Chapter 3

REACTANCE AND
IMPEDANCE – INDUCTIVE

3.1 AC resistor circuits

If we were to plot the current and voltage for a very simple AC circuit consisting of a source and
a resistor, it would look something like this:

e=
i=
+

Time

Because the resistor simply and directly resists the flow of electrons at all periods of time, the
waveform for the voltage drop across the resistor is exactly in phase with the waveform for the
current through it. We can look at any point in time along the horizontal axis of the plot and
compare those values of current and voltage with each other (any ”snapshot” look at the values of
a wave are referred to as instantaneous values, meaning the values at that instant in time). When
the instantaneous value for current is zero, the instantaneous voltage across the resistor is also zero.
Likewise, at the moment in time where the current through the resistor is at its positive peak, the
voltage across the resistor is also at its positive peak, and so on. At any given point in time along

53
54 CHAPTER 3. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – INDUCTIVE

the waves, Ohm’s Law holds true for the instantaneous values of voltage and current.
We can also calculate the power dissipated by this resistor, and plot those values on the same
graph:

e=
i=
p=
+

Time

Note that the power is never a negative value. When the current is positive (above the line), the
voltage is also positive, resulting in a power (p=ie) of a positive value. Conversely, when the current
is negative (below the line), the voltage is also negative, which results in a positive value for power
(a negative number multiplied by a negative number equals a positive number). This consistent
”polarity” of power tells us that the resistor is always dissipating power, taking it from the source
and releasing it in the form of heat energy. Whether the current is positive or negative, a resistor
still dissipates energy.

3.2 AC inductor circuits

Inductors do not behave the same as resistors. Whereas resistors simply oppose the flow of electrons
through them (by dropping a voltage directly proportional to the current), inductors oppose changes
in current through them, by dropping a voltage directly proportional to the rate of change of current.
In accordance with Lenz’s Law, this induced voltage is always of such a polarity as to try to maintain
current at its present value. That is, if current is increasing in magnitude, the induced voltage will
”push against” the electron flow; if current is decreasing, the polarity will reverse and ”push with”
the electron flow to oppose the decrease. This opposition to current change is called reactance,
rather than resistance.
Expressed mathematically, the relationship between the voltage dropped across the inductor and
rate of current change through the inductor is as such:

e = L di
dt
The expression di/dt is one from calculus, meaning the rate of change of instantaneous current
(i) over time, in amps per second. The inductance (L) is in Henrys, and the instantaneous voltage
(e), of course, is in volts. Sometimes you will find the rate of instantaneous voltage expressed as
”v” instead of ”e” (v = L di/dt), but it means the exact same thing. To show what happens with
alternating current, let’s analyze a simple inductor circuit:
3.2. AC INDUCTOR CIRCUITS 55

If we were to plot the current and voltage for this very simple circuit, it would look something
like this:

e=
i=
+

Time

Remember, the voltage dropped across an inductor is a reaction against the change in current
through it. Therefore, the instantaneous voltage is zero whenever the instantaneous current is at a
peak (zero change, or level slope, on the current sine wave), and the instantaneous voltage is at a
peak wherever the instantaneous current is at maximum change (the points of steepest slope on the
current wave, where it crosses the zero line). This results in a voltage wave that is 90 o out of phase
with the current wave. Looking at the graph, the voltage wave seems to have a ”head start” on the
current wave; the voltage ”leads” the current, and the current ”lags” behind the voltage.

current slope = 0 current slope = max. (+)

voltage = 0 voltage = max. (+)
e=
i=
+

Time

current slope = 0
voltage = 0
current slope = max. (-)
voltage = max. (-)

Things get even more interesting when we plot the power for this circuit:
56 CHAPTER 3. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – INDUCTIVE

e=
i=
+ p=

Time

Because instantaneous power is the product of the instantaneous voltage and the instantaneous
current (p=ie), the power equals zero whenever the instantaneous current or voltage is zero. When-
ever the instantaneous current and voltage are both positive (above the line), the power is positive.
As with the resistor example, the power is also positive when the instantaneous current and voltage
are both negative (below the line). However, because the current and voltage waves are 90 o out of
phase, there are times when one is positive while the other is negative, resulting in equally frequent
occurrences of negative instantaneous power.
But what does negative power mean? It means that the inductor is releasing power back to the
circuit, while a positive power means that it is absorbing power from the circuit. Since the positive
and negative power cycles are equal in magnitude and duration over time, the inductor releases just
as much power back to the circuit as it absorbs over the span of a complete cycle. What this means
in a practical sense is that the reactance of an inductor dissipates a net energy of zero, quite unlike
the resistance of a resistor, which dissipates energy in the form of heat. Mind you, this is for perfect
inductors only, which have no wire resistance.
An inductor’s opposition to change in current translates to an opposition to alternating current
in general, which is by definition always changing in instantaneous magnitude and direction. This
opposition to alternating current is similar to resistance, but different in that it always results in a
phase shift between current and voltage, and it dissipates zero power. Because of the differences,
it has a different name: reactance. Reactance to AC is expressed in ohms, just like resistance is,
except that its mathematical symbol is X instead of R. To be specific, reactance associate with an
inductor is usually symbolized by the capital letter X with a letter L as a subscript, like this: X L .
Since inductors drop voltage in proportion to the rate of current change, they will drop more
voltage for faster-changing currents, and less voltage for slower-changing currents. What this means
is that reactance in ohms for any inductor is directly proportional to the frequency of the alternating
current. The exact formula for determining reactance is as follows:

XL = 2πfL
If we expose a 10 mH inductor to frequencies of 60, 120, and 2500 Hz, it will manifest the
following reactances:

For a 10 mH inductor:
Frequency (Hertz) Reactance (Ohms)
----------------------------------------
| 60 | 3.7699 |
|--------------------------------------|
| 120 | 7.5398 |
|--------------------------------------|
3.2. AC INDUCTOR CIRCUITS 57

| 2500 | 157.0796 |
----------------------------------------

In the reactance equation, the term ”2πf” (everything on the right-hand side except the L) has
a special meaning unto itself. It is the number of radians per second that the alternating current
is ”rotating” at, if you imagine one cycle of AC to represent a full circle’s rotation. A radian is a
unit of angular measurement: there are 2π radians in one full circle, just as there are 360 o in a full
circle. If the alternator producing the AC is a double-pole unit, it will produce one cycle for every
full turn of shaft rotation, which is every 2π radians, or 360o . If this constant of 2π is multiplied by
frequency in Hertz (cycles per second), the result will be a figure in radians per second, known as
the angular velocity of the AC system.
Angular velocity may be represented by the expression 2πf, or it may be represented by its own
symbol, the lower-case Greek letter Omega, which appears similar to our Roman lower-case ”w”: ω.
Thus, the reactance formula XL = 2πfL could also be written as XL = ωL.
It must be understood that this ”angular velocity” is an expression of how rapidly the AC
waveforms are cycling, a full cycle being equal to 2π radians. It is not necessarily representative of
the actual shaft speed of the alternator producing the AC. If the alternator has more than two poles,
the angular velocity will be a multiple of the shaft speed. For this reason, ω is sometimes expressed
in units of electrical radians per second rather than (plain) radians per second, so as to distinguish
it from mechanical motion.
Any way we express the angular velocity of the system, it is apparent that it is directly pro-
portional to reactance in an inductor. As the frequency (or alternator shaft speed) is increased in
an AC system, an inductor will offer greater opposition to the passage of current, and visa-versa.
Alternating current in a simple inductive circuit is equal to the voltage (in volts) divided by the
inductive reactance (in ohms), just as either alternating or direct current in a simple resistive circuit
is equal to the voltage (in volts) divided by the resistance (in ohms). An example circuit is shown
here:

10 V L 10 mH
60 Hz

(inductive reactance of 10 mH inductor at 60 Hz)

XL = 3.7699 Ω

E
I=
X
10 V
I=
3.7699 Ω

I = 2.6526 A
58 CHAPTER 3. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – INDUCTIVE

However, we need to keep in mind that voltage and current are not in phase here. As was shown
earlier, the voltage has a phase shift of +90o with respect to the current. If we represent these
phase angles of voltage and current mathematically in the form of complex numbers, we find that
an inductor’s opposition to current has a phase angle, too:
Voltage
Opposition =
Current

10 V ∠ 90o
Opposition =
2.6526 A ∠ 0ο

Opposition = 3.7699 Ω ∠ 90o

or
0 + j3.7699 Ω

For an inductor:

90o 90o

0o
I Opposition
(XL)
Mathematically, we say that the phase angle of an inductor’s opposition to current is 90 o , meaning
that an inductor’s opposition to current is a positive imaginary quantity. This phase angle of reactive
opposition to current becomes critically important in circuit analysis, especially for complex AC
circuits where reactance and resistance interact. It will prove beneficial to represent any component’s
opposition to current in terms of complex numbers rather than scalar quantities of resistance and
reactance.

• REVIEW:
• Inductive reactance is the opposition that an inductor offers to alternating current due to its
phase-shifted storage and release of energy in its magnetic field. Reactance is symbolized by
the capital letter ”X” and is measured in ohms just like resistance (R).
• Inductive reactance can be calculated using this formula: XL = 2πfL
• The angular velocity of an AC circuit is another way of expressing its frequency, in units of
electrical radians per second instead of cycles per second. It is symbolized by the lower-case
Greek letter ”omega,” or ω.
3.3. SERIES RESISTOR-INDUCTOR CIRCUITS 59

• Inductive reactance increases with increasing frequency. In other words, the higher the fre-
quency, the more it opposes the AC flow of electrons.

3.3 Series resistor-inductor circuits

In the previous section, we explored what would happen in simple resistor-only and inductor-only
AC circuits. Now we will mix the two components together in series form and investigate the effects.
Take this circuit as an example to work with:

R
5Ω
10 V L 10 mH
60 Hz

The resistor will offer 5 Ω of resistance to AC current regardless of frequency, while the inductor
will offer 3.7699 Ω of reactance to AC current at 60 Hz. Because the resistor’s resistance is a real
number (5 Ω 6 0o , or 5 + j0 Ω), and the inductor’s reactance is an imaginary number (3.7699
Ω 6 90o , or 0 + j3.7699 Ω), the combined effect of the two components will be an opposition to
current equal to the complex sum of the two numbers. This combined opposition will be a vector
combination of resistance and reactance. In order to express this opposition succinctly, we need a
more comprehensive term for opposition to current than either resistance or reactance alone. This
term is called impedance, its symbol is Z, and it is also expressed in the unit of ohms, just like
resistance and reactance. In the above example, the total circuit impedance is:

Ztotal = (5 Ω resistance) + (3.7699 Ω inductive reactance)

Ztotal = 5 Ω (R) + 3.7699 Ω (XL)

Ztotal = (5 Ω ∠ 0o) + (3.7699 Ω ∠ 900)

or
(5 + j0 Ω) + (0 + j3.7699 Ω)

Ztotal = 5 + j3.7699 Ω or 6.262 Ω ∠ 37.016o

Impedance is related to voltage and current just as you might expect, in a manner similar to
resistance in Ohm’s Law:
60 CHAPTER 3. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – INDUCTIVE

Ohm’s Law for AC circuits:

E E
E = IZ I= Z=
Z I
All quantities expressed in
complex, not scalar, form
In fact, this is a far more comprehensive form of Ohm’s Law than what was taught in DC
electronics (E=IR), just as impedance is a far more comprehensive expression of opposition to the
flow of electrons than resistance is. Any resistance and any reactance, separately or in combination
(series/parallel), can be and should be represented as a single impedance in an AC circuit.
To calculate current in the above circuit, we first need to give a phase angle reference for the
voltage source, which is generally assumed to be zero. (The phase angles of resistive and inductive
impedance are always 0o and +90o , respectively, regardless of the given phase angles for voltage or
current).

