Thematic analysis

Defining thematic analysis Thematic analysis has been defi ned broadly as “a way of

seeing” and “making sense out of seemingly unrelated material” ( Boyatzis, 1998 , p. 4).

Braun and Clarke (2006 ) identify it as a method for identifying and analyzing patterns of

meaning in a dataset (i.e., texts). 2 The process is seen as organic and refl exive,

requiring an “engaged, intuitive” investigator who considers “the ways in which they are

part of the analysis. . . [making] TA a personal, and sometimes even emotional,

experience” ( Braun, Clarke, & Terry, 2015 , p. 107). The goal is to develop a story from

the texts of interest. The investigator notes patterns and themes from the coded texts

and from this may construct a codebook, a structured compendium of codes that

includes a description of how codes interrelate ( Guest et al., 2012 , p. 50). Coding

categories often form a hierarchy of categories ( Joffe & Yardley, 2004 ). The end result

of a thematic analysis will highlight the most salient “constellations” of meanings present

in the texts ( Joffe, 2012 ). Themes may be presented in a map, indicating processes or

hierarchy among the themes ( Braun, Clarke, & Terry, 2015 ). The typical process of

thematic analysis Clarke and Braun (2014 ; see also Braun & Clarke, 2006 , and Braun,

Clarke, & Rance, 2015 , pp. 188–189) present a recursive six-phase process for

thematic analysis: 1 Familiarising oneself with the data (text; may be transcriptions) and

identifying items of potential interest 2 Generating initial codes that identify important

features of the data relevant to answering the research question(s); applying codes to

the dataset (segmenting and “tagging”) consistently; collating codes across segments of

the dataset 3 Searching for themes; examining the codes and collated data to identify
broader patterns of meaning 4 Reviewing themes; applying the potential themes to the

dataset to determine if they tell a convincing story that answers the research

question(s); themes may be refi ned, split, combined, or discarded 5 Defi ning and

naming themes; developing a detailed analysis of each theme 6 Producing a report;

weaving together the analytic narrative and data segments, relating the analysis to

extant literature

Boyatzis’ widely cited volume ( 1998 ) provides a comprehensive treatment of the

process of developing codes and the full process of thematic analysis. Altheide and

Schneider (2013 ) outline the process of developing themes and frames for the analysis

of media content. And Saldaña (2016 ) provides a detailed guide of the “how to” of

coding for qualitative analysis. In addition to the development of codes and the identifi

cation of themes, other analytic techniques may assist in constructing the story of the

data ( Guest et al., 2012 ), such as word searches and key-word-in-context (KWIC)

output. For this, computer adjuncts are employed, called QDAS (qualitative data

analysis software) or CAQDAS (computer-assisted qualitative data analysis). Programs

such as NVivo 11, Atlas.ti, and QDA Miner provide organizing power and give basic

quantitative summaries as well (see Joffe & Yardley, 2004 ). The typical QDAS

functions include the facilitation of the creation of a codebook with defi nitions and

examples, the application by the investigator of codes, comments, and memos to text

(“text” may also include images and multimedia content), the retrieval of content

segments that have been coded, and visual representations of co-occurrence

relationships among codes (e.g., via network concept mapping, dendrograms, or cluster

analysis). While interrater/intercoder reliability is not routinely assessed in thematic

; Joffe & Yardley, 2004 ). And some investigators have indeed included a consideration

of reliability by employing additional analysts for comparative purposes (e.g., Chambers

et al., 2013 ). Examples of thematic analysis Examples of thematic analyses show the

range of message content that may be examined and the types of fi ndings that are

typical. In all cases, themes are an outcome, and these themes may be further

subdivided or combined in a hierarchical or process-based model. Tierney and Fox

(2010 ) sought to discover the perspective of individuals who have lived with an

“anorexic voice.” Twenty-two participants from three UK self-help organizations

participated, providing accounts in the form of poems, letters, and refl

ections/descriptive narratives. Initial analyses produced 135 codes, which were grouped

into 10 categories, such as “attacking sense of self,” “demanding and harsh task

master,” and “breaking free.” Further, three stages of the “voice” were identifi ed in a

model of change from positive to negative: “being drawn into the relationship”;

“ensnared in the relationship”; and “life without the relationship.” In a study of online

support groups of individuals with Parkinson’s disease, Attard and Coulson (2012 )

studied a random sample of postings in four discussion forums over the years 2003–

