EconomicGeology

Vol. 66, 1971, pp. 879-88.5

GeologicalFeaturesof Alluvial Placers

I. P. KARTASI-I0V

Abstract

Alluvial placer depositsmay be divided into autochthonousand allochthonoussubtypes.

Autochthonousplacerscontainlarge heavy mineral grains that are practically immovable
by streams and thus occur adjacent to primary ore deposits. Rich "bottom" autoch-
thonous placers accumulateduring many stages of river developmentand are concen-
trated at the base of the alluvium or in the crevicesof its bedrock. Smaller and poorer
"above-bottom"autochthonousplacers are composedof grains receivedby rivers during
the last stagesof equilibrium and/or aggradation. These grains cannot get to the bed-
rock, which is protected from the river action by a layer of a substrative alluvium, but
mineral grains may be concentratedin the higher parts of alluvial strata. During later
downcuttingstages,however, above-bottomplacersmay be reworked to join and enlarge
bottom placers. Allochthonousplacers,containing finer heavy mineral grains moved by
a river as a part of its alluvial load, form far downstreamfrom primary ore depositsor
autochthonousplacers, and they occur in surficial parts of channel alluvium. Rivers in
an equilibrium state build point-bar placers, and in aggrading rivers several point-bar
concentrationsmay be superimposedto form thick allochthonousplacers.
As bottomand above-bottomautochthonous placers,and allochthonous
placers,require
different methodsfor locating, prospecting,and sampling,the recognition of these types
is of a practical importance.

Introduction consistof considerablyfiner mineral grains concen-

In the SovietUnion, the geologyof placerdeposits trated in surficialparts of alluvial horizonsand occur
has beenstudiednot only in its practicalaspects,but downstreamof "bed" placers. Delta placers have
alsofrom theoreticalpointsof view. Placerso{ dif- been consideredby Bilibin as "point-bar placers
ferent origin and mechanisms of formationhavebeen which have reached areas of accumulation."
thoroughly characterizedby Y. A. Bilibin in his This divisionof alluvialplacersinto thesetwo sub-
"Principlesof placergeology"(1938), whichhashad types reflectsimportantfeaturesof their formation.
severaleditionsand hasbecomea textbookfor placer It also helpsone to understandthe origin of these
geologists. However, some new conceptsof placer featuresand thereforeto directthe searchfor placers
geology,especiallythose concerningalluvial placers, more effectively. However, recentdata on the struc-
have beendevelopedsince1938. This paper, which ture of placersmake it impossibleto acceptBilibin's
systematically characterizes the main geologicalfea- explanationof the differencesbetweenthe subtypes
tures of alluvial placers, is based on a revision of without modification.
Bilibin'sviewsand on later ideasof Sovietgeologists, We now recognizethat point-barplacersare never
includingthoseof the author. concentratedin floodplain (overbank) and ox-bow
Autochthonous and Allochthonous
facies,which consistmainly of material carried by
Alluvial Placers
streams in suspendedstate. Even the point-bar
placersof such a comparativelylight mineral as
Y. A. Bilibin pointed out that alluvial placerscan diamondoccur in the channelalluvium only. As
be classedaccordingto their connections with certain the channel alluvium consists of bed-load material
land forms, but a more basic distinction into two (Shantser, 1951), the sharp differencesbetween
subtypesmay be made on the basisof the different point-barand "bed" placersevidentlycannotbe ex-
behavior of the "placer" minerals in flowing water. plainedby differences in meansof transportationof
Where the heavy minerals are carried as a part of mineralgrains. They seemto be determined by the
the bed load o{ the stream"bed placers"are formed; fact that "bed" placerscontainconcentrations of min-
where they are carried in a suspendedor semisus- eral grains which practicallyare not displacedby
pendedstate"point-barplacers"are deposited. Bed flowin# water.
placers,includingchannel,valley,and terraceplacers, Extremelysmallmobilityfor placergoldwassug-
consistof relatively coarsemineral grains concen- gestedby P. K. Yavorovskyas early as 1896. In
trated at the base o{ alluvial horizons and in the 1949,N. A. Shiloexpressed,
andlater (Shilo, 1956)
crevicesof an underlyingbedrock. Point-bar placers argued in detail, an opinion that gold of "bed"
879
880 I. P. KARTASHOV

alluvialplacers,clearlydefinethe main differences

in
their origin and do not requireexplanation.
Formation of Autochthonous Placers

