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DEVELOPMENT AND CHARACTERIZATION OF

METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE USING RED MUD
AN INDUSTRIAL WASTE FOR
WEAR RESISTANT APPLICATIONS

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF

Doctor of Philosophy

in

Mechanical Engineering

By

Naresh Prasad

Department of Mechanical Engineering

National Institute of Technology
Rourkela -769 008 (India)
January, 2006
DEVELOPMENT AND CHARACTERIZATION OF METAL
MATRIX COMPOSITE USING RED MUD AN INDUSTRIAL
WASTE FOR WEAR RESISTANTAPPLICATIONS

A Thesis Submitted to

National Institute of Technology, Rourkela

(Deemed University)
In Partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy
in
Mechanical Engineering

By

Naresh Prasad

Under the guidance and supervision of

Dr. Samir Kumar Acharya

Department of Mechanical Engineering

National Institute of Technology
Rourkela -769 008 (India)
January, 2006
 National Institute of Technology
Rourkela-769008 (Orissa), INDIA

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Development and

Characterization of Metal Matrix Composite Using Red Mud an Industrial
Waste for Wear Resistant Applications” submitted to the National Institute of
Technology, Rourkela (Deemed University) by Naresh Prasad, Roll No. 50203003
for the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Mechanical Engineering is a
record of bonafide research work carried out by him under my supervision and
guidance. The results presented in this thesis has not been, to the best of my
knowledge, submitted to any other University or Institute for the award of any degree
or diploma.
The thesis, in my opinion, has reached the standards fulfilling the
requirement for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in accordance
with regulations of the Institute.

(Dr. S. K. Acharya)
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
 a cknowledgement

It is a great pleasure to express my gratitude and indebtedness to my

supervisor Dr. S. K. Acharya for his guidance, encouragement, moral support and
affection through the course of my work.

I am also grateful to Prof. Sunil Kumar Sarangi, Director, NIT

Rourkela who took keen interest in the work. My special thanks to Prof. B. K.
Nanda, Head of Mechanical Engineering Department and QIP coordinator, Prof.
N. Kavi and all staff members of the department for their timely help in
completion of this work. I also express my thanks to Dr. S. C. Mishra of
Metallurgical and Materials Engineering Department for helping in the micro
structural study in his department.

I am also thankful to friendly hands of many of my colleagues of NIT

Jamshedpur, like Mr. A. K. Akella, and Mr. S. B. Prasad for their whole hearted
support.

Thanks are due to Mr N. P. Bariki & Mr. Jitendra Das for their
support & help during my experimental work.

This work is also the outcome of the blessing guidance and support of
my in-laws Mrs. & Mr. S. K. Mallick. This work could have been a distant dream if
I did not get the moral encouragement and help from my wife, Reena. She equally
shared my success and failures with me. My daughter Ashna and son Rishank
missed me a lot and sacrificed many of their pleasant dreams for me. This thesis is
the outcome of the sincere prayers and dedicated support of my family.

Finally, I wish to acknowledge the financial support given to me by

the Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India and the
authorities of NIT Jamshedpur for granting three years study leave to carry out
this research work at NIT Rourkela.

(Naresh Prasad)
 ABSTRACT

Red mud emerges as the major waste material during production of alumina
from bauxite by the Bayer’s process. It comprises of oxides of iron, titanium, aluminum
and silica along with some other minor constituents. Based on economics as well as
environmental related issues, enormous efforts have been directed worldwide towards red
mud management issues i.e. of utilization, storage and disposal. Different avenues of red
mud utilization are more or less known but none of them have so far proved to be
economically viable or commercially feasible.

It is generally agreed that resistance to wear of MMCs is created by

reinforcement and also the wear properties are improved remarkably by introducing hard
intermetallic compound into the aluminium matrix. The reinforcing materials are generally
SiC, Al2O3, TiB2 etc and are costly. The present research work has been undertaken with
an objective to explore the use of red mud as a reinforcing material as a low cost option.
This is due to the fact that red mud alone contains all these reinforcement elements and is
plentifully available.