2010. The 1,013 messages in the sample revealed six major themes and 16

subthemes. For example, the theme “Welcome to the land of the Parky people” included

the subthemes of “comfort in numbers,” “empathy and understanding,” and “friendship

formation”; the theme “It’s like a graveyard at the moment,” included the subthemes of

“lack of replies,” “symptom restrictions,” and “a lack of personal information.” Open-

ended written responses to the query “How would you defi ne sexual satisfaction?” were
the focus of a thematic analysis by Pascoal, Narciso, and Pereira (2014 ). They

developed a three-level hierarchical thematic map from codes derived from responses

generated by 760 heterosexual participants. Their main themes (at the highest, or third,

level) were “personal sexual well-being” and “dyadic processes,” with the latter divided

into three subthemes (at the second level) and fi ve codes (at the fi rst level). Content

analysis Defi ning content analysis A brief defi nition of content analysis has been

proposed by this author: “The systematic, objective, quantitative analysis of message

characteristics” ( Neuendorf, 2017 , p. 1). 3 Content analysis may be applied to any

message content. Analyses may be as complex as for any other quantitative study,

including predictive regression analyses and structural equation models (e.g.,

Neuendorf et al., 2010 ; Sultan & Wong, 2011 ) Human-coded content analysis vs.

CATA Content analysis may be executed by human coding according to a predefi ned

coding scheme or by computer program using a predefi ned set of search dictionaries

and algorithms (often termed computer-aided text analysis, or CATA). For all types of

quantitative content analysis, the construction of an a priori coding scheme is important.

Examples of coding schemes may be found at the Content Analysis Guidebook Online (

http://academic.csuohio.edu/ neuendorf_ka/content/ ; Neuendorf, 2017 ). The typical

process of content analysis As delineated in Neuendorf (2017 ), the typical steps in the

execution of a content analysis are: 1 Theory and rationale 2 Conceptualizations –

identifi cation of variables to be included in the study and conceptual defi nitions of them

derived from theory, past research, and possible emergent variables from an inductive

examination of the message content 3 Operationalizations (measures) – should match

the variables’ conceptualizations 4 Establishment of coding scheme – either a codebook

CATA) 5 Sampling – deciding on the population of messages to be studied and

sampling an (optimally) representative subset of messages for the study 6 Coder

training and pilot intercoder reliability assessment 7 Coding 8 Final intercoder reliability

assessment 9 Tabulation and reporting Psychometric content analysis Of particular

interest to psychologists has been the application of content analysis to psychometrics,

the quantitative measurement of psychological characteristics. While self-report

inventories are perhaps the most common method of psychometric assessment, a

second main way is via performance-based measures ( Weiner & Greene, 2017 ). The

latter includes assessment via Rorschach testing, thematic apperception tests (TAT), fi

gure-drawing methods, and sentence completion methods. The scoring of the output of

these techniques matches the process of quantitative content analysis – i.e.,

raters/coders are trained on a coding scheme, and their interrater reliability is assessed

( Jenkins, 2017 ; Weiner & Greene, 2017 ). Smith et al. (1992 ; see also Smith, 2000 )

presents a large volume of predefi ned coding schemes for the nonclinical

measurement of psychological characteristics called thematic content analysis. The

volume began with a focus on the needs of scholars coding TAT outcomes but was

expanded to include coding open-ended survey responses, archival historical

documents, and everyday verbal materials such as conversations, reports of dreams,

and transcripts of TV programs. Coding schemes include power motivation, intimacy

motive, and psychological stances toward the environment, among many others.

Content analysis has also been used to assess psychometrics for clinical purposes, as

with the coding scheme developed by Gottschalk and colleagues. The CATA form of
this scheme, PCAD, is described in the next section. CATA options There are dozens of

available computer-aided text analysis (CATA) programs (see Neuendorf, 2017 , for a

fuller list and comparison chart). Some of the more useful CATA programs that show

the range of options are: PCAD (Psychiatric Content Analysis and Diagnosis) The

application of content analysis to an individual’s naturally occurring communication

(e.g., speech or writing) in order to assess mental states, emotions, and

neuropsychiatric indicators to provide preliminary diagnostics for psychiatric purposes

was the life’s work of Louis Gottschalk. With his team, he fi rst developed an elaborate

human-coded scheme, with a computer-driven system (PCAD) the eventual outcome (

Gottschalk, 1995 ; Gottschalk & Bechtel, 2007 ; 2008 ). The 40 PCAD measures include

14 subscales for depression, cognitive impairment, and six anxiety subscales. Unlike

most other content analyses (and thematic analyses), PCAD is designed for idiographic

purposes. 4 That is, the 40 measures are applied to an individual in order to produce