Accordingto N. A. Shilo (1956) autochthonous

goldplacersextendingalongriver valleysare a result
of displacement and gradualdisintegration
of pebbles
with gold inclusions.In his opinion,gold released
from suchpebblesduringtheir travelalongthe rivers
accountsfor the main part of placergold. In my
opinion,somegoldparticlesundoubtedly are supplied
to placersby the disintegrationof ore pebbles,but
suchparticlesdo not accountfor most placergold.
Al The changesof gold contentin placersare influenced
by peculiaritiesin the shapeof the bedrocksurface,
and changesof mean dimensionsof gold particles
alongthe valleysare regularratherthan casual,with
particle size decreasingdownstream. These facts
cannotbe explainedwithoutassumingthat displace-
mentof somegoldby streamsdoestake placeinside
the autochthonous placers. Thus, there is no needto
explain the extensionof autochthonous placersalong
the valleysby transportationof gold in pebbles. In
Fro. 1. A tributary placer continuedin the main river. fact, accordingto an old conceptof Bilibin, destruc-
tion of alluvial pebblesoccurs mainly by gradual
attrition, and gold particlesthus releasedare so fine
placers,free from the countryrock, is not displaced that streamseasily move them along, concentrating
by water streams. The sameopinionhasbeenvoiced them only in allochthonous placers.
independently by N. G. Bondarenko(1957). It is Placer gold may be divided not only into two
basedmainly on the fact that some gold placers groupsof fractions,forming autochthonous and al-
stretchacrossriver valleys,being, as it were, con- lochthonousplacer occurrences,but according to
tinuations of terraceplacerssituatedin the tributaries A. V. Khripkov (1958), the gold of autochthonous
of thesevalleys(Fig. 1). Suchcasescanonly result placersmay be further divided into a coarser"pas-
from a destruction of the lower courses of these trib- sive" fraction, which is practically immovableby
utariesand a redeposition of their placersby the main streams, and a finer "active" fraction, which moves
river. Configurationsof such redepositedplacers slowlydown the river. The three fractionsare tran-
show that gold has not been displaceddownstream sitional, and their division is only a scheme to
by the main river, thoughthe heightof terraces,and help understandthe mechanismof placerformation.
therefore a vertical displacementof gold, has some- Boundariesbetweenthemare dependentuponhydro-
times been 25 meters or more. dynamiccharacteristics.For example,gold particles
Placersof the preservedparts of tributariesoccur finer than 1 mm form part of "passive"fractionsin
not only on terracesbut also on the bedrockunder- some placers,'whereasgold particles up to 3 mm
lying valleyfloorsof the tributaries. If downcutting (Khripkov, 1958) maybe a part of the "active"frac-
of the tributariesis accompanied by lateral migration, tions of othersplacers.
"breaks"may be formedin placers,as shownin Fig- Thus, the downstreamextensionof placersresults
ure 2. Such"breaks,"especiallythosesimilarto the from displacementof "active" fractions of mineral
"break" shown at C, can be satisfactorilyexplained grainsby water and from the fact that even"passive:'
only if the minerals of "bed" placersare virtually fractionsare not absolutelyimmovable. During river
undisplacedby the main river, although displaced downcuttingof even as much as tens of meters, the
rather considerably by slopedenudation. extremelysmallmobilityof "passive"fractionsmakes
Bilibin's terms "bed" and "point-bar," therefore, their lateral displacementpracticallyimperceptible
seemunsuitablefor the two main subtypesof alluvial and allows them to accumulatein valleys during
placers,as they do not properlyreflectthe mechanism many suchdowncuttings, extendingperhapseven as
responsiblefor their formation. I suggestcalling long as entire geologicalperiods. Each downcutting
them "autochthonous"and "allochthonous,"as these is accompanied by a total rewashingof alluviumand
generallyacceptedgeologicalterms,when appliedto settlingof placermineralsto the bedrock,wherethey
 GEOLOGICAL
FEATURESOF ALLUVL4LPLACERS 881