E
I=
Z
10 V ∠ 0o
I=
6.262 Ω ∠ 37.016o

I = 1.597 A ∠ -37.016o
As with the purely inductive circuit, the current wave lags behind the voltage wave (of the
source), although this time the lag is not as great: only 37.016o as opposed to a full 90o as was the
case in the purely inductive circuit.

phase shift =
37.016o
e=
+ i=

Time

For the resistor and the inductor, the phase relationships between voltage and current haven’t
changed. Across voltage across the resistor is in phase (0o shift) with the current through it; and the
voltage across the inductor is +90o out of phase with the current going through it. We can verify
this mathematically:
3.3. SERIES RESISTOR-INDUCTOR CIRCUITS 61

E = IZ

ER = IRZR

ER = (1.597 A ∠ -37.016o)(5 Ω ∠ 0o)

ER = 7.9847 V ∠ -37.016o

Notice that the phase angle of ER is equal to

the phase angle of the current.
The voltage across the resistor has the exact same phase angle as the current through it, telling
us that E and I are in phase (for the resistor only).

E = IZ

EL = ILZL

EL = (1.597 A ∠ -37.016o)(3.7699 Ω ∠ 90o)

EL = 6.0203 V ∠ 52.984o

Notice that the phase angle of EL is exactly

90o more than the phase angle of the current.
The voltage across the inductor has a phase angle of 52.984o , while the current through the
inductor has a phase angle of -37.016o , a difference of exactly 90o between the two. This tells us
that E and I are still 90o out of phase (for the inductor only).
We can also mathematically prove that these complex values add together to make the total
voltage, just as Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law would predict:

Etotal = ER + EL

Etotal = (7.9847 V ∠ -37.016o) + (6.0203 V ∠ 52.984o)

Etotal = 10 V ∠ 0o
Let’s check the validity of our calculations with SPICE:

R
1 2
5Ω
10 V L 10 mH
60 Hz

0 0
62 CHAPTER 3. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – INDUCTIVE

ac r-l circuit
v1 1 0 ac 10 sin
r1 1 2 5
l1 2 0 10m
.ac lin 1 60 60
.print ac v(1,2) v(2,0) i(v1)
.print ac vp(1,2) vp(2,0) ip(v1)
.end

freq v(1,2) v(2) i(v1)

6.000E+01 7.985E+00 6.020E+00 1.597E+00
freq vp(1,2) vp(2) ip(v1)
6.000E+01 -3.702E+01 5.298E+01 1.430E+02

Interpreted SPICE results

ER = 7.985 V ∠ -37.02o

EL = 6.020 V ∠ 52.98o

I = 1.597 A ∠ 143.0o
Note that just as with DC circuits, SPICE outputs current figures as though they were negative
(180o out of phase) with the supply voltage. Instead of a phase angle of -37.016 o , we get a current
phase angle of 143o (-37o + 180o ). This is merely an idiosyncrasy of SPICE and does not represent
anything significant in the circuit simulation itself. Note how both the resistor and inductor voltage
phase readings match our calculations (-37.02o and 52.98o , respectively), just as we expected them
to.
With all these figures to keep track of for even such a simple circuit as this, it would be beneficial
for us to use the ”table” method. Applying a table to this simple series resistor-inductor circuit
would proceed as such. First, draw up a table for E/I/Z figures and insert all component values in
these terms (in other words, don’t insert actual resistance or inductance values in Ohms and Henrys,
respectively, into the table; rather, convert them into complex figures of impedance and write those
in):

R L Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o

I Amps

5 + j0 0 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o

Although it isn’t necessary, I find it helpful to write both the rectangular and polar forms of
each quantity in the table. If you are using a calculator that has the ability to perform complex
3.3. SERIES RESISTOR-INDUCTOR CIRCUITS 63

arithmetic without the need for conversion between rectangular and polar forms, then this extra
documentation is completely unnecessary. However, if you are forced to perform complex arithmetic
”longhand” (addition and subtraction in rectangular form, and multiplication and division in polar
form), writing each quantity in both forms will be useful indeed.
Now that our ”given” figures are inserted into their respective locations in the table, we can
proceed just as with DC: determine the total impedance from the individual impedances. Since this
is a series circuit, we know that opposition to electron flow (resistance or impedance) adds to form
the total opposition:

R L Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o

I Amps

5 + j0 0 + j3.7699 5 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o 6.262 ∠ 37.016o

Rule of series
circuits
Ztotal = ZR + ZL

Now that we know total voltage and total impedance, we can apply Ohm’s Law (I=E/Z) to
determine total current:

R L Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o
1.2751 - j0.9614
I Amps
1.597 ∠ -37.016o
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699 5 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o 6.262 ∠ 37.016o

Ohm’s
Law
E
I=
Z

Just as with DC, the total current in a series AC circuit is shared equally by all components.
This is still true because in a series circuit there is only a single path for electrons to flow, therefore
the rate of their flow must uniform throughout. Consequently, we can transfer the figures for current
into the columns for the resistor and inductor alike:
64 CHAPTER 3. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – INDUCTIVE

R L Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o
1.2751 - j0.9614 1.2751 - j0.9614 1.2751 - j0.9614
I Amps
1.597 ∠ -37.016o 1.597 ∠ -37.016o 1.597 ∠ -37.016o
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699 5 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o 6.262 ∠ 37.016o

Rule of series
circuits:
Itotal = IR = IL
Now all that’s left to figure is the voltage drop across the resistor and inductor, respectively.
This is done through the use of Ohm’s Law (E=IZ), applied vertically in each column of the table:

R L Total
6.3756 - j4.8071 3.6244 + j4.8071 10 + j0
E Volts
7.9847 ∠ -37.016o 6.0203 ∠ 52.984o 10 ∠ 0o
1.2751 - j0.9614 1.2751 - j0.9614 1.2751 - j0.9614
I Amps
1.597 ∠ -37.016o 1.597 ∠ -37.016o 1.597 ∠ -37.016o
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699 5 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o 6.262 ∠ 37.016o

Ohm’s Ohm’s
Law Law
E = IZ E = IZ
And with that, our table is complete. The exact same rules we applied in the analysis of DC
circuits apply to AC circuits as well, with the caveat that all quantities must be represented and
calculated in complex rather than scalar form. So long as phase shift is properly represented in our
calculations, there is no fundamental difference in how we approach basic AC circuit analysis versus
DC.
Now is a good time to review the relationship between these calculated figures and readings
given by actual instrument measurements of voltage and current. The figures here that directly
relate to real-life measurements are those in polar notation, not rectangular! In other words, if
you were to connect a voltmeter across the resistor in this circuit, it would indicate 7.9847 volts,
not 6.3756 (real rectangular) or 4.8071 (imaginary rectangular) volts. To describe this in graphical
terms, measurement instruments simply tell you how long the vector is for that particular quantity
(voltage or current).
Rectangular notation, while convenient for arithmetical addition and subtraction, is a more
abstract form of notation than polar in relation to real-world measurements. As I stated before, I
will indicate both polar and rectangular forms of each quantity in my AC circuit tables simply for
convenience of mathematical calculation. This is not absolutely necessary, but may be helpful for
those following along without the benefit of an advanced calculator. If we were restrict ourselves to
3.4. PARALLEL RESISTOR-INDUCTOR CIRCUITS 65

the use of only one form of notation, the best choice would be polar, because it is the only one that
can be directly correlated to real measurements.

• REVIEW:

• Impedance is the total measure of opposition to electric current and is the complex (vector)
sum of (”real”) resistance and (”imaginary”) reactance. It is symbolized by the letter ”Z” and
measured in ohms, just like resistance (R) and reactance (X).

• Impedances (Z) are managed just like resistances (R) in series circuit analysis: series impedances
add to form the total impedance. Just be sure to perform all calculations in complex (not
scalar) form! ZT otal = Z1 + Z2 + . . . Zn

• A purely resistive impedance will always have a phase angle of exactly 0 o (ZR = R Ω 6 0o ).

• A purely inductive impedance will always have a phase angle of exactly +90 o (ZL = XL Ω 6
90o ).

• Ohm’s Law for AC circuits: E = IZ ; I = E/Z ; Z = E/I

• When resistors and inductors are mixed together in circuits, the total impedance will have
a phase angle somewhere between 0o and +90o . The circuit current will have a phase angle
somewhere between 0o and -90o .

• Series AC circuits exhibit the same fundamental properties as series DC circuits: current is
uniform throughout the circuit, voltage drops add to form the total voltage, and impedances
add to form the total impedance.

3.4 Parallel resistor-inductor circuits

Let’s take the same components for our series example circuit and connect them in parallel:

10 V R 5Ω L 10 mH
60 Hz

Because the power source has the same frequency as the series example circuit, and the resistor
and inductor both have the same values of resistance and inductance, respectively, they must also
have the same values of impedance. So, we can begin our analysis table with the same ”given”
values:
66 CHAPTER 3. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – INDUCTIVE

R L Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o

I Amps

5 + j0 0 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o

The only difference in our analysis technique this time is that we will apply the rules of parallel
circuits instead of the rules for series circuits. The approach is fundamentally the same as for DC.
We know that voltage is shared uniformly by all components in a parallel circuit, so we can transfer
the figure of total voltage (10 volts 6 0o ) to all components columns:

R L Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o

I Amps

5 + j0 0 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o

Rule of parallel
circuits:
Etotal = ER = EL
Now we can apply Ohm’s Law (I=E/Z) vertically to two columns of the table, calculating current
through the resistor and current through the inductor:

R L Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o
2 + j0 0 - j2.6526
I Amps
2 ∠ 0o 2.6526 ∠ -90o
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o

Ohm’s Ohm’s
Law Law
E E
I= I=
Z Z
Just as with DC circuits, branch currents in a parallel AC circuit add to form the total current
(Kirchhoff’s Current Law still holds true for AC as it did for DC):
3.4. PARALLEL RESISTOR-INDUCTOR CIRCUITS 67

R L Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o
2 + j0 0 - j2.6526 2 - j2.6526
I Amps
2 ∠ 0o 2.6526 ∠ -90o 3.3221 ∠ -52.984o
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o

Rule of parallel
circuits:
Itotal = IR + IL
Finally, total impedance can be calculated by using Ohm’s Law (Z=E/I) vertically in the ”To-
tal” column. Incidentally, parallel impedance can also be calculated by using a reciprocal formula
identical to that used in calculating parallel resistances.