Experiments have been conducted under laboratory condition to assess the

wear characteristics of the aluminium red mud composite under different working
conditions in pure sliding mode on a pin-on-disc machine. This has been possible by
fabricating the samples through usual stir casting technique. To enhance the wear
properties, the samples were also subjected to heat treatment. The worn surfaces of the
wear out samples were studied under optical microscope to get an idea about the effect of
particulate reinforcement on the wear behavior of the composite.

Dispersion of red mud particles in aluminium matrix improves the hardness

of the matrix material and also the wear behavior of the composite. Wear resistance of the
composite can be improved by heat treatment and proper choice of cooling media. A
prediction model using artificial neural networks (ANN) is also employed to simulate the
property parameters correlation and a fairly good agreement in the experimental and
predicted value is obtained.

There are other fabrication techniques available where the volume fraction
of reinforcements could be increased and are likely to vary the wear performances of the
composite. This work can be further extended to those techniques. However these results
can act as a starting point for both industrial designers and researchers to design and
develop MMC components using this industrial waste for applications in wear
environment.

The whole dissertation has been divided into six chapters to put the analysis
independent of each other as far as possible. The major work on wear characteristics and
validation of results through Artificial Neural Network (ANN) techniques are given in
chapter 3, 4, and 5 respectively.

*****
 CONTENTS

PAGE NO

Nomenclature

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background 01
1.2 Composites 02
1.3 Components of a composite material 08
1.4 Metal Matrix Composite 13
1.5 Need for the reinforcement of red mud 18
into aluminium Matrix
1.6 Red mud 18

Chapter 2 LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Material selection 22
2.3 Fabrication methods of MMCs 28
2.4 Mechanical properties 34
2.5 Effect of reinforcement volume fraction 35
2.6 Fracture 36
2.7 Microstructure 36
2.8 Results and discussion 37
Chapter 3 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF
WEAR CHARACTERISTICS OF
ALUMINIUM RED MUD COMPOSITE

3.1 Introduction 45
3.2 Recent trends in metal wear research 46
3.3 Theory of wear 48
3.4 Types of wear 52
3.5 Symptoms of wear 56
3.6 Experiments 57
3.7 Results and discussion 63
3.8 Micro structural observation 65
3.9 Conclusions 67

Chapter 4 EFFECT OF HEAT TREATMENT ON

WEAR BEHAVIOUR OF ALUMINIUM
RED MUD COMPOSITES

4.1 Introduction 107

4.2 Experiment 107
4.3 Hardness Test 108
4.4 Wear Test 108
4.5 Results and discussion 109
4.6 Micro structural observation 111
Chapter 5 PREDICTION OF WEAR BY USING
NEURAL NETWORKS

5.1 Introduction 148

5.2 Feed forward network 150
5.3 Neural networks in material science 152
5.4 Results and discussion 155
5.5 Conclusion 155

Chapter 6 CONCLUSION 163

Recommendation for further research 165

MISCELLANEOUS
References 166
List of Figures 188
List of Tables 191
Author’s Publication 193

*****
 NOMENCLATURE

A Air cooling

E Young’s modulus

Ea Experimental values for air cooling

Ew Experimental values for water quenching

Ew15 Experimental values for water quenching at 150C

Ew5 Experimental values for water quenching at 50C

Ff Average frictional force

Fn Normal load

f Volume fraction
H Vickers hardness
K Wear coefficient
L Load
m1 Initial mass
m2 Final mass

∆m Difference in mass
Pa Predicted values for air cooling

Pw Predicted values for water quenching

Pw15 Predicted values for water quenching at 150C

Pw5 Predicted values for water quenching at 50C

rpm Revolution per minute

R.D. Rolling / Sliding distance

t Time

V Wear volume

Vs Sliding velocity

Wr Wear rate

W Water quenching

WHT Without heat treatment

Ws Specific wear rate

Wv Volumetric wear rate

µ Co-efficient of friction

ρ Density

*****
 CHAPTER – 1

1.1 BACKGROUND

History is often marked by the materials and technology that reflect human
capability and understanding. Many times scales begins with the stone age, which led to
the Bronze, Iron, Steel, Aluminium and Alloy ages as improvements in refining, smelting
took place and science made all these possible to move towards finding more advance
materials possible.