join the placermineralsaccumulated

earlier. If all
heavymineralscouldbe readily movedby streams,
long-termaccumulation
of thesemineralsand forma-
tion of truly rich.placerswouldbe impossible.On
the other hand, as rich placersform during many
stagesof river development that may includemany
downcuttings amountingto kilometers,and possibly
even tens of kilometers,those insignificantdown- FIG.2. "Breaks"in placersresulting fromtheirredeposi-
stream migrationsof "passive"fractions that are tion under combinedinfluenceof river downcuttingsand
imperceptibleduringa singledowncutting slopedenudation.
may ulti- placements Arrowsshowthedirection of lateraldis-
of tributaries.
mately amount to a considerabledistance. Thus, A--The lateraldisplacement of a tributarydirectedupthe
displacementof "passive"fractionshas also to be main river.
reckonedamongthe causesof the extensionof au- noB--No pronounced lateraldisplacement
"break" in a placer.
of a tributaryand
tochthonousplacersalongthe river valleys. C--The lateraldisplacement of a tributarydirected down
the main river.
"Bottom" and "Above-Bottom" Autochthonous
Placers (equilibrium
andaggradation
stage)alluvium
andin
the crevicesof bedrock. As rivers comeinto contact
V. V. Lamakin (1948) dividedalluvial deposits
with the bedrockbottomonly duringdowncutting,
into instrative,perstrative,
and constrative dynamic
phases,corresponding to the stagesof river downcut- bedrockplacers
receivenewportionsofminerals
only
ting, dynamicequilibrium,and aggradation, • respec- duringthisstage.Minerals gettingintoriversfrom
in the modeof occurrence,lithologiccharacteristics, exposed ore depositsor terrace placersduringan
and distributionof differentalluvial placers,but al- equilibrium
and/or aggradation stagecannotgetinto
substrativealluvium and join the placers concen-
thoughLamakin'sconceptmustbe considered by ge-
ologistsstudyingalluvialplacershis ideasneedsome tratedtherein. However, they can form autochtho-
modification. nous concentrationsat the base of the perstrative
The transitionfrom downcuttingto the stageof alluviumand/orwithintheconstrative series.Such
dynamicequilibriumis accompanied by formationof
concentrationsform duringrelativelyshortperiods
a so-called"alluviumof normalthickness." Only the andare,asa rule,smallerandpoorerthantheplacers
upperstrataof this alluviumare rewashedby a river of a long-termaccumulation.Thus, autochthonous
in an equilibrium state, as the lower strata occur placers
consist
of two groupswhichI havecalled
belowthe level of maximumdepthsof the river and "bottom"and "above-bottom"
placers(Fig. 3).
are, therefore,protected. Thus, an alluviumof nor- It shouldbe emphasizedthat the positionof a
mal thickness consists of two strata formed under placerrelativeto bedrock is nota decisive
character-
differentconditions. These strata differ in age, lith- isticof eithergroup. The distinguishing
featureof
ologic characteristics,and other features,the differ- bottom placersis the presenceof mineralgrainsre-
ences being of the same order as those between ceived during many stages of river development,
dynamicphases(Kartashov,1965). Evidently,only
whereasabove-bottom placerscontainmineralgrains
the upper stratamay be regardedas the perstrative receivedduringthe last equilibriumstageor during
alluvium, and the lower strata shouldbe referred to periodsof the lastaggradation stage. For example,
as a subphase of alluviumformedby an independent the downcutting of a river throughthe thickalluvial
strata formed during several alternating stagesof
dynamic phase. I have suggestedit be called the
substrative alluvium? aggradation
andequilibrium
maycease
whenthebed-
The long-term accumulationof "placer" minerals
forms autochthonousplacersconcentratedat the base
of instrative (downcutting stage) or substrative
• The downcutting and aggradation stages correspond to
the long-term fluvial processesdefined by J. H. Mackin
(1948). The Russian equivalent of a term "aggradation" is
seldom used. As a rule, we call that stage of river develop- level of •axi•ma.••__d_ep•th•, _
ment an "accumulation of alluvium," using both a Russian
word "nakoplenie" and russified Latin "akkumulatsia."
tively. This divisionreflectssubstantialdifferences
2 The existence of a substrative alluvium, which does not
permit a river in an equilibrium state to come into contact
with the bedrock bottom, shows that such a phenomenonas
a "shifting" equilibrium accompaniedby a degradation of Fro. 3. Position of (I) bottom and (2) above-bottom
rivers (Mackin, 1948) doesnot, as a matter oœfact, exist. placersin an alluviumof a normal thickness.
882 I. P. KARTASHOV
rock bottomis not yet reached. If the rewashed alluvium.Mostfavorable seems to be the stageof
strata had containedabove-bottom placers,these aggradation,
whennewpoint-barconcentrations may
placerscouldbe redeposited
togetherto forma rich be superimposedon olderones,thusformingthick