“candidate diagnoses for consideration” for that individual. For example, President

Ronald Reagan was found to exhibit a “signifi cant increase” in cognitive impairment

between the 1980 and 1984 presidential debates (although Gottschalk held the release

of the fi ndings until 1987; Romney, 1997 ). LIWC2015 (Linguistic Inquiry and Word

Count) Devised as an automated method to detect important differences among essays

by individuals who had undergone traumatic experiences, LIWC has since been used in

a wide array of other applications ( Pennebaker, 2011 ; Pennebaker et al., 2015 ). LIWC

uses dozens of dictionaries to measure linguistic and paralinguistic dimensions,

relativity dimensions, psychological constructs (e.g., affective processes, such as anger;

cognitive processes, such as inhibition), and other constructs. Pennebaker and Chung
(2009 ) applied LIWC to texts authored by al-Qaeda leaders Osama bin Laden and

Ayman al-Zawahiri, comparing their speech with that of other extremist groups,

concluding that bin Laden increased his cognitive complexity and emotionality after 9/11

and that post-2003 the use of anger and hostility words by both al-Qaeda leaders was

much higher than that for other extremist groups. Profi ler Plus Profi ler Plus is a

“general purpose text analytics (natural language processing) system” that allows for

multi-pass, rule-based analyses of text, relying on substantial researcher input and

specifi cation rather than machine learning (socialscience.net/tech/profi lerplus.aspx).

The platform offers a number of coding schemes that have already been created for

applied projects, such as Leadership Trait Analysis and conceptual/integrative

complexity. A number of Profi ler Plus coding schemes are computerized adaptations of

psychometric measures presented in the Smith et al. (1992 ) volume, including need for

achievement, need for affi liation, and need for power. User-created, custom coding

schemes may also be devised. Yoshikoder The freeware Yoshikoder is particularly

useful for analysts who are constructing their own CATA dictionaries. Yoshikoder

performs basic functions, such as word counts, dictionary term counts/data, KWIC, and

concordances, making it a good vehicle via which to learn the typical process and

principal functions of CATA. The program provides options for the use of both predefi

ned dictionaries and custom dictionaries ( http://yoshikoder.sourceforge.net/ ).

Additional examples of content analyses Additional examples of content analyses show

the range of message content that may be examined and the types of fi ndings that are

typical. Both humancoded and CATA examples show how predefi ned coding schemes

and CATA dictionaries are employed to produce quantitative data for analysis.
Tiggemann and Zaccardo (2016 ) conducted a human-coded content analysis of 600

images on Instagram marked with the “fi tspiration” hashtag. Their a priori coding

scheme included measures of body type, activity, objectifi cation, and inspirational and

dysfunctional quotes. Intercoder reliability was acceptable for each of the 11 measured

variables. Results included the fi nding that most images of women represented only

one body type – thin (75.2%) and visibly toned (56.2%). Further, a majority of images

were found to include objectifying elements (56%). Responses to semi-structured

interviews were the content analyzed in Stahl and Caligiuri’s (2005 ) study of coping

strategies employed by expatriate managers while on international assignment.

Interviews were conducted with 116 German managers in Japan or the U.S. A coding

scheme comprised of 30 different variables (i.e., types of coping strategies) was

developed via a combination of inspection of past literature and emergent codes from

an examination of the interview transcripts. All variables in the coding scheme were

found to have acceptable intercoder reliability. The most frequently reported coping

strategies were “emphasizes the positive in a diffi cult situation,” “tries to control the

situation by taking initiative,” and “intentionally violates cultural norms.” The 30

strategies were further divided into two types: problem-focused ( k = 14) and emotion-

focused ( k = 16). Combining these data with additional self-report survey data from the

166 managers, the investigators found that the prediction of cross-cultural adjustment

from the use of problem-focused coping strategies was moderated by cultural distance

and position level. Bligh, Kohles, and Meindl (2004 ) examined how elements of the

speeches of President George W. Bush changed in response to the post-9/11

environment. The CATA program DICTION ( www.dictionsoftware.com/ ; Hart, 2014 ),

applied to 74 speeches collected from the offi cial White House website ( n = 39 pre-

9/11 and n = 35 post-9/11). Six of the 31 predefi ned dictionarybased measures in

DICTION were the focus. In ANCOVA statistical analyses, it was found that the post

