 1cvds) \ hilc the approaches, set t~l a lower predetermined
level, could permit overtopping by the low flood and yet still remain tr¥ficable.
boice:
6.2.4 Vertical Aligmnent

A level grading should be provided for the fu ll length of bridge so that the bridge acts as
a weir when the rising upstream wakr surface just over-lops it. Tf only portions o f tl1e
structure are ovettoppcd the p~Nern of t1ow in lhe stream could be severely disturbed. A
deck on a grade or vertical curve is abo a hazard to traffic, because the water depth is not
constant Drivers negolinting a tluodcd crossing should not cncoWlter an unexpected
increase in depth of water.

6.2.5 Horizontal Alignment

m1y
Submersible llri~lg..::s should be on :l :;traight alignmeut and located as sqWlre as possible
~e bm to tllt: most C()frl ' ..m din.:ctiou (ll Hood now.
)ride~ I
tis t) ;- ,
6.2.6 Deck Crossfall
exist.
As the water subsides, d..!bns and silt will tend to be lcfi on tht" upstream ·side of
submersible bridge witJ1 normal two-way crossfall. For this reason, the prdcn·cd deck
section with one-way falling c.: rnssGII I toward 1hc downslrc;un sid..; is preferable.

6.3 Analysis
loocb
T-cqu~ • 6.3.1 Uplift & i nstability
aius.....:
:=h. TIIC stability of subm~rgc<.l bridg~ shouJ<.l be assessed tor boll1 upli lt and overturning
t:ffi:clS from the f~)llowi ng sirnullaneuusly occurring forces due 10 the stream flow, viz:

(a) nuoyancy uplift

or at ·:
pans !
(b) Hydrodyllamk Jcag forces n.::~ulting from stream flow past the superstructure
is lo<l.J and/or on dcblis caught aga.inst 11 e upstream edge of the supccstructwx.:;
lgths
(c) Unbalanced hydrostatic pressures acting on the upstream sides of the bridgt: from
JJ-1nding (aftlux ctfect), aggravated by the collection of debris;

(d) Floating objccl in l ~ind forces

 (e) Some superslructur~ may also trap debris, which if buoyant, will create furth-
uplift forces.

lL is essential that alJ parts o f the s tructm~ ar~ considered for reduction of dead load dt:...
to buoyancy when the bridg~ is submerged. The possible use of concrete aggregate
lighter in weight than the assumed design value causing over estimates o f the stabi lizio=
dead load of the structure should abo be considered. The possibility of air pockets bei£.,.
trapped lUlder the deck creatiug deswbiJising buoyancy should also be considered.

Calculation of the destabilising forces listed above u 11 bndges from stream flow effec'.:
are often somewhat uncertain due to Jack of data on aclwl flood flow and debris as we:
as knowledge ofappropriate drag Jactors or hydraulic !low patterns to be used.

To accow1t for uncertainties, the bridge must have a very large factor pf safety agair.:
instability under flood submergence. Unless the stabiliLing restraint prqvided by grd\-·
force provides a factor of sa.tc ty of at leas! 02 or more on unfa ' tared loads ·•
superstru~ture must be securely tied down to the substructw·e.

6.3.2 Critical FJood Levels & Velocities

£t is s uggested the following load c~c cat~gories for submersib1c bridges be consideret!

(a) Partial submergence of superstructure

Overtopping of su~rstru<-turc

I
(b)

(c) Deep subm;;:rgence of supers u11..;ture

Stream velocities as well as frequency, magnitude and durarion o f the: resreJ

s ubmergence calculated for vanous Oood llnws wi ll determj nc th~ required ~
protection of the embankments for The road approaches and abutments. Wl1ere l
approach or bridge abutment embankment is overtopped by flood waters sq
protection works are required. AdditioHal ~ul vcrt openingc; mt1y be requirc:d.

6.4.1 Kerbs & Barriers

This section deals with some aspects of the chvice of appropriate kerbs and barrierf
'
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requirements are sometimes contradicting, e.g. a grill type pedestrian or coJ

traffic/pt:destrian barrier is not sttitable for sites with s ubstantinJ amounts of debri~
may be required ifthu bridge is located in lt\Wll and there is heavy pedestnan. usad
choi..;c of the appropriate k~rb or barrier dep~uds on circumstances. Where d eep ..,
present use of collapsible failing should be considered.

lf it is considered that kerbs are warranted, they sho uld either be cru,'tellat
sections of kerb separated by full-depth gaps not ex~ccding 200 mrn) o r if coc
provided with slots to allow water to drain freely from the deck and to aid th..
removal of debris. Small diameter drainage bolt:s and scupper pipes are
clogging ·with debris. '
 Grassing or batters muy be adeylillle wh~n the vt:locity or water p o w over 'h•!
embankment is less than I .5nvscc. G~.!ncra lly this is the ca~e when t ailwater levels ; :r~
not more than axound 300mrn bdow the downstream edge of the road tormation w he 1
ovc11opping first occurs. Grass butters may no t be suitable where frequen t ove rtoppinl:
occurs for a period of more than two o r U1ree hours duri ng floods. G rass batters are not
suitable ror
shaded areus under the bridge supers tructure.

More daborate protection works against scour are detailed similarly to the req uirements
for causewrtys. It is essential all the following protection works are either taken be low
the anticipared stream bed general scour level or local scour hole depths using cut-off
trenches, or arc provided with level aprons extending into the waterway to accommodate
scour erosion. In particular, batter protection works subject to flood s ubmergence m ust
also be anchored along their upper edges to resist scour erosion durin g overtopping.

Nominal cover to all reinforcement (including Jinks) to meet d urability requircmf nt<> - Ado pted
ti·om BS 5400 for Sri Lankan Practice. 1

-===-=oe:-nm ·~
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·-----=--======.====---~
~-
""'"""
Environmen t Examplt:!s Nominal cover (it~any case
should not be les~ than the dia.
ofthe bar)__._(mrn)

Concrete Grade

25 30 40 50 and
over
-- 1-- - - ----J - · - ----
Extreme 65 55
Concrete sw{uccs exposetl Patts orstructure u1contact ~

to a brasive action by sea ~~tb sea water

water
11 --------- · -- - --+- ------- --- - --
Very Severe 50 40
~ ll
Concrete swfaec!s directly Concrete U(lja~et1t to the sea I
af[ct:leu by sea water spray -~- ---
---+-- ·· - - - - -- -
Severe 50 45 35 30
Concrete surfaces expost:J Walls atld s truct ure s upp01ts
to driving rain n;mote form th e carriageway
Oritlge deck soflitts B wicd l
Or
A llemative wdting and parts of structun: I

L~n.....:;g_ _ - - - - - -·- --- ---

IM:Jerate 50 40 30 25
Concrete smface above Surfn{;e pro tected by bridge
ground level and fuJly deck water prooJl ng or by
sheltered against a ll ofthc
to llowing min sea water
pt:rm<uJtml formvvork
Interior s urtace o f pe,Jestrian
~
spray subways voided
supers tructure 1 • vellular
~
abutments concre te
permanently under water ..., -
~-== . . ........
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