1
Zparallel =
1 1 1
+ + ...
Z1 Z2 Zn
The only problem with using this formula is that it typically involves a lot of calculator keystrokes
to carry out. And if you’re determined to run through a formula like this ”longhand,” be prepared
for a very large amount of work! But, just as with DC circuits, we often have multiple options in
calculating the quantities in our analysis tables, and this example is no different. No matter which
way you calculate total impedance (Ohm’s Law or the reciprocal formula), you will arrive at the
same figure:
R L Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o
2 + j0 0 - j2.6526 2 - j2.6526
I Amps
2 ∠ 0o 2.6526 ∠ -90o 3.322 ∠ -52.984o
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699 1.8122 + j2.4035
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o 3.0102 ∠ 52.984o

Ohm’s Rule of parallel

Law or circuits:
1
Z= E Ztotal =
I 1 1
+
ZR ZL

• REVIEW:
• Impedances (Z) are managed just like resistances (R) in parallel circuit analysis: parallel
impedances diminish to form the total impedance, using the reciprocal formula. Just be sure
68 CHAPTER 3. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – INDUCTIVE

to perform all calculations in complex (not scalar) form! ZT otal = 1/(1/Z1 + 1/Z2 + . . .
1/Zn )

• Ohm’s Law for AC circuits: E = IZ ; I = E/Z ; Z = E/I

• When resistors and inductors are mixed together in parallel circuits (just as in series circuits),
the total impedance will have a phase angle somewhere between 0o and +90o . The circuit
current will have a phase angle somewhere between 0o and -90o .

• Parallel AC circuits exhibit the same fundamental properties as parallel DC circuits: voltage is
uniform throughout the circuit, branch currents add to form the total current, and impedances
diminish (through the reciprocal formula) to form the total impedance.

3.5 Inductor quirks

In an ideal case, an inductor acts as a purely reactive device. That is, its opposition to AC current
is strictly based on inductive reaction to changes in current, and not electron friction as is the case
with resistive components. However, inductors are not quite so pure in their reactive behavior. To
begin with, they’re made of wire, and we know that all wire possesses some measurable amount
of resistance (unless it’s superconducting wire). This built-in resistance acts as though it were
connected in series with the perfect inductance of the coil, like this:

Equivalent circuit for a real inductor

Wire resistance
R

Ideal inductor
L

Consequently, the impedance of any real inductor will always be a complex combination of
resistance and inductive reactance.
Compounding this problem is something called the skin effect, which is AC’s tendency to flow
through the outer areas of a conductor’s cross-section rather than through the middle. When
electrons flow in a single direction (DC), they use the entire cross-sectional area of the conductor
to move. Electrons switching directions of flow, on the other hand, tend to avoid travel through
the very middle of a conductor, limiting the effective cross-sectional area available. The skin effect
becomes more pronounced as frequency increases.
Also, the alternating magnetic field of an inductor energized with AC may radiate off into space
as part of an electromagnetic wave, especially if the AC is of high frequency. This radiated energy
3.5. INDUCTOR QUIRKS 69

does not return to the inductor, and so it manifests itself as resistance (power dissipation) in the
circuit.
Added to the resistive losses of wire and radiation, there are other effects at work in iron-core
inductors which manifest themselves as additional resistance between the leads. When an inductor
is energized with AC, the alternating magnetic fields produced tend to induce circulating currents
within the iron core known as eddy currents. These electric currents in the iron core have to overcome
the electrical resistance offered by the iron, which is not as good a conductor as copper. Eddy current
losses are primarily counteracted by dividing the iron core up into many thin sheets (laminations),
each one separated from the other by a thin layer of electrically insulating varnish. With the cross-
section of the core divided up into many electrically isolated sections, current cannot circulate within
that cross-sectional area and there will be no (or very little) resistive losses from that effect.
As you might have expected, eddy current losses in metallic inductor cores manifest themselves
in the form of heat. The effect is more pronounced at higher frequencies, and can be so extreme that
it is sometimes exploited in manufacturing processes to heat metal objects! In fact, this process of
”inductive heating” is often used in high-purity metal foundry operations, where metallic elements
and alloys must be heated in a vacuum environment to avoid contamination by air, and thus where
standard combustion heating technology would be useless. It is a ”non-contact” technology, the
heated substance not having to touch the coil(s) producing the magnetic field.
In high-frequency service, eddy currents can even develop within the cross-section of the wire
itself, contributing to additional resistive effects. To counteract this tendency, special wire made of
very fine, individually insulated strands called Litz wire (short for Litzendraht) can be used. The
insulation separating strands from each other prevent eddy currents from circulating through the
whole wire’s cross-sectional area.
Additionally, any magnetic hysteresis that needs to be overcome with every reversal of the in-
ductor’s magnetic field constitutes an expenditure of energy that manifests itself as resistance in the
circuit. Some core materials (such as ferrite) are particularly notorious for their hysteretic effect.
Counteracting this effect is best done by means of proper core material selection and limits on the
peak magnetic field intensity generated with each cycle.
Altogether, the stray resistive properties of a real inductor (wire resistance, radiation losses, eddy
currents, and hysteresis losses) are expressed under the single term of ”effective resistance:”

Equivalent circuit for a real inductor

"Effective" resistance
R

Ideal inductor
L

It is worthy to note that the skin effect and radiation losses apply just as well to straight lengths
70 CHAPTER 3. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – INDUCTIVE

of wire in an AC circuit as they do a coiled wire. Usually their combined effect is too small to
notice, but at radio frequencies they can be quite large. A radio transmitter antenna, for example,
is designed with the express purpose of dissipating the greatest amount of energy in the form of
electromagnetic radiation.

Effective resistance in an inductor can be a serious consideration for the AC circuit designer. To
help quantify the relative amount of effective resistance in an inductor, another value exists called
the Q factor, or ”quality factor” which is calculated as follows:

XL
Q=
R

The symbol ”Q” has nothing to do with electric charge (coulombs), which tends to be confusing.
For some reason, the Powers That Be decided to use the same letter of the alphabet to denote a
totally different quantity.

The higher the value for ”Q,” the ”purer” the inductor is. Because it’s so easy to add additional
resistance if needed, a high-Q inductor is better than a low-Q inductor for design purposes. An ideal
inductor would have a Q of infinity, with zero effective resistance.

Because inductive reactance (X) varies with frequency, so will Q. However, since the resistive
effects of inductors (wire skin effect, radiation losses, eddy current, and hysteresis) also vary with
frequency, Q does not vary proportionally with reactance. In order for a Q value to have precise
meaning, it must be specified at a particular test frequency.

Stray resistance isn’t the only inductor quirk we need to be aware of. Due to the fact that the
multiple turns of wire comprising inductors are separated from each other by an insulating gap (air,
varnish, or some other kind of electrical insulation), we have the potential for capacitance to develop
between turns. AC capacitance will be explored in the next chapter, but it suffices to say at this
point that it behaves very differently from AC inductance, and therefore further ”taints” the reactive
purity of real inductors.

3.6 More on the ”skin effect”

As previously mentioned, the skin effect is where alternating current tends to avoid travel through the
center of a solid conductor, limiting itself to conduction near the surface. This effectively limits the
cross-sectional conductor area available to carry alternating electron flow, increasing the resistance
of that conductor above what it would normally be for direct current:
3.6. MORE ON THE ”SKIN EFFECT” 71

Cross-sectional area of a round

conductor available for conducting
DC current

"DC resistance"

Cross-sectional area of the same

conductor available for conducting
low-frequency AC

"AC resistance"

Cross-sectional area of the same

conductor available for conducting
high-frequency AC

"AC resistance"

The electrical resistance of the conductor with all its cross-sectional area in use is known as the
”DC resistance,” the ”AC resistance” of the same conductor referring to a higher figure resulting
from the skin effect. As you can see, at high frequencies the AC current avoids travel through most
of the conductor’s cross-sectional area. For the purpose of conducting current, the wire might as
well be hollow!

In some radio applications (antennas, most notably) this effect is exploited. Since radio-frequency
(”RF”) AC currents wouldn’t travel through the middle of a conductor anyway, why not just use
hollow metal rods instead of solid metal wires and save both weight and cost? Most antenna
structures and RF power conductors are made of hollow metal tubes for this reason.

In the following photograph you can see some large inductors used in a 50 kW radio transmitting
circuit. The inductors are hollow copper tubes coated with silver, for excellent conductivity at the
”skin” of the tube:
72 CHAPTER 3. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – INDUCTIVE

The degree to which frequency affects the effective resistance of a solid wire conductor is impacted
by the gauge of that wire. As a rule, large-gauge wires exhibit a more pronounced skin effect
(change in resistance from DC) than small-gauge wires at any given frequency. The equation for
approximating skin effect at high frequencies (greater than 1 MHz) is as follows:

RAC = (RDC)(k) f

Where,
RAC = AC resistance at given frequency "f"

RDC = Resistance at zero frequency (DC)

k = Wire gage factor (see table below)

f = Frequency of AC in MHz (MegaHertz)
The following table gives approximate values of ”k” factor for various round wire sizes:

Gage size k factor

======================
4/0 ---------- 124.5
2/0 ---------- 99.0
3.7. CONTRIBUTORS 73

1/0 ---------- 88.0

2 ------------ 69.8
4 ------------ 55.5
6 ------------ 47.9
8 ------------ 34.8
10 ----------- 27.6
14 ----------- 17.6
18 ----------- 10.9
22 ----------- 6.86

For example, a length of number 10-gauge wire with a DC end-to-end resistance of 25 Ω would
have an AC (effective) resistance of 2.182 kΩ at a frequency of 10 MHz:

RAC = (RDC)(k) f

RAC = (25 Ω)(27.6) 10

RAC = 2.182 kΩ
Please remember that this figure is not impedance, and it does not consider any reactive effects,
inductive or capacitive. This is simply an estimated figure of pure resistance for the conductor (that
opposition to the AC flow of electrons which does dissipate power in the form of heat), corrected
for skin effect. Reactance, and the combined effects of reactance and resistance (impedance), are
entirely different matters.

3.7 Contributors
Contributors to this chapter are listed in chronological order of their contributions, from most recent
to first. See Appendix 2 (Contributor List) for dates and contact information.
Jim Palmer (June 2001): Identified and offered correction for typographical error in complex
number calculation.
Jason Starck (June 2000): HTML document formatting, which led to a much better-looking
second edition.
74 CHAPTER 3. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – INDUCTIVE
Chapter 4

REACTANCE AND
IMPEDANCE – CAPACITIVE

4.1 AC resistor circuits

If we were to plot the current and voltage for a very simple AC circuit consisting of a source and
a resistor, it would look something like this:

e=
i=
+

Time

Because the resistor allows an amount of current directly proportional to the voltage across it at
all periods of time, the waveform for the current is exactly in phase with the waveform for the voltage.
We can look at any point in time along the horizontal axis of the plot and compare those values of
current and voltage with each other (any ”snapshot” look at the values of a wave are referred to as
instantaneous values, meaning the values at that instant in time). When the instantaneous value for
voltage is zero, the instantaneous current through the resistor is also zero. Likewise, at the moment
in time where the voltage across the resistor is at its positive peak, the current through the resistor
is also at its positive peak, and so on. At any given point in time along the waves, Ohm’s Law holds

75
76 CHAPTER 4. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – CAPACITIVE

true for the instantaneous values of voltage and current.

We can also calculate the power dissipated by this resistor, and plot those values on the same
graph:

e=
i=
p=
+

Time

Note that the power is never a negative value. When the current is positive (above the line), the
voltage is also positive, resulting in a power (p=ie) of a positive value. Conversely, when the current
is negative (below the line), the voltage is also negative, which results in a positive value for power
(a negative number multiplied by a negative number equals a positive number). This consistent
”polarity” of power tells us that the resistor is always dissipating power, taking it from the source
and releasing it in the form of heat energy. Whether the current is positive or negative, a resistor
still dissipates energy.