Progress in the development of advanced composites from the days of E

glass / Phenolic radome structures of the early 1940’s to the graphite/ polymide composites
used in the space shuttle orbiter-is spectacular. The recognition of the potential weight
savings that can be achieved by using the advanced composites, which in turn means
reduced cost and greater efficiency, was responsible for this growth in the technology of
reinforcements, matrices and fabrication of composites. If the first two decades saw the
improvements in the fabrication method, systematic study of properties and fracture
mechanics was at the focal point in the 60’s. Since than there has been an ever-increasing
demand for newer, stronger, stiffer and yet lighter-weight materials in fields such as
aerospace, transportation, automobile and construction sectors. Composite materials are
emerging chiefly in response to unprecedented demands from technology due to rapidly
advancing activities in aircrafts, aerospace and automotive industries. These materials have
low specific gravity that makes their properties particularly superior in strength and
modulus to many traditional engineering materials such as metals. As a result of intensive
studies into the fundamental nature of materials and better understanding of their structure
property relationship, it has become possible to develop new composite materials with
improved physical and mechanical properties. These new materials include high
performance composites such as Polymer matrix composites [1, 2], Ceramic matrix
composites [3, 4] and Metal matrix composites [5] etc. Continuous advancements have led
to the use of composite materials in more and more diversified applications. The
importance of composites as engineering materials is reflected by the fact that out of over
1600 engineering materials available in the market today more than 200 are composite [6].

1
1.2 COMPOSITES

1.2.1 Why a composite?

Over the last thirty years composite materials, plastics and ceramics have
been the dominant emerging materials. The volume and number of applications of
composite materials have grown steadily, penetrating and conquering new markets
relentlessly. Modern composite materials constitute a significant proportion of the
engineered materials market ranging from everyday products to sophisticated niche
applications.

While composites have already proven their worth as weight-saving

materials, the current challenge is to make them cost effective. The efforts to produce
economically attractive composite components have resulted in several innovative
manufacturing techniques currently being used in the composites industry. It is obvious,
especially for composites, that the improvement in manufacturing technology alone is not
enough to overcome the cost hurdle. It is essential that there be an integrated effort in
design, material, process, tooling, quality assurance, manufacturing, and even program
management for composites to become competitive with metals.

The composites industry has begun to recognize that the commercial

applications of composites promise to offer much larger business opportunities than the
aerospace sector due to the sheer size of transportation industry. Thus the shift of
composite applications from aircraft to other commercial uses has become prominent in
recent years.
Increasingly enabled by the introduction of newer polymer resin matrix
materials and high performance reinforcement fibres of glass, carbon and aramid, the
penetration of these advanced materials has witnessed a steady expansion in uses and
volume. The increased volume has resulted in an expected reduction in costs. High
performance FRP can now be found in such diverse applications as composite armoring
designed to resist explosive impacts, fuel cylinders for natural gas vehicles, windmill
blades, industrial drive shafts, support beams of highway bridges and even paper making

2
rollers. For certain applications, the use of composites rather than metals has in fact
resulted in savings of both cost and weight. Some examples are cascades for engines,
curved fairing and fillets, replacements for welded metallic parts, cylinders, tubes, ducts,
blade containment bands etc.

Further, the need of composite for lighter construction materials and more
seismic resistant structures has placed high emphasis on the use of new and advanced
materials that not only decreases dead weight but also absorbs the shock & vibration
through tailored microstructures. Composites are now extensively being used for
rehabilitation/ strengthening of pre-existing structures that have to be retrofitted to make
them seismic resistant, or to repair damage caused by seismic activity.

Unlike conventional materials (e.g., steel), the properties of the composite

material can be designed considering the structural aspects. The design of a structural
component using composites involves both material and structural design. Composite
properties (e.g. stiffness, thermal expansion etc.) can be varied continuously over a broad
range of values under the control of the designer. Careful selection of reinforcement type
enables finished product characteristics to be tailored to almost any specific engineering
requirement.
Whilst the use of composites will be a clear choice in many instances,
material selection in others will depend on factors such as working lifetime requirements,
number of items to be produced (run length), complexity of product shape, possible
savings in assembly costs and on the experience & skills the designer in tapping the
optimum potential of composites. In some instances, best results may be achieved through
the use of composites in conjunction with traditional materials.