placeronthe"falsebedrock";sucha placeroughtto allochthonousplacers.
be considered as a bottom one.
The autochthonous
placers,both the bottomand Development Stages of Fluvial Land Forms
particularly
theabove-bottomones,generally
contain, and Varieties of Placers
in additionto the mineralgrainsof "passive"and Terms generally applied previously to alluvial
"active"fractions,somequantitiesof finer grains placers connectthem with various fluvial land forms
whichmovewiththealluvialmaterial.Duringevery and, accordingly,with the developmentstagesof
downcutting stage,bottomplacersnot onlyreceive theseforms. As the new divisionof alluvialplacers
minerals formerly concentratedin above-bottom intosubtypes (autochthonous andallochthonous) and
placers or scatteredin alluvium and in colluvial de-
groups(bottomand above-bottom)is virtually inde-
positsof valleysides,but alsotheylosefinergrains pendentof landforms,specialattentionmustbe given
and somequantitiesof "active" fractionsthat are to the coordination between these new divisions and
carried out of the concentration zones of the autoch- the older terms.
thonousplacers.While the placersare receiving Channelandvalleyplacerswerefirst distinguished
moremineralsthantheylose,theyare increasing,by Y. A. Bilibin,who indicatedthat channelplacers,
and with the oppositeratio they are decreasing.described as "theplacersin a process of rebuilding,"
However,the bottomplacersmaycontinueto exist, occur at the contacts with river channels and become
thoughgradually decreased,
at theexpense of "pas- valley placersduring the filling of the valleyswith
sive"fractions,
duringmanystages of riverdevelop- alluvium of normal thickness,which break off the
ment evenafter the completedestructionof their ore contactbetweenplacer and channel. Now, we can
sources.
say that channelplacersexist during river down-
Formation of Allochthonous Placers cuttingand turn into valley placerswith the transi-
tion of the river to the stageof equilibrium. As
The mineralgrainscarriedout of the concentration above-bottom and allochthonous
placerscannotform
zonesof autochthonous placerscannotaccumulate to during downcutting,the channelvariety can occur
form deposits of the samekind, and they form dis- only amongbottomplacers.
persionzones. However,they may form another Above-bottomplacers may also occur in contact
kind of mineralconcentration, termedallochthonouswith river channelsand then migratefrom this con-
placers. In contrastto the autochthonous placers, tact. But sucha changedoesnot necessarily reflect
whichformunderpractically anyhydrodynamic con- a substantialturning point in the developmentof
ditionsprovidingthe rivers receiveenoughlarge river valleysand thereforeof above-bottom placers.
mineral grains from the ore sources,the allochtho- Moreover, meanderingrivers in equilibriumstage
nousplacersrequire definitehydrodynamic condi- mayrepeatedlycontactor divergefrom above-bottom
tionsfor theirformation.Allochthonous placersare placers without any essentialmodificationof their
formedon the surfacesof point-barsand channel peculiarities.Thus,thereare no reasons for dividing
bottomswherethe riverscarryingloosematerialwith above-bottomplacers connectedwith modern flood
finer grainsof "placer"mineralsregularlydeposit plainsinto channeland valleyvarieties. They rep-
theirloadbut alsoregularlyremovethe lightermin- resenta singlevariety so the term "valleyplacers,"
eralsand rockfragments.This process leadsto for- which is acceptedfor bottomplacersconnectedwith
mationof surficialconcentrations of heavy"placer" the samelandforms,shouldbe usedfor this variety
minerals.Suchconcentrations
cannotoriginateif the of above-bottomplacers.
water doesnot removesufficient
quantitiesof light Allochthonous placersformedduring equilibrium
material, or if, on the contrary, it removesboth stages are point-bar placers, and allochthonous
lightmaterialandconsiderable quantitiesof "placer" placersconnectedwith aggradational(accumulative)
minerals. land formscomprisedeltaplacers(placersof alluvial
Downcutting partsof riverscarry out moreloose fans may alsobe included)and river-plainplacers.
material than they receive. Under suchconditions, Allochthonous placersmayalsobeformedby aggrad-
the finer grainsof "placer"mineralscannotbe de- ing rivers which do not create new land forms, but
tained,and allochthonous placerscannotbe formed only transformtheir perstrative,or occasionally in-
by them. During the stageof dynamicequilibrium, strative,floodplainsinto constrativeones. However,
whenthe thickness of alluviumdoesnot change, al- such placers were not describeduntil 1968, when
lochthonous point-barplacersare formedin the thin lookingthroughprospectingdata on the Kuranakh
surficialhorizonsof channelfaciesof a perstrative gold placer (Aidan district) I concludedthat the
 GEOLOGIC.4L FE.4TURES OF .4LLUVL4L PL.4CERS 883