4.2 AC capacitor circuits

Capacitors do not behave the same as resistors. Whereas resistors allow a flow of electrons through
them directly proportional to the voltage drop, capacitors oppose changes in voltage by drawing
or supplying current as they charge or discharge to the new voltage level. The flow of electrons
”through” a capacitor is directly proportional to the rate of change of voltage across the capacitor.
This opposition to voltage change is another form of reactance, but one that is precisely opposite to
the kind exhibited by inductors.
Expressed mathematically, the relationship between the current ”through” the capacitor and
rate of voltage change across the capacitor is as such:

de
i=C
dt
The expression de/dt is one from calculus, meaning the rate of change of instantaneous voltage
(e) over time, in volts per second. The capacitance (C) is in Farads, and the instantaneous current
(i), of course, is in amps. Sometimes you will find the rate of instantaneous voltage change over
time expressed as dv/dt instead of de/dt: using the lower-case letter ”v” instead or ”e” to represent
voltage, but it means the exact same thing. To show what happens with alternating current, let’s
analyze a simple capacitor circuit:
4.2. AC CAPACITOR CIRCUITS 77

If we were to plot the current and voltage for this very simple circuit, it would look something
like this:

e=
i=
+

Time

Remember, the current through a capacitor is a reaction against the change in voltage across it.
Therefore, the instantaneous current is zero whenever the instantaneous voltage is at a peak (zero
change, or level slope, on the voltage sine wave), and the instantaneous current is at a peak wherever
the instantaneous voltage is at maximum change (the points of steepest slope on the voltage wave,
where it crosses the zero line). This results in a voltage wave that is -90 o out of phase with the
current wave. Looking at the graph, the current wave seems to have a ”head start” on the voltage
wave; the current ”leads” the voltage, and the voltage ”lags” behind the current.

voltage slope = 0 voltage slope = max. (+)

current = 0 current = max. (+)

e=
i=
+

Time

voltage slope = 0
current = 0
voltage slope = max. (-)
current = max. (-)
As you might have guessed, the same unusual power wave that we saw with the simple inductor
circuit is present in the simple capacitor circuit, too:
78 CHAPTER 4. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – CAPACITIVE

e=
i=
+ p=

Time

As with the simple inductor circuit, the 90 degree phase shift between voltage and current results
in a power wave that alternates equally between positive and negative. This means that a capacitor
does not dissipate power as it reacts against changes in voltage; it merely absorbs and releases power,
alternately.
A capacitor’s opposition to change in voltage translates to an opposition to alternating voltage
in general, which is by definition always changing in instantaneous magnitude and direction. For
any given magnitude of AC voltage at a given frequency, a capacitor of given size will ”conduct” a
certain magnitude of AC current. Just as the current through a resistor is a function of the voltage
across the resistor and the resistance offered by the resistor, the AC current through a capacitor is a
function of the AC voltage across it, and the reactance offered by the capacitor. As with inductors,
the reactance of a capacitor is expressed in ohms and symbolized by the letter X (or X C to be more
specific).
Since capacitors ”conduct” current in proportion to the rate of voltage change, they will pass
more current for faster-changing voltages (as they charge and discharge to the same voltage peaks
in less time), and less current for slower-changing voltages. What this means is that reactance in
ohms for any capacitor is inversely proportional to the frequency of the alternating current:

1
XC =
2πfC

For a 100 uF capacitor:

Frequency (Hertz) Reactance (Ohms)
----------------------------------------
| 60 | 26.5258 |
|--------------------------------------|
| 120 | 13.2629 |
|--------------------------------------|
| 2500 | 0.6366 |
----------------------------------------

Please note that the relationship of capacitive reactance to frequency is exactly opposite from
that of inductive reactance. Capacitive reactance (in ohms) decreases with increasing AC frequency.
Conversely, inductive reactance (in ohms) increases with increasing AC frequency. Inductors op-
pose faster changing currents by producing greater voltage drops; capacitors oppose faster changing
voltage drops by allowing greater currents.
As with inductors, the reactance equation’s 2πf term may be replaced by the lower-case Greek
letter Omega (ω), which is referred to as the angular velocity of the AC circuit. Thus, the equation
4.2. AC CAPACITOR CIRCUITS 79

XC = 1/(2πfC) could also be written as XC = 1/(ωC), with ω cast in units of radians per second.
Alternating current in a simple capacitive circuit is equal to the voltage (in volts) divided by
the capacitive reactance (in ohms), just as either alternating or direct current in a simple resistive
circuit is equal to the voltage (in volts) divided by the resistance (in ohms). The following circuit
illustrates this mathematical relationship by example:

10 V C 100 µF
60 Hz

XC = 26.5258 Ω

E
I=
X

10 V
I=
26.5258 Ω

I = 0.3770 A

However, we need to keep in mind that voltage and current are not in phase here. As was shown
earlier, the current has a phase shift of +90o with respect to the voltage. If we represent these phase
angles of voltage and current mathematically, we can calculate the phase angle of the inductor’s
reactive opposition to current.

Voltage
Opposition =
Current

10 V ∠ 0o
Opposition =
0.3770 A ∠ 90o

Opposition = 26.5258 Ω ∠ -90o

80 CHAPTER 4. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – CAPACITIVE

For a capacitor:

90o -90o

0o
E Opposition
(XC)
Mathematically, we say that the phase angle of a capacitor’s opposition to current is -90 o , meaning
that a capacitor’s opposition to current is a negative imaginary quantity. This phase angle of reactive
opposition to current becomes critically important in circuit analysis, especially for complex AC
circuits where reactance and resistance interact. It will prove beneficial to represent any component’s
opposition to current in terms of complex numbers, and not just scalar quantities of resistance and
reactance.

• REVIEW:

• Capacitive reactance is the opposition that a capacitor offers to alternating current due to its
phase-shifted storage and release of energy in its electric field. Reactance is symbolized by the
capital letter ”X” and is measured in ohms just like resistance (R).

• Capacitive reactance can be calculated using this formula: XC = 1/(2πfC)

• Capacitive reactance decreases with increasing frequency. In other words, the higher the
frequency, the less it opposes (the more it ”conducts”) the AC flow of electrons.

4.3 Series resistor-capacitor circuits

In the last section, we learned what would happen in simple resistor-only and capacitor-only AC
circuits. Now we will combine the two components together in series form and investigate the effects.
Take this circuit as an example to analyze:

R
5Ω
10 V C 100 µF
60 Hz

The resistor will offer 5 Ω of resistance to AC current regardless of frequency, while the capacitor
will offer 26.5258 Ω of reactance to AC current at 60 Hz. Because the resistor’s resistance is a real
number (5 Ω 6 0o , or 5 + j0 Ω), and the capacitor’s reactance is an imaginary number (26.5258 Ω 6
-90o , or 0 - j26.5258 Ω), the combined effect of the two components will be an opposition to current
equal to the complex sum of the two numbers. The term for this complex opposition to current
4.3. SERIES RESISTOR-CAPACITOR CIRCUITS 81

is impedance, its symbol is Z, and it is also expressed in the unit of ohms, just like resistance and
reactance. In the above example, the total circuit impedance is:

Ztotal = (5 Ω resistance) + (26.5258 Ω capacitive reactance)

Ztotal = 5 Ω (R) + 26.5258 Ω (XC)

Ztotal = (5 Ω ∠ 0o) + (26.5258 Ω ∠ -90o)

or
(5 + j0 Ω) + (0 - j26.5258 Ω)

Ztotal = 5 - j26.5258 Ω or 26.993 Ω ∠ -79.325o

Impedance is related to voltage and current just as you might expect, in a manner similar to
resistance in Ohm’s Law:

Ohm’s Law for AC circuits:

E E
E = IZ I= Z=
Z I

All quantities expressed in

complex, not scalar, form
In fact, this is a far more comprehensive form of Ohm’s Law than what was taught in DC
electronics (E=IR), just as impedance is a far more comprehensive expression of opposition to the
flow of electrons than simple resistance is. Any resistance and any reactance, separately or in
combination (series/parallel), can be and should be represented as a single impedance.
To calculate current in the above circuit, we first need to give a phase angle reference for the
voltage source, which is generally assumed to be zero. (The phase angles of resistive and capacitive
impedance are always 0o and -90o , respectively, regardless of the given phase angles for voltage or
current).

E
I=
Z

10 V ∠ 0o
I=
26.933 Ω ∠ -79.325o

I = 370.5 mA ∠ 79.325o
As with the purely capacitive circuit, the current wave is leading the voltage wave (of the source),
although this time the difference is 79.325o instead of a full 90o .
82 CHAPTER 4. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – CAPACITIVE

phase shift =
79.325 degrees

e=
+ i=

Time

As we learned in the AC inductance chapter, the ”table” method of organizing circuit quantities
is a very useful tool for AC analysis just as it is for DC analysis. Let’s place out known figures for
this series circuit into a table and continue the analysis using this tool:

R C Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o
68.623m + j364.06m
I Amps
370.5m ∠ 79.325o
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258 5 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 26.5258 ∠ -90o 26.993 ∠ -79.325o

Current in a series circuit is shared equally by all components, so the figures placed in the ”Total”
column for current can be distributed to all other columns as well:

R C Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o
68.623m + j364.06m 68.623m + j364.06m 68.623m + j364.06m
I Amps
370.5m ∠ 79.325o 370.5m ∠ 79.325o 370.5m ∠ 79.325o
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258 5 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 26.5258 ∠ -90o 26.993 ∠ -79.325o

Rule of series
circuits:
Itotal = IR = IC

Continuing with our analysis, we can apply Ohm’s Law (E=IR) vertically to determine voltage
across the resistor and capacitor:
4.3. SERIES RESISTOR-CAPACITOR CIRCUITS 83

R C Total
343.11m + j1.8203 9.6569 - j1.8203 10 + j0
E Volts
1.8523 ∠ 79.325o 9.8269 ∠ -10.675o 10 ∠ 0o
68.623m + j364.06m 68.623m + j364.06m 68.623m + j364.06m
I Amps
370.5m ∠ 79.325o 370.5m ∠ 79.325o 370.5m ∠ 79.325o
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258 5 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 26.5258 ∠ -90o 26.993 ∠ -79.325o

Ohm’s Ohm’s
Law Law
E = IZ E = IZ

Notice how the voltage across the resistor has the exact same phase angle as the current through
it, telling us that E and I are in phase (for the resistor only). The voltage across the capacitor has
a phase angle of -10.675o , exactly 90o less than the phase angle of the circuit current. This tells us
that the capacitor’s voltage and current are still 90o out of phase with each other.
Let’s check our calculations with SPICE:

R
1 2
5Ω
10 V C 100 µF
60 Hz

0 0

ac r-c circuit
v1 1 0 ac 10 sin
r1 1 2 5
c1 2 0 100u
.ac lin 1 60 60
.print ac v(1,2) v(2,0) i(v1)
.print ac vp(1,2) vp(2,0) ip(v1)
.end

freq v(1,2) v(2) i(v1)

6.000E+01 1.852E+00 9.827E+00 3.705E-01
freq vp(1,2) vp(2) ip(v1)
6.000E+01 7.933E+01 -1.067E+01 -1.007E+02
84 CHAPTER 4. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – CAPACITIVE

Interpreted SPICE results

ER = 1.852 V ∠ 79.33o

EC = 9.827 V ∠ -10.67o

I = 370.5 mA ∠ -100.7o
Once again, SPICE confusingly prints the current phase angle at a value equal to the real phase
angle plus 180o (or minus 180o ). However, it’s a simple matter to correct this figure and check to
see if our work is correct. In this case, the -100.7o output by SPICE for current phase angle equates
to a positive 79.3o , which does correspond to our previously calculated figure of 79.325o .
Again, it must be emphasized that the calculated figures corresponding to real-life voltage and
current measurements are those in polar form, not rectangular form! For example, if we were to
actually build this series resistor-capacitor circuit and measure voltage across the resistor, our volt-
meter would indicate 1.8523 volts, not 343.11 millivolts (real rectangular) or 1.8203 volts (imaginary
rectangular). Real instruments connected to real circuits provide indications corresponding to the
vector length (magnitude) of the calculated figures. While the rectangular form of complex number
notation is useful for performing addition and subtraction, it is a more abstract form of notation
than polar, which alone has direct correspondence to true measurements.