1.2.2 What is a composite?

A typical composite material is a system of materials composing of two or

more materials (mixed and bonded) on a macroscopic scale.

3
 Generally, a composite material is composed of reinforcement (fibers,
particles, flakes, and/or fillers) embedded in a matrix (polymers, metals, or ceramics). The
matrix holds the reinforcement to form the desired shape while the reinforcement improves
the overall mechanical properties of the matrix. When designed properly, the new
combined material exhibits better strength than would each individual material.

As defined by Jartiz, [7] Composites are multifunctional material systems

that provide characteristics not obtainable from any discrete material. They are cohesive
structures made by physically combining two or more compatible materials, different in
composition and characteristics and sometimes in form.

Kelly [8] very clearly stresses that the composites should not be regarded
simple as a combination of two materials. In the broader significance; the combination has
its own distinctive properties. In terms of strength or resistance to heat or some other
desirable quality, it is better than either of the components alone or radically different from
either of them.
Berghezan [9] defines as “The composites are compound materials which
differ from alloys by the fact that the individual components retain their characteristics but
are so incorporated into the composite as to take advantage only of their attributes and not
of their shortcomings”, in order to obtain an improved material

Van Suchetclan [10] explains composite materials as heterogeneous

materials consisting of two or more solid phases, which are in intimate contact with each
other on a microscopic scale. They can be also considered as homogeneous materials on a
microscopic scale in the sense that any portion of it will have the same physical property.

1.2.3 Characteristics of the Composites

Composites consist of one or more discontinuous phases embedded in a

continuous phase. The discontinuous phase is usually harder and stronger than the
continuous phase and is called the ‘reinforcement‘ or ‘reinforcing material’, whereas the
continuous phase is termed as the ‘ matrix’.

4
 Properties of composites are strongly dependent on the properties of their
constituent materials, their distribution and the interaction among them. The composite
properties may be the volume fraction sum of the properties of the constituents or the
constituents may interact in a synergistic way resulting in improved or better properties.
Apart from the nature of the constituent materials, the geometry of the reinforcement
(shape, size and size distribution) influences the properties of the composite to a great
extent. The concentration distribution and orientation of the reinforcement also affect the
properties.
The shape of the discontinuous phase (which may by spherical, cylindrical,
or rectangular cross-sanctioned prisms or platelets), the size and size distribution (which
controls the texture of the material) and volume fraction determine the interfacial area,
which plays an important role in determining the extent of the interaction between the
reinforcement and the matrix.

Concentration, usually measured as volume or weight fraction, determines

the contribution of a single constituent to the overall properties of the composites. It is not
only the single most important parameter influencing the properties of the composites, but
also an easily controllable manufacturing variable used to alter its properties.

The orientation of the reinforcement affects the isotropy of the system.

1.2.4 Classification of Composites

Composite materials can be classified in different ways [11]. Classification

based on the geometry of a representative unit of reinforcement is convenient since it is the
geometry of the reinforcement which is responsible for the mechanical properties and high
performance of the composites. A typical classification is presented in table1.1. The two
broad classes of composites are (1) Particulate composites and (2) fibrous composites.

5
 Composite materials

Fiber reinforced composites Particle reinforced composites

Single layer Multi layered Random orientation

composites Preferred orient
composite

ontinuous fiber Discontinuous fiber Laminats Hybris

orced composites reinforced composites

Random Preferred
orientation orientation
directional
forcement
Bi-directional
reinforcement

Table: 1 .1 Classification of composites

6
1.2.4.1 Particulate Composites

As the name itself indicates, the reinforcement is of particle nature (platelets

are also included in this class). It may be spherical, cubic, tetragonal, a platelet, or of other
regular or irregular shape, but it is approximately equiaxed. In general, particles are not
very effective in improving fracture resistance but they enhance the stiffness of the
composite to a limited extent. Particle fillers are widely used to improve the properties of
matrix materials such as to modify the thermal and electrical conductivities, improve
performance at elevated temperatures, reduce friction, increase wear and abrasion
resistance, improve machinability, increase surface hardness and reduce shrinkage.