9/11 speeches were signifi cantly more likely to incorporate references to collectives,

faith, patriotism, and aggression and less likely to reference ambivalence (after

controlling for speech length and word variety). There was no pre/post difference found

for the measure of optimism. Blended approaches Thematic analysis and content

analysis each has its own set of characteristics that might be viewed as advantages,

and each has limitations (see Braun & Clarke, 2013 ). Thematic analysis produces a

depth of understanding of the meaning of a set of texts. The investigator is the

instrument, and reliability among investigators is not typically assessed. 5 For content

analysis, a main assumption is that a coding scheme is independent of the individual

perspective of an investigator. The instrument is not the investigator but rather the

coding scheme, which is not adaptable during the fi nal coding process. Reliability

between coders is paramount. Increasingly, scholars have called for mixed-methods

research, integrating qualitative and quantitative approaches in a single study ( Guest et

al., 2012 ), as well as the triangulation of methods across studies. A purposeful pairing

of qualitative and quantitative analyses has obvious advantages, given the

complementary goals of each ( Gray & Densten, 1998 ; Hardy, Harley, & Phillips, 2004

). Some scholars have recognized this complementarity. Fereday and MuirCochrane

(2006 ) called for a hybrid approach to thematic analysis, including both deductive and

inductive coding. Walker, van Jaarsveld, and Skarlicki (2017 ) utilized a mixed-method
approach to analyzing customer service employee incivility toward customers. Brough,

O’Driscoll, and Biggs (2009 ) provide an example of a hybrid approach to content

analysis and thematic analysis in which an initial, a priori content analysis coding

scheme based on theoretic and practical considerations was supplemented by

additional codes derived in an iterative, emergent process of thematic analysis. The

analysis examined responses to semi-structured interviews with parents who had

returned to work within a year of the birth of a child. The resulting scheme was

assessed for reliability by the inclusion of an additional coder. The study exemplified the

viability of a blended approach to message analysis. Conclusion The utility of message

analysis techniques, including the oft-used content analysis and thematic analysis, has

been demonstrated in hundreds of studies across disciplines, including applied

psychology. These two sets of methods produce different types of conclusions, with

content analysis providing quantitative, objective, reliable measures about messages

and thematic analysis most typically resulting in qualitative, inductive, conclusions about

themes in message content. The two types may be seen as complementary, each

providing a different perspective on a set of messages. As the volume of recorded

messages continues to grow, notably online, applications of these two message

analysis techniques will become increasingly important.

Notes 1 The distinction between quantitative and qualitative might be viewed as “a

rather thin and discreet line. . . [as] most qualitative studies do contain some kind of

quantitative information (numbers)” ( Schedler & Mudde, 2010 , pp. 418–419).

Elsewhere, I recommend applying the labels of quantitative and qualitative separately to

the phenomenon under investigation and to the analytical strategies used to describe or
summarize the phenomenon. For example, the typical task of quantitative measurement

is to assign numerical values to qualities of a phenomenon ( Neuendorf, 2017 ). 2

Beyond thematic analysis, other examples of wholly qualitative methods include

phenomenological analysis, grounded theory, hermeneutic analysis, narrative analysis,

discourse analysis, and conversation analysis (see Alhojailan, 2012 ; Harper &

Thompson, 2012 ; Rohleder & Lyons, 2015 ; Smith, J. A., 2008 ). Thematic analysis is

reported to be compatible with the overarching methodologies of various qualitative

research approaches (e.g., phenomenology). 3 The more detailed defi nition given in

my textbook on content analysis follows: Content analysis is a summarizing, quantitative

analysis of messages that follows the standards of the scientifi c method (including

attention to objectivity – intersubjectivity, a priori design, reliability, validity,

generalizability, replicability, and hypothesis testing based on theory) and is not limited

as to the types of variables that may be measured or the context in which the messages

are created or presented. ( Neuendorf, 2017 , p. 17) 4 However, some investigators

have used the PCAD measures on multiple cases for nomothetic purposes (for the

distinction between idiographic and nomothetic approaches, see Te’eni, 1998 , and

Weiner & Green, 2017 ). For example, Smith ( Smith, S. S., 2008 ) applied measures

from PCAD, as well as from Profi ler Plus, to 96 instances of threatening communication

from FBI case fi les. Among other fi ndings, she reported that threateners exhibiting less

ambivalent hostility (from PCAD) and higher conceptual complexity (from Profi ler Plus)

were more likely to act on their threat. 5 Some scholars have proposed processes of

reliability and validity assessment in thematic analysis by the inclusion of additional,

independent reviewers to validate themes and to indicate level of reliability of feedback

with positivist perspectives, are not routinely part of thematic analysis.

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