• REVIEW:

• Impedance is the total measure of opposition to electric current and is the complex (vector)
sum of (”real”) resistance and (”imaginary”) reactance.

• Impedances (Z) are managed just like resistances (R) in series circuit analysis: series impedances
add to form the total impedance. Just be sure to perform all calculations in complex (not
scalar) form! ZT otal = Z1 + Z2 + . . . Zn

• Please note that impedances always add in series, regardless of what type of components
comprise the impedances. That is, resistive impedance, inductive impedance, and capacitive
impedance are to be treated the same way mathematically.

• A purely resistive impedance will always have a phase angle of exactly 0 o (ZR = R Ω 6 0o ).

• A purely capacitive impedance will always have a phase angle of exactly -90 o (ZC = XC Ω 6
-90o ).

• Ohm’s Law for AC circuits: E = IZ ; I = E/Z ; Z = E/I

• When resistors and capacitors are mixed together in circuits, the total impedance will have a
phase angle somewhere between 0o and -90o .

• Series AC circuits exhibit the same fundamental properties as series DC circuits: current is
uniform throughout the circuit, voltage drops add to form the total voltage, and impedances
add to form the total impedance.
4.4. PARALLEL RESISTOR-CAPACITOR CIRCUITS 85

4.4 Parallel resistor-capacitor circuits

Using the same value components in our series example circuit, we will connect them in parallel and
see what happens:

10 V R 5Ω C 100 µF
60 Hz

Because the power source has the same frequency as the series example circuit, and the resistor
and capacitor both have the same values of resistance and capacitance, respectively, they must also
have the same values of impedance. So, we can begin our analysis table with the same ”given”
values:

R C Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o

I Amps

5 + j0 0 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 26.5258 ∠ -90o

This being a parallel circuit now, we know that voltage is shared equally by all components, so
we can place the figure for total voltage (10 volts 6 0o ) in all the columns:

R C Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o

I Amps

5 + j0 0 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 26.5258 ∠ -90o

Rule of parallel
circuits:
Etotal = ER = EC

Now we can apply Ohm’s Law (I=E/Z) vertically to two columns in the table, calculating current
through the resistor and current through the capacitor:
86 CHAPTER 4. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – CAPACITIVE

R C Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o
2 + j0 0 + j376.99m
I Amps
2 ∠ 0o 376.99m ∠ 90o
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 26.5258 ∠ -90o

Ohm’s Ohm’s
Law Law
E E
I= I=
Z Z
Just as with DC circuits, branch currents in a parallel AC circuit add up to form the total current
(Kirchhoff’s Current Law again):
R C Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o
2 + j0 0 + j376.99m 2 + j376.99m
I Amps
2 ∠ 0o 376.99m ∠ 90o 2.0352 ∠ 10.675o
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 26.5258 ∠ -90o

Rule of parallel
circuits:
Itotal = IR + IC
Finally, total impedance can be calculated by using Ohm’s Law (Z=E/I) vertically in the ”Total”
column. As we saw in the AC inductance chapter, parallel impedance can also be calculated by using
a reciprocal formula identical to that used in calculating parallel resistances. It is noteworthy to
mention that this parallel impedance rule holds true regardless of the kind of impedances placed in
parallel. In other words, it doesn’t matter if we’re calculating a circuit composed of parallel resistors,
parallel inductors, parallel capacitors, or some combination thereof: in the form of impedances (Z),
all the terms are common and can be applied uniformly to the same formula. Once again, the
parallel impedance formula looks like this:

1
Zparallel =
1 1 1
+ + ...
Z1 Z2 Zn
The only drawback to using this equation is the significant amount of work required to work it
out, especially without the assistance of a calculator capable of manipulating complex quantities.
Regardless of how we calculate total impedance for our parallel circuit (either Ohm’s Law or the
reciprocal formula), we will arrive at the same figure:
4.5. CAPACITOR QUIRKS 87

R C Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o
2 + j0 0 + j376.99m 2 + j376.99m
I Amps
2 ∠ 0o 376.99m ∠ 90o 2.0352 ∠ 10.675o
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258 4.8284 - j910.14m
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 26.5258 ∠ -90o 4.9135 ∠ -10.675o

Ohm’s or Rule of parallel

Law circuits:
E 1
Z= Ztotal =
I 1 1
+
ZR ZC

• REVIEW:

• Impedances (Z) are managed just like resistances (R) in parallel circuit analysis: parallel
impedances diminish to form the total impedance, using the reciprocal formula. Just be sure
to perform all calculations in complex (not scalar) form! ZT otal = 1/(1/Z1 + 1/Z2 + . . .
1/Zn )

• Ohm’s Law for AC circuits: E = IZ ; I = E/Z ; Z = E/I

• When resistors and capacitors are mixed together in parallel circuits (just as in series circuits),
the total impedance will have a phase angle somewhere between 0o and -90o . The circuit
current will have a phase angle somewhere between 0o and +90o .

• Parallel AC circuits exhibit the same fundamental properties as parallel DC circuits: voltage is
uniform throughout the circuit, branch currents add to form the total current, and impedances
diminish (through the reciprocal formula) to form the total impedance.

4.5 Capacitor quirks

As with inductors, the ideal capacitor is a purely reactive device, containing absolutely zero resistive
(power dissipative) effects. In the real world, of course, nothing is so perfect. However, capacitors
have the virtue of generally being purer reactive components than inductors. It is a lot easier to
design and construct a capacitor with low internal series resistance than it is to do the same with
an inductor. The practical result of this is that real capacitors typically have impedance phase
angles more closely approaching 90o (actually, -90o ) than inductors. Consequently, they will tend
to dissipate less power than an equivalent inductor.
Capacitors also tend to be smaller and lighter weight than their equivalent inductor counterparts,
and since their electric fields are almost totally contained between their plates (unlike inductors,
whose magnetic fields naturally tend to extend beyond the dimensions of the core), they are less
prone to transmitting or receiving electromagnetic ”noise” to/from other components. For these
88 CHAPTER 4. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – CAPACITIVE

reasons, circuit designers tend to favor capacitors over inductors wherever a design permits either
alternative.
Capacitors with significant resistive effects are said to be lossy, in reference to their tendency to
dissipate (”lose”) power like a resistor. The source of capacitor loss is usually the dielectric material
rather than any wire resistance, as wire length in a capacitor is very minimal.
Dielectric materials tend to react to changing electric fields by producing heat. This heating
effect represents a loss in power, and is equivalent to resistance in the circuit. The effect is more
pronounced at higher frequencies and in fact can be so extreme that it is sometimes exploited in
manufacturing processes to heat insulating materials like plastic! The plastic object to be heated is
placed between two metal plates, connected to a source of high-frequency AC voltage. Temperature
is controlled by varying the voltage or frequency of the source, and the plates never have to contact
the object being heated.
This effect is undesirable for capacitors where we expect the component to behave as a purely
reactive circuit element. One of the ways to mitigate the effect of dielectric ”loss” is to choose a
dielectric material less susceptible to the effect. Not all dielectric materials are equally ”lossy.” A
relative scale of dielectric loss from least to greatest is given here:

Vacuum --------------- (Low Loss)

Air
Polystyrene
Mica
Glass
Low-K ceramic
Plastic film (Mylar)
Paper
High-K ceramic
Aluminum oxide
Tantalum pentoxide --- (High Loss)

Dielectric resistivity manifests itself both as a series and a parallel resistance with the pure
capacitance:
Equivalent circuit for a real capacitor

Rseries

Ideal Rparallel
capacitor
4.6. CONTRIBUTORS 89

Fortunately, these stray resistances are usually of modest impact (low series resistance and high
parallel resistance), much less significant than the stray resistances present in an average inductor.
Electrolytic capacitors, known for their relatively high capacitance and low working voltage, are
also known for their notorious lossiness, due to both the characteristics of the microscopically thin
dielectric film and the electrolyte paste. Unless specially made for AC service, electrolytic capacitors
should never be used with AC unless it is mixed (biased) with a constant DC voltage preventing
the capacitor from ever being subjected to reverse voltage. Even then, their resistive characteristics
may be too severe a shortcoming for the application anyway.

4.6 Contributors
Contributors to this chapter are listed in chronological order of their contributions, from most recent
to first. See Appendix 2 (Contributor List) for dates and contact information.
Jason Starck (June 2000): HTML document formatting, which led to a much better-looking
second edition.
90 CHAPTER 4. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – CAPACITIVE
Chapter 5

REACTANCE AND
IMPEDANCE – R, L, AND C

5.1 Review of R, X, and Z

Before we begin to explore the effects of resistors, inductors, and capacitors connected together in
the same AC circuits, let’s briefly review some basic terms and facts.

Resistance is essentially friction against the motion of electrons. It is present in all conductors
to some extent (except super conductors!), most notably in resistors. When alternating current goes
through a resistance, a voltage drop is produced that is in-phase with the current. Resistance is
mathematically symbolized by the letter ”R” and is measured in the unit of ohms (Ω).

Reactance is essentially inertia against the motion of electrons. It is present anywhere electric
or magnetic fields are developed in proportion to applied voltage or current, respectively; but most
notably in capacitors and inductors. When alternating current goes through a pure reactance, a
voltage drop is produced that is 90o out of phase with the current. Reactance is mathematically
symbolized by the letter ”X” and is measured in the unit of ohms (Ω).

Impedance is a comprehensive expression of any and all forms of opposition to electron flow,
including both resistance and reactance. It is present in all circuits, and in all components. When
alternating current goes through an impedance, a voltage drop is produced that is somewhere be-
tween 0o and 90o out of phase with the current. Impedance is mathematically symbolized by the
letter ”Z” and is measured in the unit of ohms (Ω), in complex form.

Perfect resistors possess resistance, but not reactance. Perfect inductors and perfect capacitors
possess reactance but no resistance. All components possess impedance, and because of this universal
quality, it makes sense to translate all component values (resistance, inductance, capacitance) into
common terms of impedance as the first step in analyzing an AC circuit.