1.2.4.2 Fibrous composites

A fiber is characterized by its length being much greater compared to its

cross-sectional dimensions. The dimensions of the reinforcement determine its capability
of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibers are very effective in improving the
fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long dimension
discourages the growth of incipient cracks normal to the reinforcement that might other
wise lead to failure, particularly with brittle matrices.

Man-made filaments or fibers of non polymeric materials exhibit much

higher strength along their length since large flaws, which may be present in the bulk
material, are minimized because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fibre. In the
case of polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high
strength and stiffness.

Fibers, because of their small cross- sectional dimensions, are not directly
usable in engineering applications. They are, therefore, embedded in matrix materials to
form fibrous composites. The matrix serves to bind the fibers together, transfer loads to the
fibers, and protect them against environmental attack and damage due to handling. In
discontinuous fibre reinforced composites, the load transfer function of the matrix is more
critical than in continuous fibre composites.

7
1.3 COMPONENTS OF A COMPOSITE MATERIAL

In its most basic form a composite material is one, which is composed of at

least two elements working together to produce material properties that are different to the
properties of those elements on their own. In practice, most composites consist of a bulk
material (the ‘matrix’), and a reinforcement of some kind, added primarily to increase the
strength and stiffness of the matrix.

1.3.1 Role of matrix in a composite

Many materials when they are in a fibrous form exhibit very good strength
property but to achieve these properties the fibres should be bonded by a suitable matrix.
The matrix isolates the fibres from one another in order to prevent abrasion and formation
of new surface flaws and acts as a bridge to hold the fibres in place. A good matrix should
possess ability to deform easily under applied load, transfer the load onto the fibres and
evenly distributive stress concentration.

A study of the nature of bonding forces in laminates [12] indicates that upon
initial loading there is a tendency for the adhesive bond between the reinforcement and the
matrix to be broken. The frictional forces between them account for the high strength
properties of the laminates.

1.3.2 Materials used as matrices in composites

In its most basic form a composite material is one, which is composed of at

least two elements working together to produce material properties that are different to the
properties of those elements on their own. In practice, most composites consist of a bulk
material (the matrix) and a reinforcement of some kind, added primarily to increase the
strength and stiffness of the matrix.

8
(a) BULK PHASES

(1) Metal Matrices

Metal matrix composites possess some attractive properties, when

compared with organic matrices. These include (i) strength retention at higher
temperatures, (ii) higher transverse strength, (iii) better electrical conductivity, (iv)
superior thermal conductivity, (v) higher erosion resistance etc. However, the major
disadvantage of metal matrix composites is their higher densities and consequently lower
specific mechanical properties compared to polymer matrix composites. Another notable
difficulty is the high-energy requirement for fabrication of such composites.

In the aerospace industry interest has been concentrated primarily on fibre

reinforced aluminium and titanium. Boron and to a lesser extent silicon carbide (SiC), have
been investigated as the reinforcing fibres. Aluminium alloys reinforced with boron have
been extensively produced by a variety of methods. Titanium reinforced with SiC, boron
(coated with SiC) and even with beryllium, used for compressor blades.

Good elastic modulus properties can be achieved by the unidirectional

incorporation of fibres or whiskers in the metal matrix even though the bonding between
them may be poor. But, strong metallic matrices rather than weak metal or polymer
matrices are essential for good transverse modulus and shear strength.

Carbon/graphite fibres have been used with metal matrices on a laboratory /

experimental scale only, because most basic fabrication techniques involve high
temperatures which have detrimental effects on the fibre. However, research on these lines
is continuing in view of the potential of the composites.

9
(2) Polymer Matrices

A very large number of polymeric materials, both thermosetting and

thermoplastic, are used as matrix materials for the composites. Some of the major
advantages and limitations of resin matrices are shown in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2

Advantages and limitations of polymeric matrix materials

___________________________________________________________________
Advantages Limitations
___________________________________________________________________
Low densities Low transverse strength
Good corrosion resistance Low operational temperature limits
Low thermal conductivities
Low electrical conductivities
Transluscence
Aesthetic Colour effects
____________________________________________________________________

Generally speaking, the resinous binders (polymer matrices) are selected on

the basis of adhesive strength, fatigue resistance, heat resistance, chemical and moisture
resistance etc. The resin must have mechanical strength commensurate with that of the
reinforcement. It must be easy to use in the fabrication process selected and also stand up
to the service conditions. Apart from these properties, the resin matrix must be capable of
wetting and penetrating into the bundles of fibres which provide the reinforcement,
replacing the dead air spaces therein and offering those physical characteristics capable of
enhancing the performance of fibres.