Fig. 4. An allochthonousgold placer of the Kuranakh River (a cross-sectionon a prospectingline). Thin shading,
denseshading,and solidblack designatean increasingcontentof gold. I--bedrock; 2--colluvium; 3--constrative and under-
lying perstrative and substfativealluvium; 4•perstrative alluvium of the last equilibrium stage; 5--dredge dump.

main part of this valley placer concentratedin a fluvial origin. At the final stagesof development,it
constrativealluvium of a floodplain of the Kuranakh is impossibleto distinguishthose relic fluvial land
River is of allochthonous origin (Fig. 4). forms from other parts of watersheds. However,
Two sortsof gold may be clearly distinguishedin their alluviummay locallycontainplacersof different
thisplacer;goldfrom localore sourcesis represented subtypesand groups that has escapeddestruction.
by coarsergrains, and gold from sourcesoccurring Such relic mineral concentrations are called water-
some 25 kilometersaway consistsof finer grains. shedplacers.
The smallnonpersistent concentrations at the bedrock A summary of the geologicalcharacteristicsof
are, apparently,derived from local ore sourcesand autochthonous(bottom and above-bottom)and al-
haveto be regardedas bottomplacers,and probably, lochthonousplacers, showing differencesbetween
there are also above-bottomautochthonous placers. thesesubtypesand groupsof placersand listingthe
However, as the fine grains broughtby rivers from varietiesof placerscharacteristic
for each,is given
remote ore sourcescomprise most of the Kuranakh in Table 1.
gold, most of the concentrationhave an allochthonous
Autochthonous and Allochthonous Placers
origin. Hence the valley placersof the Kuranakh
River consists of autochthonous bottom and above- of Various Minerals
bottomplacersas well as of allochthonous placers.The same"placer"mineralscan form both autoch-
Thus, the term "valley placer" can be appliedto thonousand allochthonous placers,however,every
placersof the two subtypesand two groupsof an mineral"prefers"a certainsubtypeof placer. Some
autochthonous subtype,and it clearly shouldnot be
of them do not demonstratethis "preference"too
usedwithoutadditionalexplanations. clearly. For example,autochthonous gold placers,
Varietiesof placersconnected
with landformsrep- predominateover allochthonous ones,but the latter,
resentingthe next stagesof developmentof flood particularlythe point-barvariety are not uncommon.
plainsalsorequireexplanation.The maintypesare Alluvial placers of some other minerals, such as
terrace and watershedplacers. The origin and zircon,seemto belongto an allochthonous subtype
morphologicalfeaturesof normalterraceplacersof alone.
differentsubtypesand groupsseemobvious. Relic Evidentlythis"preference" for certainsubtypes of
landformsotherthanterraces areformedby changes placers,as well as the extent to which it is pro-
in drainagepatternresultingfromriver beheadings,nounced, depends on the sumof suchproperties of
glacialadvances,and otherphenomena that deprive mineralsas density,predominantgrain size, resis-
somevalleys,or partsof valleys,of their rivers. Such tanceto attritionand chemicalweathering, fragility,
abandoned
or "dead"valleysmay become
partsof etc. Each of thesepropertiesinfluencesthe behavior
watersheds
subjectto processes
of slopedenudation, of mineralsin flowing water. For example,the
andundertheinfluence
of theseprocesses
theygrad- boundariesbetween"passive"and "active" fractions
ually losemorphological
features
indicating
their are determined
mainlyby densityof minerals,
884 I. P. KARTASHOV
Table 1

Characteristics of Kinds of Alluvial Placers

Autochthonous A1 lochthonous

Bottom Above-bottom

1. Are represented by channel, valley, terrace valley, terrace, and point-bar, delta, river-plain,
and watershed placers. watershed placers. valley, terrace, and water-
shed placers.