91
92 CHAPTER 5. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – R, L, AND C

Resistor
R = 100 Ω
100 Ω X=0Ω
Z = 100 Ω ∠ 0o

Inductor
R=0Ω
100 mH
159.15 Hz X = 100 Ω
Z = 100 Ω ∠ 90o

Capacitor
R=0Ω
10 µF
159.15 Hz X = 100 Ω
Z = 100 Ω ∠ -90o

The impedance phase angle for any component is the phase shift between voltage across that
component and current through that component. For a perfect resistor, the voltage drop and current
are always in phase with each other, and so the impedance angle of a resistor is said to be 0 o . For
an perfect inductor, voltage drop always leads current by 90o , and so an inductor’s impedance phase
angle is said to be +90o . For a perfect capacitor, voltage drop always lags current by 90o , and so a
capacitor’s impedance phase angle is said to be -90o .
Impedances in AC behave analogously to resistances in DC circuits: they add in series, and they
diminish in parallel. A revised version of Ohm’s Law, based on impedance rather than resistance,
looks like this:

Ohm’s Law for AC circuits:

E E
E = IZ I= Z=
Z I

All quantities expressed in

complex, not scalar, form
Kirchhoff’s Laws and all network analysis methods and theorems are true for AC circuits as
well, so long as quantities are represented in complex rather than scalar form. While this qualified
equivalence may be arithmetically challenging, it is conceptually simple and elegant. The only real
difference between DC and AC circuit calculations is in regard to power. Because reactance doesn’t
dissipate power as resistance does, the concept of power in AC circuits is radically different from
that of DC circuits. More on this subject in a later chapter!
5.2. SERIES R, L, AND C 93

5.2 Series R, L, and C

Let’s take the following example circuit and analyze it:

R
250 Ω

120 V L 650 mH
60 Hz
C

1.5 µF
The first step is to determine the reactances (in ohms) for the inductor and the capacitor.

XL = 2πfL

XL = (2)(π)(60 Hz)(650 mH)

XL = 245.04 Ω

1
XC =
2πfC
1
XC =
(2)(π)(60 Hz)(1.5 µF)

XC = 1.7684 kΩ
The next step is to express all resistances and reactances in a mathematically common form:
impedance. Remember that an inductive reactance translates into a positive imaginary impedance
(or an impedance at +90o ), while a capacitive reactance translates into a negative imaginary
impedance (impedance at -90o ). Resistance, of course, is still regarded as a purely ”real” impedance
(polar angle of 0o ):

ZR = 250 + j0 Ω or 250 Ω ∠ 0o

ZL = 0 + j245.04 Ω or 245.04 Ω ∠ 90o

ZC = 0 - j1.7684k Ω or 1.7684 kΩ ∠ -90o

94 CHAPTER 5. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – R, L, AND C

ZR
250 Ω ∠ 0o
120 V ZL 245.04 Ω ∠ 90o
60 Hz
ZC

1.7684 kΩ ∠ -90o
Now, with all quantities of opposition to electric current expressed in a common, complex number
format (as impedances, and not as resistances or reactances), they can be handled in the same way
as plain resistances in a DC circuit. This is an ideal time to draw up an analysis table for this circuit
and insert all the ”given” figures (total voltage, and the impedances of the resistor, inductor, and
capacitor).

R L C Total
120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o

I Amps

250 + j0 0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k

Z Ohms
250 ∠ 0o 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o

Unless otherwise specified, the source voltage will be our reference for phase shift, and so will
be written at an angle of 0o . Remember that there is no such thing as an ”absolute” angle of phase
shift for a voltage or current, since it’s always a quantity relative to another waveform. Phase angles
for impedance, however (like those of the resistor, inductor, and capacitor), are known absolutely,
because the phase relationships between voltage and current at each component are absolutely
defined.
Notice that I’m assuming a perfectly reactive inductor and capacitor, with impedance phase
angles of exactly +90 and -90o , respectively. Although real components won’t be perfect in this
regard, they should be fairly close. For simplicity, I’ll assume perfectly reactive inductors and
capacitors from now on in my example calculations except where noted otherwise.
Since the above example circuit is a series circuit, we know that the total circuit impedance is
equal to the sum of the individuals, so:

Ztotal = ZR + ZL + ZC

Ztotal = (250 + j0 Ω) + (0 + j245.04 Ω) + (0 - j1.7684k Ω)

Ztotal = 250 - j1.5233k Ω or 1.5437 kΩ ∠ -80.680o

Inserting this figure for total impedance into our table:
5.2. SERIES R, L, AND C 95

R L C Total
120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o

I Amps

250 + j0 0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k 250 - j1.5233k

Z Ohms
250 ∠ 0o 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o 1.5437k ∠ -80.680o

Rule of series
circuits:
Ztotal = ZR + ZL + ZC

We can now apply Ohm’s Law (I=E/R) vertically in the ”Total” column to find total current
for this series circuit:

R L C Total
120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o
12.589m + 76.708m
I Amps
77.734m ∠ 80.680o
250 + j0 0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k 250 - j1.5233k
Z Ohms
250 ∠ 0o 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o 1.5437k ∠ -80.680o

Ohm’s
Law
E
I=
Z

Being a series circuit, current must be equal through all components. Thus, we can take the
figure obtained for total current and distribute it to each of the other columns:

R L C Total
120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o
12.589m + 76.708m 12.589m + 76.708m 12.589m + 76.708m 12.589m + 76.708m
I Amps
77.734m ∠ 80.680o 77.734m ∠ 80.680o 77.734m ∠ 80.680o 77.734m ∠ 80.680o
250 + j0 0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k 250 - j1.5233k
Z Ohms
250 ∠ 0o 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o 1.5437k ∠ -80.680o

Rule of series
circuits:
Itotal = IR = IL = IC

Now we’re prepared to apply Ohm’s Law (E=IZ) to each of the individual component columns
in the table, to determine voltage drops:
96 CHAPTER 5. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – R, L, AND C

R L C Total
3.1472 + j19.177 -18.797 + j3.0848 135.65 - j22.262 120 + j0
E Volts
19.434 ∠ 80.680o 19.048 ∠ 170.68o 137.46 ∠ -9.3199o 120 ∠ 0o
12.589m + 76.708m 12.589m + 76.708m 12.589m + 76.708m 12.589m + 76.708m
I Amps
77.734m ∠ 80.680o 77.734m ∠ 80.680o 77.734m ∠ 80.680o 77.734m ∠ 80.680o
250 + j0 0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k 250 - j1.5233k
Z Ohms
250 ∠ 0o 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o 1.5437k ∠ -80.680o

Ohm’s Ohm’s Ohm’s

Law Law Law
E = IZ E = IZ E = IZ

Notice something strange here: although our supply voltage is only 120 volts, the voltage across
the capacitor is 137.46 volts! How can this be? The answer lies in the interaction between the
inductive and capacitive reactances. Expressed as impedances, we can see that the inductor opposes
current in a manner precisely opposite that of the capacitor. Expressed in rectangular form, the
inductor’s impedance has a positive imaginary term and the capacitor has a negative imaginary
term. When these two contrary impedances are added (in series), they tend to cancel each other
out! Although they’re still added together to produce a sum, that sum is actually less than either
of the individual (capacitive or inductive) impedances alone. It is analogous to adding together
a positive and a negative (scalar) number: the sum is a quantity less than either one’s individual
absolute value.

If the total impedance in a series circuit with both inductive and capacitive elements is less than
the impedance of either element separately, then the total current in that circuit must be greater
than what it would be with only the inductive or only the capacitive elements there. With this
abnormally high current through each of the components, voltages greater than the source voltage
may be obtained across some of the individual components! Further consequences of inductors’ and
capacitors’ opposite reactances in the same circuit will be explored in the next chapter.

Once you’ve mastered the technique of reducing all component values to impedances (Z), analyz-
ing any AC circuit is only about as difficult as analyzing any DC circuit, except that the quantities
dealt with are vector instead of scalar. With the exception of equations dealing with power (P),
equations in AC circuits are the same as those in DC circuits, using impedances (Z) instead of
resistances (R). Ohm’s Law (E=IZ) still holds true, and so do Kirchhoff’s Voltage and Current
Laws.

To demonstrate Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law in an AC circuit, we can look at the answers we derived
for component voltage drops in the last circuit. KVL tells us that the algebraic sum of the voltage
drops across the resistor, inductor, and capacitor should equal the applied voltage from the source.
Even though this may not look like it is true at first sight, a bit of complex number addition proves
otherwise:
5.2. SERIES R, L, AND C 97

ER + EL + EC should equal Etotal

3.1472 + j19.177 V ER
-18.797 + j3.0848 V EL
+ 135.65 - j22.262 V EC
120 + j0 V Etotal

Aside from a bit of rounding error, the sum of these voltage drops does equal 120 volts. Performed
on a calculator (preserving all digits), the answer you will receive should be exactly 120 + j0 volts.
We can also use SPICE to verify our figures for this circuit:

R
1 2
250 Ω
120 V L 650 mH
60 Hz
C
0 3
1.5 µF

ac r-l-c circuit
v1 1 0 ac 120 sin
r1 1 2 250
l1 2 3 650m
c1 3 0 1.5u
.ac lin 1 60 60
.print ac v(1,2) v(2,3) v(3,0) i(v1)
.print ac vp(1,2) vp(2,3) vp(3,0) ip(v1)
.end

freq v(1,2) v(2,3) v(3) i(v1)

6.000E+01 1.943E+01 1.905E+01 1.375E+02 7.773E-02
freq vp(1,2) vp(2,3) vp(3) ip(v1)
6.000E+01 8.068E+01 1.707E+02 -9.320E+00 -9.932E+01
98 CHAPTER 5. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – R, L, AND C

Interpreted SPICE results

ER = 19.43 V ∠ 80.68o
EL = 19.05 V ∠ 170.7o
EC = 137.5 V ∠ -9.320o
I = 77.73 mA ∠ -99.32o (actual phase angle = 80.68o)
The SPICE simulation shows our hand-calculated results to be accurate.
As you can see, there is little difference between AC circuit analysis and DC circuit analysis,
except that all quantities of voltage, current, and resistance (actually, impedance) must be handled
in complex rather than scalar form so as to account for phase angle. This is good, since it means all
you’ve learned about DC electric circuits applies to what you’re learning here. The only exception
to this consistency is the calculation of power, which is so unique that it deserves a chapter devoted
to that subject alone.

• REVIEW:

• Impedances of any kind add in series: ZT otal = Z1 + Z2 + . . . Zn

• Although impedances add in series, the total impedance for a circuit containing both induc-
tance and capacitance may be less than one or more of the individual impedances, because
series inductive and capacitive impedances tend to cancel each other out. This may lead to
voltage drops across components exceeding the supply voltage!

• All rules and laws of DC circuits apply to AC circuits, so long as values are expressed in
complex form rather than scalar. The only exception to this principle is the calculation of
power, which is very different for AC.