Shear, chemical and electrical properties of a composite depend primarily

on the resin. Again, it is the nature of the resin that will determine the usefulness of the
laminates in the presence of a corroding environment.

10
 Generally Speaking, it can be assumed that in composites, even if the
volume fraction of the fibre is high (of the order of 0.7), the reinforcement is completely
covered by the matrix material; and when the composite is exposed to higher temperatures
it is the matrix, which should withstand the hostile environment. Of course, the strength
properties of the composite also show deterioration, which may be due to the influence of
the temperature on the interfacial bond. Thus, the high temperature resistant properties of
the composites are directly related more to the matrix, rather than to the reinforcement. The
search for polymers which can withstand high temperatures has pushed the upper limit of
the service temperatures to about 300-3500C. This range of operational temperatures can
be withstood by polyimides, which are the state-of-the-art high temperature polymers for
the present.

Table 1.3 and 1.4 indicate the approximate service temperature ranges for
the resins and composites [13, 14]. It should be remembered that there is no place for
compromise as to the nature of the matrix material, particularly when it comes to the
application temperature of the composite. If the application temperature exceeds 300-
3500C metal matrix appears to be the only alternative, at least for the present.

Table 1.3
Application temperatures of some matrix material
_____________________________________________________________________
Limit of
_____________________________

Matrix material long term short term

exposure, 0C exposure, 0C
____________________________________________________________________
Unsaturated polyesters 70 100
Epoxies 125 200
Phenolics 250 1600
Polyimides 315 400
Aluminium 300 350
____________________________________________________________________

11
 Table - 1.4
Trends for temperature application of heat resistant composites
___________________________________________________________________
Fibre reinforced Maximum service Specific weight
0
Composite temperature, C gm/cm3
______________________________________________________________________________________________________

Carbon / Epoxy 180 1.4

Boron/Epoxy 180 2.1
Borsic / Aluminium 310 2.8
Carbon/Polyimide 310 1.4
Boron/Polyimide 310 2.1
Carbon/Polyaminoxaline 350 1.4
Carbon/Polybenzthiazole 400 14
Borsic/Titanium 540 3.6
Carbon/Nickel 930 5.3
Whisker/Metals 1800 2.8-5.6
_____________________________________________________________________
(3) Ceramic Matrices

Ceramic fibres, such as alumina and SiC (Silicon Carbide) are advantageous
in very high temperature applications, and also where environment attack is an issue. Since
ceramics have poor properties in tension and shear, most applications as reinforcement are
in the particulate form (e.g. zinc and calcium phosphate). Ceramic Matrix Composites
(CMCs) used in very high temperature environments, these materials use a ceramic as the
matrix and reinforce it with short fibres, or whiskers such as those made from silicon
carbide and boron nitride.

(b) REINFORCEMENT

The role of the reinforcement in a composite material is fundamentally one

of increasing the mechanical properties of the neat resin system. All of the different fibres
used in composites have different properties and so affect the properties of the composite

12
in different ways. For most of the applications, the fibres need to be arranged into some
form of sheet, known as a fabric, to make handling possible. Different ways for assembling
fibres into sheets and the variety of fibre orientations possible to achieve different
characteristics.

(c) INTERFACE

It has characteristics that are not depicted by any of the component in

isolation. The interface is a bounding surface or zone where a discontinuity occurs,
whether physical, mechanical, chemical etc. The matrix material must “wet” the fibre.
Coupling agents are frequently used to improve wettability. Well “wetted” fibres increase
the interface surfaces area. To obtain desirable properties in a composite, the applied load
should be effectively transferred from the matrix to the fibres via the interface. This means
that the interface must be large and exhibit strong adhesion between fibres and matrix.
Failure at the interface (called debonding) may or may not be desirable.