2. Occur more or less far from ore sources,

adjacent to their ore sources. being separated from them and from
autochthonous placers by zones of
dispersion of "placer" minerals.

3. Are concentrated at the base of an instra- at the base of a perstra- in surficial horizons of a per-
tive or substrative allu- tive alluvium and within strative alluvium and within
vium and in the crevices constrative strata, in constrative strata, downstream
of a bedrock. the same parts of valleys of autochthonous placers.
as bottom placers.

4. Consist of mineral grains received directly from ore sources or redeposited brought by rivers into concen-
from older placers and not carried out by rivers tration zones.
from concentration zones.

5. Accumulate during entire time of destruction

of primary ore deposits, the last equilibrium and/or aggradation
embracing, as a rule, many stages of river development.
stages of river development.

6. An enclosing alluvium is downcutting stages or tran-

formed during sition from them to equili- equilibrium and/or aggradation stages.
brium stages.

An enclosing alluvium being not destructed but dis- displaced to the level of
rewashed during a down- placed to the level of a new bedrock bottom and completely destroyed.
cutting stage, are a new bedrock bottom. added to bottom placers.

The mechanism of concen- does not essentially depend upon depends to a great extent
tration of "Placer" hydrodynamic properties of flowing upon hydrodynamic properties
minerals water. of flowing water.

Heavier minerals have a greater number of grains ent subtypesor groups. There is no doubt that
formingautochthonous placersrelative to the quan- placersof different minerals belongingto the same
tity of grainscarriedout of the siteof concentration. subtypeand groupmay differ in their length,thick-
This seemsto explain the paradoxicalfact that ness,contentof minerals,persistenceof this content,
heavier minerals, as a rule, form autochthonous and so on, but suchfeaturesmay be different even
placersof greaterextentthan lighter minerals,as for in placersof the samemineral. The main geological
example,in the autochthonous placersof gold and features listed in the above table are the same in
cassiterite. • placersof everymineral.
However, none of the propertiesof mineralsby The division into autochthonous and allochthonous
itself has a decisiveinfluenceon their capability to subtypesappliesnot only to alluvialplacers,but sim-
form placersof either subtype. This is true evenfor ilar subtypescan alsobe clearly distinguishedamong
density,asboththe heaviest(gold andplatinum) and coastalplacersof lacustrineor marine origin. Most
lightest(diamond) "placer"mineralsform placersof of these placersconsistof mineral grains brought
both subtypes. The gold and diamondplacersdem- down by rivers and later displacedby wave action
onstrate,too, that it is true for resistanceof minerals and other coastalprocesses. However, somecoastal
to attrition. Similar examplescould be quotedfor placersare formed at the expenseof wave-cut pri-
any property of "placer" minerals. mary ore depositsand are composed of mineralgrains
Most of the mentioned examples refer to gold which are little displacedby coastalprocesses.
placerswhich are best known. Nevertheless,all the In conclusion,I would like to emphasizethat the
data availableon placersof other mineralsbelonging differences between the bottom, above-bottom, and
to different subtypesand groups indicate that the allochthonous placerslead to the necessityfor quite
main regularities of formation are the same for different methodsin seeking,prospecting,and sam-
placersof all minerals. The principaldifferencesbe- plingthem. Hence,the divisionof any typeof placers
tweenthe placersof differentminerals,probably,can into subtypesand groups,and an investigationof
be accounted for by theseplacersbelongingto differ- characteristicfeaturesof every subtypeand group,
 GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF .4LLUVL4L PLACERS 885

are not only of theoreticalbut also of great practical Severo-Vostoka i gustota seti poiskovoyrazvedki (Gold
interest. distribution in placer.sof the North-East and the network
densityin reconnaissance exploration): Magadan, O. T. I.
Magadanskogo sovnarkhoza, 56 p.
GEOLOGICAL
INSTITUTE,
Lamakin, V. V., 1948, Dinamicheskiyelazy rechnykh dolin i
ACAX)EM¾ OV SCIENCES OV TI•E USSR alluvialnykh otlozheniy (Dynamic phasesof river valleys
Moscow, USSR, and alluvial deposits): Zemlevedeniye, (novaya seriya),
February 9, •Iprig 7, 1971 v. 2, p. 154-187.
Mackin, J. H., 1948, Conceptof the graded river: Geol. Soc.
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