5.3 Parallel R, L, and C

We can take the same components from the series circuit and rearrange them into a parallel config-
uration for an easy example circuit:

120 V R L C
250 Ω 650 mH 1.5 µF
60 Hz

The fact that these components are connected in parallel instead of series now has absolutely no
effect on their individual impedances. So long as the power supply is the same frequency as before,
the inductive and capacitive reactances will not have changed at all:
5.3. PARALLEL R, L, AND C 99

120 V ZR ZL ZC
60 Hz

250 Ω ∠ 0o 1.7684 kΩ ∠ -90o

245.04 Ω ∠ 90o
With all component values expressed as impedances (Z), we can set up an analysis table and
proceed as in the last example problem, except this time following the rules of parallel circuits
instead of series:
R L C Total
120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o

I Amps

250 + j0 0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k

Z Ohms
250 ∠ 0o 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o

Knowing that voltage is shared equally by all components in a parallel circuit, we can transfer
the figure for total voltage to all component columns in the table:
R L C Total
120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o

I Amps

250 + j0 0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k

Z Ohms
250 ∠ 0o 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o

Rule of parallel
circuits:
Etotal = ER = EL = EC

Now, we can apply Ohm’s Law (I=E/Z) vertically in each column to determine current through
each component:
R L C Total
120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o
480m + j0 0 - j489.71m 0 + j67.858m
I Amps
480 ∠ 0o 489.71m ∠ -90o 67.858m ∠ 90o
250 + j0 0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k
Z Ohms
250 ∠ 0o 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o

Ohm’s Ohm’s Ohm’s

Law Law Law
E E E
I= I= I=
Z Z Z
100 CHAPTER 5. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – R, L, AND C

There are two strategies for calculating total current and total impedance. First, we could
calculate total impedance from all the individual impedances in parallel (Z T otal = 1/(1/ZR + 1/ZL
+ 1/ZC ), and then calculate total current by dividing source voltage by total impedance (I=E/Z).
However, working through the parallel impedance equation with complex numbers is no easy task,
with all the reciprocations (1/Z). This is especially true if you’re unfortunate enough not to have
a calculator that handles complex numbers and are forced to do it all by hand (reciprocate the
individual impedances in polar form, then convert them all to rectangular form for addition, then
convert back to polar form for the final inversion, then invert). The second way to calculate total
current and total impedance is to add up all the branch currents to arrive at total current (total
current in a parallel circuit – AC or DC – is equal to the sum of the branch currents), then use
Ohm’s Law to determine total impedance from total voltage and total current (Z=E/I).
R L C Total
120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o
480m + j0 0 - j489.71m 0 + j67.858m 480m - j421.85m
I Amps
480 ∠ 0o 489.71m ∠ -90o 67.858m ∠ 90o 639.03m ∠ -41.311o
250 + j0 0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k 141.05 + j123.96
Z Ohms
250 ∠ 0o 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o 187.79 ∠ 41.311o

Either method, performed properly, will provide the correct answers. Let’s try analyzing this
circuit with SPICE and see what happens:
Battery symbols are "dummy"
voltage sources for SPICE to
use as current measurement
points. All are set to 0 volts.

2 2 2 2

Vic Vil Vic

Vi 4
3 Rbogus 6
1 5
R L C
120 V 250 Ω 650 mH 1.5 µF
60 Hz

0 0 0 0

ac r-l-c circuit
v1 1 0 ac 120 sin
vi 1 2 ac 0
vir 2 3 ac 0
vil 2 4 ac 0
5.4. SERIES-PARALLEL R, L, AND C 101

rbogus 4 5 1e-12
vic 2 6 ac 0
r1 3 0 250
l1 5 0 650m
c1 6 0 1.5u
.ac lin 1 60 60
.print ac i(vi) i(vir) i(vil) i(vic)
.print ac ip(vi) ip(vir) ip(vil) ip(vic)
.end

freq i(vi) i(vir) i(vil) i(vic)

6.000E+01 6.390E-01 4.800E-01 4.897E-01 6.786E-02
freq ip(vi) ip(vir) ip(vil) ip(vic)
6.000E+01 -4.131E+01 0.000E+00 -9.000E+01 9.000E+01

Interpreted SPICE results

Itotal = 639.0 mA ∠ -41.31o

IR = 480 mA ∠ 0o

IL = 489.7 mA ∠ -90o

IC = 67.86 mA ∠ 90o
It took a little bit of trickery to get SPICE working as we would like on this circuit (installing
”dummy” voltage sources in each branch to obtain current figures and installing the ”dummy”
resistor in the inductor branch to prevent a direct inductor-to-voltage source loop, which SPICE
cannot tolerate), but we did get the proper readings. Even more than that, by installing the dummy
voltage sources (current meters) in the proper directions, we were able to avoid that idiosyncrasy of
SPICE of printing current figures 180o out of phase. This way, our current phase readings came out
to exactly match our hand calculations.

5.4 Series-parallel R, L, and C

Now that we’ve seen how series and parallel AC circuit analysis is not fundamentally different than
DC circuit analysis, it should come as no surprise that series-parallel analysis would be the same as
well, just using complex numbers instead of scalar to represent voltage, current, and impedance.
Take this series-parallel circuit for example:
102 CHAPTER 5. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – R, L, AND C

C1

4.7 µF
L 650 mH
120 V R 470 Ω
60 Hz C2 1.5 µF

The first order of business, as usual, is to determine values of impedance (Z) for all components
based on the frequency of the AC power source. To do this, we need to first determine values of
reactance (X) for all inductors and capacitors, then convert reactance (X) and resistance (R) figures
into proper impedance (Z) form:

Reactances and Resistances:

1 XL = 2πfL
XC1 =
2πfC1
1 XL = (2)(π)(60 Hz)(650 mH)
XC1 =
(2)(π)(60 Hz)(4.7 µF)

XC1 = 564.38 Ω XL = 245.04 Ω

1
XC2 =
2πfC2
1
XC2 = R = 470 Ω
(2)(π)(60 Hz)(1.5 µF)

XC2 = 1.7684 kΩ

ZC1 = 0 - j564.38 Ω or 564.38 Ω ∠ -90o

ZL = 0 + j245.04 Ω or 245.04 Ω ∠ 90o

ZC2 = 0 - j1.7684k Ω or 1.7684 kΩ ∠ -90o

ZR = 470 + j0 Ω or 470 Ω ∠ 0o
Now we can set up the initial values in our table:
5.4. SERIES-PARALLEL R, L, AND C 103

C1 L C2 R Total
120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o

I Amps

0 - j564.38 0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k 470 + j0

Z Ohms
564.38 ∠ -90o 245.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o 470 ∠ 0o

Being a series-parallel combination circuit, we must reduce it to a total impedance in more than
one step. The first step is to combine L and C2 as a series combination of impedances, by adding
their impedances together. Then, that impedance will be combined in parallel with the impedance
of the resistor, to arrive at another combination of impedances. Finally, that quantity will be added
to the impedance of C1 to arrive at the total impedance.
In order that our table may follow all these steps, it will be necessary to add additional columns
to it so that each step may be represented. Adding more columns horizontally to the table shown
above would be impractical for formatting reasons, so I will place a new row of columns underneath,
each column designated by its respective component combination:
Total
L -- C2 R // (L -- C2) C1 -- [R // (L -- C2)]

E Volts

I Amps

Z Ohms

Calculating these new (combination) impedances will require complex addition for series com-
binations, and the ”reciprocal” formula for complex impedances in parallel. This time, there is no
avoidance of the reciprocal formula: the required figures can be arrived at no other way!
Total
L -- C2 R // (L -- C2) C1 -- [R // (L -- C2)]
120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o

I Amps

0 - j1.5233k 429.15 - j132.41 429.15 - j696.79

Z Ohms
1.5233k ∠ -90o 449.11 ∠ -17.147o 818.34 ∠ -58.371o

Rule of series Rule of series

circuits: circuits:
ZL--C2 = ZL + ZC2 Ztotal = ZC1 + ZR//(L--C2)
Rule of parallel
circuits:
1
ZR//(L--C2) =
1 1
+
ZR ZL--C2

Seeing as how our second table contains a column for ”Total,” we can safely discard that column
from the first table. This gives us one table with four columns and another table with three columns.
 104 CHAPTER 5. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – R, L, AND C

Now that we know the total impedance (818.34 Ω 6 -58.371o ) and the total voltage (120 volts
6 0o ), we can apply Ohm’s Law (I=E/Z) vertically in the ”Total” column to arrive at a figure for
total current:
Total
L -- C2 R // (L -- C2) C1 -- [R // (L -- C2)]
120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o
76.899m + j124.86m
I Amps
146.64m ∠ 58.371o
0 - j1.5233k 429.15 - j132.41 429.15 - j696.79
Z Ohms
1.5233k ∠ -90o 449.11 ∠ -17.147o 818.34 ∠ -58.371o

Ohm’s
Law
E
I=
Z

At this point we ask ourselves the question: are there any components or component combinations
which share either the total voltage or the total current? In this case, both C 1 and the parallel
combination R//(L−−C2 ) share the same (total) current, since the total impedance is composed of
the two sets of impedances in series. Thus, we can transfer the figure for total current into both
columns:
C1 L C2 R

E Volts

76.899m + j124.86m
I Amps
146.64m ∠ 58.371o
0 - j564.38 0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k 470 + j0
Z Ohms
564.38 ∠ -90o 245.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o 470 ∠ 0o

Rule of series
circuits:
Itotal = IC1 = IR//(L--C2)

Total
L -- C2 R // (L -- C2) C1 -- [R // (L -- C2)]
120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o
76.899m + j124.86m 76.899m + j124.86m
I Amps
146.64m ∠ 58.371o 146.64m ∠ 58.371o
0 - j1.5233k 429.15 - j132.41 429.15 - j696.79
Z Ohms
1.5233k ∠ -90o 449.11 ∠ -17.147o 818.34 ∠ -58.371o

Rule of series
circuits:
Itotal = IC1 = IR//(L--C2)

Now, we can calculate voltage drops across C1 and the series-parallel combination of R//(L−−C2 )
using Ohm’s Law (E=IZ) vertically in those table columns:
5.4. SERIES-PARALLEL R, L, AND C 105

C1 L C2 R
70.467 - j43.400
E Volts
82.760 ∠ -31.629o
76.899m + j124.86m
I Amps
146.64m ∠ 58.371o
0 - j564.38 0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k 470 + j0
Z Ohms
564.38 ∠ -90o 245.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o 470 ∠ 0o

Ohm’s
Law
E = IZ

Total
L -- C2 R // (L -- C2) C1 -- [R // (L -- C2)]
49.533 + j43.400 120 + j0
E Volts
65.857 ∠ 41.225o 120 ∠ 0o
76.899m + j124.86m 76.899m + j124.86m
I Amps
146.64m ∠ 58.371o 146.64m ∠ 58.371o
0 - j1.5233k 429.15 - j132.41 429.15 - j696.79
Z Ohms
1.5233k ∠ -90o 449.11 ∠ -17.147o 818.34 ∠ -58.371o

Ohm’s
Law
E = IZ

A quick double-check of our work at this point would be to see whether or not the voltage drops
across C1 and the series-parallel combination of R//(L−−C2 ) indeed add up to the total. According
to Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, they should!