1.4 METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE

Metal matrix composites in general, consist of at least two components, one

is the metal matrix and the second component is reinforcement. The matrix is defined as a
metal in all cases, but a pure metal is rarely used as the matrix. It is generally an alloy. In
the productivity of the composite the matrix and the reinforcement are mixed together.

In recent years, the development of metal matrix composite (MMCs) has

been receiving worldwide attention on account of their superior strength and stiffness in
addition to high wear resistance and creep resistance comparison to their corresponding
wrought alloys. The ductile matrix permits the blunting of cracks and stress concentrations
by plastic deformation and provides a material with improved fracture toughness.

Cast composites, where the volume and shape of phases is governed by

phase diagrams, i.e. Cast iron and Aluminium-silicon alloys have been produced by
foundries for a long time. The modern composites differ in the sense that any selected

13
volume, shape and size of reinforcement can be introduced into the matrix. The modern
composites are non-equilibrium mixtures of metals and ceramics where there are no
thermodynamic restrictions on the relative volume percentages, shapes and size of ceramic
phases [15].

The high toughness and impact strength of metals and alloys such as
aluminum, titanium, magnesium and nickel-chromium alloys which undergo plastic
deformation under impact is of interest in many dynamic structural applications of metallic
composites. These materials have also been strengthened considerably by means of various
strengthened principles (like grain boundary strengthening, cold working, solid solution
strengthening, etc.) to improve their properties. But these approaches are often found to
affect the toughness and durability at elevated temperatures and/or under dynamic service
conditions. One of the important objectives of metal matrix composites, therefore, is to
develop a material with a judicious combination of toughness and stiffness so as to
decrease the sensitivity to cracks and flaws and at the same time increase the static and
dynamic properties.

This necessity eventually leads to the efficient reinforcement of metals and

metal alloys by uni or multidirectional implantation of whiskers or continuous fibers. The
reinforcement effect occurs due to the extraordinary high strength of whiskers and fibers
with diameters below a few micrometers. Thus, the field of Metal Matrix Composite
(MMCs) began in the mid of 1960’s with the realization that whisker reinforced MMCs
can be competitive with continuous fiber reinforced composites [16], from the standpoint
of mechanical properties [17].

The complex fabrication routes, limited fabricability [17, 18] and the small
difference in property enhancement between whisker and particulate reinforcement [19]
and moreover, the health hazards associated with handling SiC whiskers [20, 21] have
shifted the emphasis recently more towards particulate or chopped fibers rather than
whisker reinforcement of metals, especially aluminium, because of its light weight and
good wettability with silicon carbide [22]. The important shift in metal matrix composite

14
technology began in the mid 80’s with more and more discontinuous reinforcement taking
the place of continuous reinforcement such as carbides, nitrides, oxides and elemental
materials like carbon and silicon.

While discontinuous whisker reinforced MMCs are still under development

for aerospace applications, automotive components fabricated from particulate and
discontinuous fiber reinforced MMCs, which exhibit essentially isotropic properties, are
already in mass production, led by the introduction of diesel piston by Toyota in 1983
followed more recently by engine and cylinder blocks from Honda [23,24].

The present trend, therefore, seems to be towards the development of

discontinuously reinforced metal matrix composites which are gaining widespread
acceptance primarily because they have recently become available at a relatively low cost
compared to uni-and multi-directional continuous fiber reinforced MMCs and the
availability of standard or near standard metal working methods which can be utilized to
form these MMCs [25]. Discontinuously reinforced aluminium (DRA) composites
composed of high strength aluminum and its alloys reinforced with silicon carbide
particulates or whiskers are subclass of MMCs. The combination of properties and
fabricability of aluminium metal matrix composites makes them attractive candidates for
many structural components requiring high-stiffness, high strength and low weight [26].

Now a day’s, research all over the globe is focusing mainly on Aluminium
[27] because of its unique combination of good corrosion resistance, low density and
excellent mechanical properties. The unique thermal properties of Aluminium composites
such as metallic conductivity with coefficient of expansion that can be tailored down to
zero, add to their prospects in aerospace and avionics.