Etotal should be equal to EC1 + ER//(L--C2)

70.467 - j43.400 V
+ 49.533 + j43.400 V
120 + j0 V Indeed, it is!
That last step was merely a precaution. In a problem with as many steps as this one has, there
is much opportunity for error. Occasional cross-checks like that one can save a person a lot of work
and unnecessary frustration by identifying problems prior to the final step of the problem.
After having solved for voltage drops across C1 and the combination R//(L−−C2 ), we again ask
ourselves the question: what other components share the same voltage or current? In this case, the
resistor (R) and the combination of the inductor and the second capacitor (L−−C 2 ) share the same
voltage, because those sets of impedances are in parallel with each other. Therefore, we can transfer
the voltage figure just solved for into the columns for R and L−−C2 :
106 CHAPTER 5. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – R, L, AND C

C1 L C2 R
70.467 - j43.400 49.533 + j43.400
E Volts
82.760 ∠ -31.629o 65.857 ∠ 41.225o
76.899m + j124.86m
I Amps
146.64m ∠ 58.371o
0 - j564.38 0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k 470 + j0
Z Ohms
564.38 ∠ -90o 245.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o 470 ∠ 0o

Rule of parallel
circuits:
ER//(L--C2) = ER = EL--C2

Total
L -- C2 R // (L -- C2) C1 -- [R // (L -- C2)]
49.533 + j43.400 49.533 + j43.400 120 + j0
E Volts
65.857 ∠ 41.225o 65.857 ∠ 41.225o 120 ∠ 0o
76.899m + j124.86m 76.899m + j124.86m
I Amps
146.64m ∠ 58.371o 146.64m ∠ 58.371o
0 - j1.5233k 429.15 - j132.41 429.15 - j696.79
Z Ohms
1.5233k ∠ -90o 449.11 ∠ -17.147o 818.34 ∠ -58.371o

Rule of parallel
circuits:
ER//(L--C2) = ER = EL--C2

Now we’re all set for calculating current through the resistor and through the series combination
L−−C2 . All we need to do is apply Ohm’s Law (I=E/Z) vertically in both of those columns:

C1 L C2 R
70.467 - j43.400 49.533 + j43.400
E Volts
82.760 ∠ -31.629o 65.857 ∠ 41.225o
76.899m + j124.86m 105.39m + j92.341m
I Amps
146.64m ∠ 58.371o 140.12m ∠ 41.225o
0 - j564.38 0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k 470 + j0
Z Ohms
564.38 ∠ -90o 245.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o 470 ∠ 0o

Ohm’s
Law
E
I=
Z
5.4. SERIES-PARALLEL R, L, AND C 107

Total
L -- C2 R // (L -- C2) C1 -- [R // (L -- C2)]
49.533 + j43.400 49.533 + j43.400 120 + j0
E Volts
65.857 ∠ 41.225o 65.857 ∠ 41.225o 120 ∠ 0o
-28.490m + j32.516m 76.899m + j124.86m 76.899m + j124.86m
I Amps
43.232m ∠ 131.22o 146.64m ∠ 58.371o 146.64m ∠ 58.371o
0 - j1.5233k 429.15 - j132.41 429.15 - j696.79
Z Ohms
1.5233k ∠ -90o 449.11 ∠ -17.147o 818.34 ∠ -58.371o

Ohm’s
Law
E
I=
Z

Another quick double-check of our work at this point would be to see if the current figures for
L−−C2 and R add up to the total current. According to Kirchhoff’s Current Law, they should:

IR//(L--C2) should be equal to IR + I(L--C2)

105.39m + j92.341m
+ -28.490m + j32.516m
76.899m + j124.86m Indeed, it is!

Since the L and C2 are connected in series, and since we know the current through their series
combination impedance, we can distribute that current figure to the L and C 2 columns following
the rule of series circuits whereby series components share the same current:

C1 L C2 R
70.467 - j43.400 49.533 + j43.400
E Volts
82.760 ∠ -31.629o 65.857 ∠ 41.225o
76.899m + j124.86m -28.490m + j32.516m -28.490m + j32.516m 105.39m + j92.341m
I Amps
146.64m ∠ 58.371o 43.232m ∠ 131.22o 43.232m ∠ 131.22o 140.12m ∠ 41.225o
0 - j564.38 0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k 470 + j0
Z Ohms
564.38 ∠ -90o 245.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o 470 ∠ 0o

Rule of series
circuits:
IL--C2 = IL = IC2

With one last step (actually, two calculations), we can complete our analysis table for this circuit.
With impedance and current figures in place for L and C2 , all we have to do is apply Ohm’s Law
(E=IZ) vertically in those two columns to calculate voltage drops.
108 CHAPTER 5. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – R, L, AND C

C1 L C2 R
70.467 - j43.400 -7.968 - j6.981 57.501 + j50.382 49.533 + j43.400
E Volts
82.760 ∠ -31.629o 10.594 ∠ 221.22o 76.451 ∠ 41.225 65.857 ∠ 41.225o
76.899m + j124.86m -28.490m + j32.516m -28.490m + j32.516m 105.39m + j92.341m
I Amps
146.64m ∠ 58.371o 43.232m ∠ 131.22o 43.232m ∠ 131.22o 140.12m ∠ 41.225o
0 - j564.38 0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k 470 + j0
Z Ohms
564.38 ∠ -90o 245.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o 470 ∠ 0o

Ohm’s Ohm’s
Law Law
E = IZ E = IZ

Now, let’s turn to SPICE for a computer verification of our work:

more "dummy" voltage sources to
act as current measurement points
in the SPICE analysis (all set to 0
volts).
C1
4.7 µF
2 3 3

Vilc Vir
Vit
4
1 6
L 650 mH
120 V 5
60 Hz R 470 Ω
C2 1.5 µF

0 0 0

ac series-parallel r-l-c circuit

v1 1 0 ac 120 sin
vit 1 2 ac 0
vilc 3 4 ac 0
vir 3 6 ac 0
c1 2 3 4.7u
l 4 5 650m
c2 5 0 1.5u
r 6 0 470
.ac lin 1 60 60
.print ac v(2,3) vp(2,3) i(vit) ip(vit)
.print ac v(4,5) vp(4,5) i(vilc) ip(vilc)
.print ac v(5,0) vp(5,0) i(vilc) ip(vilc)
5.5. SUSCEPTANCE AND ADMITTANCE 109

.print ac v(6,0) vp(6,0) i(vir) ip(vir)

.end

freq v(2,3) vp(2,3) i(vit) ip(vit) C1

6.000E+01 8.276E+01 -3.163E+01 1.466E-01 5.837E+01

freq v(4,5) vp(4,5) i(vilc) ip(vilc) L

6.000E+01 1.059E+01 -1.388E+02 4.323E-02 1.312E+02

freq v(5) vp(5) i(vilc) ip(vilc) C2

6.000E+01 7.645E+01 4.122E+01 4.323E-02 1.312E+02

freq v(6) vp(6) i(vir) ip(vir) R

6.000E+01 6.586E+01 4.122E+01 1.401E-01 4.122E+01

Each line of the SPICE output listing gives the voltage, voltage phase angle, current, and current
phase angle for C1 , L, C2 , and R, in that order. As you can see, these figures do concur with our
hand-calculated figures in the circuit analysis table.
As daunting a task as series-parallel AC circuit analysis may appear, it must be emphasized that
there is nothing really new going on here besides the use of complex numbers. Ohm’s Law (in its
new form of E=IZ) still holds true, as do the voltage and current Laws of Kirchhoff. While there
is more potential for human error in carrying out the necessary complex number calculations, the
basic principles and techniques of series-parallel circuit reduction are exactly the same.

• REVIEW:

• Analysis of series-parallel AC circuits is much the same as series-parallel DC circuits. The only
substantive difference is that all figures and calculations are in complex (not scalar) form.

• It is important to remember that before series-parallel reduction (simplification) can begin,

you must determine the impedance (Z) of every resistor, inductor, and capacitor. That way,
all component values will be expressed in common terms (Z) instead of an incompatible mix
of resistance (R), inductance (L), and capacitance (C).

5.5 Susceptance and Admittance

In the study of DC circuits, the student of electricity comes across a term meaning the opposite of
resistance: conductance. It is a useful term when exploring the mathematical formula for parallel
resistances: Rparallel = 1 / (1/R1 + 1/R2 + . . . 1/Rn ). Unlike resistance, which diminishes as
more parallel components are included in the circuit, conductance simply adds. Mathematically,
conductance is the reciprocal of resistance, and each 1/R term in the ”parallel resistance formula”
is actually a conductance.
Whereas the term ”resistance” denotes the amount of opposition to flowing electrons in a circuit,
”conductance” represents the ease of which electrons may flow. Resistance is the measure of how
much a circuit resists current, while conductance is the measure of how much a circuit conducts
current. Conductance used to be measured in the unit of mhos, or ”ohms” spelled backward. Now,
110 CHAPTER 5. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – R, L, AND C

the proper unit of measurement is Siemens. When symbolized in a mathematical formula, the proper
letter to use for conductance is ”G”.
Reactive components such as inductors and capacitors oppose the flow of electrons with respect
to time, rather than with a constant, unchanging friction as resistors do. We call this time-based
opposition, reactance, and like resistance we also measure it in the unit of ohms.
As conductance is the complement of resistance, there is also a complementary expression of
reactance, called susceptance. Mathematically, it is equal to 1/X, the reciprocal of reactance. Like
conductance, it used to be measured in the unit of mhos, but now is measured in Siemens. Its
mathematical symbol is ”B”, unfortunately the same symbol used to represent magnetic flux density.
The terms ”reactance” and ”susceptance” have a certain linguistic logic to them, just like resis-
tance and conductance. While reactance is the measure of how much a circuit reacts against change
in current over time, susceptance is the measure of how much a circuit is susceptible to conducting
a changing current.
If one were tasked with determining the total effect of several parallel-connected, pure reactances,
one could convert each reactance (X) to a susceptance (B), then add susceptances rather than
diminish reactances: Xparallel = 1/(1/X1 + 1/X2 + . . . 1/Xn ). Like conductances (G), susceptances
(B) add in parallel and diminish in series. Also like conductance, susceptance is a scalar quantity.
When resistive and reactive components are interconnected, their combined effects can no longer
be analyzed with scalar quantities of resistance (R) and reactance (X). Likewise, figures of conduc-
tance (G) and susceptance (B) are most useful in circuits where the two types of opposition are not
mixed, i.e. either a purely resistive (conductive) circuit, or a purely reactive (susceptive) circuit. In
order to express and quantify the effects of mixed resistive and reactive components, we had to have
a new term: impedance, measured in ohms and symbolized by the letter ”Z”.
To be consistent, we need a complementary measure representing the reciprocal of impedance.
The name for this measure is admittance. Admittance is measured in (guess what?) the unit of
Siemens, and its symbol is ”Y”. Like impedance, admittance is a complex quantity rather than
scalar. Again, we see a certain logic to the naming of this new term: while impedance is a measure
of how much alternating current is impeded in a circuit, admittance is a measure of how much current
is admitted.
Given a scientific calculator capable of handling complex number arithmetic in both polar and
rectangular forms, you may never have to work with figures of susceptance (B) or admittance (Y).
Be aware, though, of their existence and their meanings.

5.6 Summary
With the notable exception of calculations for power (P), all AC circuit calculations are based on
the same general principles as calculations for DC circuits. The only significant difference is that
fact that AC calculations use complex quantities while DC calculations use scalar quantities. Ohm’s
Law, Kirchhoff’s Laws, and even the network theorems learned in DC still hold true for AC when
voltage, current, and impedance are all expressed with complex numbers. The same troubleshooting
strategies applied toward DC circuits also hold for AC, although AC can certainly be more difficult
to work with due to phase angles which aren’t registered by a handheld multimeter.
Power is another subject altogether, and will be covered in its own chapter in this book. Because
power in a reactive circuit is both absorbed and released – not just dissipated as it is with resistors
– its mathematical handling requires a more direct application of trigonometry to solve.
5.7. CONTRIBUTORS 111

When faced with analyzing an AC circuit, the first step in analysis is to convert all resistor,
inductor, and capacitor component values into impedances (Z), based on the frequency of the power
source. After that, proceed with the same steps and strategies learned for analyzing DC circuits,
using the ”new” form of Ohm’s Law: E=IZ ; I=E/Z ; and Z=E/I
Remember that only the calculated figures expressed in polar form apply directly to empirical
measurements of voltage and current. Rectangular notation is merely a useful tool for us to add
and subtract complex quantities together. Polar notation, where the magnitude (length of vector)
directly relates to the magnitude of the voltage or current measured, and the angle directly relates
to the phase shift in degrees, is the most practical way to express complex quantities for circuit
analysis.

5.7 Contributors
Contributors to this chapter are listed in chronological order of their contributions, from most recent
to first. See Appendix 2 (Contributor List) for dates and contact information.
Jason Starck (June 2000): HTML document formatting, which led to a much better-looking
second edition.
112 CHAPTER 5. REACTANCE AND IMPEDANCE – R, L, AND C