Thus, entire families of light weight composites, though considered

impossible just a few years ago, are either available now or hovering on the brink of
commercialization. For example, a series of Aluminium matrix composites reinforced with
silicon carbide particulates have been developed by Duralcan USA, Div. Alcan Aluminium

15
corp., San Diego, California [28]. A high temperature creep resistant titanium alloys has
been developed as matrix material for the National Aerospace plant by Timet for
McDonnell Douglas. Titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V, reinforced with continuous silicon carbide
filaments, is hot isostatically, pressed by Textron for turbine engine shafts [29].
CERAMTEC AG (Germany) is currently utilizing matrix material for MMC products are
Aluminium and specially the Al Si9Cu3 standard alloy. Apart from being fairly inexpensive
in comparison with other light metals (e.g., magnesium and titanium), it has delivered
outstanding results in many automotive and aerospace applications and is noted for its
uncomplicated processing properties. In practice, the matrix may be constructed of almost
any other light alloy or non-ferrous metal, particularly magnesium. They are also
developing new ceramic cutting tools, and also superior material for cylinder linings.

Titanium [30] has been used in aero engines mainly for compressor blades
and discs due to its higher elevated temperature resistance property. Magnesium is the
potential material to fabricate composite for making reciprocating components in motors
and for pistons, gudgeon pins, and spring caps [31]. It is also used in aerospace due to its
low coefficient of thermal expansion and high stiffness properties combined with low
density. The choice of Silicon Carbide as the reinforcement in Aluminum composite is
primarily meant to use the composite in missile guidance system replacing certain
beryllium components because structural performance is better with out special handling in
fabrication demanded by latter’s toxicity [32, 33]. Recently Aluminum- lithium alloy has
been attracting the attention of researches due to it’s good wettability characteristics [34].

Successful development and deployment of metal matrix composites are

critical to reaching the goals of many advanced aerospace propulsion and power
development programs. The specific space propulsion and power applications require high-
temperature, high thermal conductivity and high strength materials. Metal matrix
composites either fulfill or have the potential of full filling these requirements [35]. Metal
matrix composites also offer considerable promise to help automotive engineers meet the
challenges of current and future demands [26].

16
 It is thus evident from literature that we can successfully reinforce the SiC,
Al2O3, TiB2, boron and graphite in the Aluminum matrix alloy. The reinforced Aluminum
matrix alloys have made significant strides from laboratory towards commercialization.
But the factors understanding that influence the physical and mechanical properties of
these materials is really a challenge [36] because they are sensitive to the type and nature
of reinforcement, the mode of manufacture and the details of fabrication processing of the
composite after initial manufacture.

Aluminum based alloys are widely used in applications where weight

savings are important. However the relatively poor wear resistance of Aluminum alloys
has limited their use in certain high friction environments. Literature available on the
subject reveals that most of the studies have been carried out to evaluate the wear behavior
of Aluminum based particulate or whisker reinforced composites [37-40].

It is generally agreed that the resistance to wear of MMCs is created by

reinforcement and higher the volume fraction of particles the better the resistance will be
[41-43] however there is an optimum value of the reinforcement which gives maximum
wear resistance to the material.

The principle tribological parameters that control the friction and wear
performances of reinforced aluminum composite can be classified into two categories. One
is mechanical & physical factors and the other are material factors [44]. The mechanical &
physical factors has been identified as sliding velocity and normal load, where as, with
regards to the material factors they are volume fraction and type of reinforcements. The
volume fraction reinforcement has the strongest effect on the wear resistance and this has
been studied by many researchers [45-54]. Lot of research has been carried out to prepare
MMCs by different type of reinforcements [53-56]. The out come of all these findings is
that wear properties are improved remarkably by introducing hard intermetallic compound
in to the aluminium matrix.

17
1.5 NEED FOR THE REINFORCEMENT OF RED MUD INTO
ALUMINIUM MATRIX

To obtain Optimum performance from composite materials there is an

advantage to selecting the shape and size of the reinforcement material to fit the
application. It is apparent that different material types and shapes will have advantages in
different matrices. For instance, silicon carbide whiskers have been particularly effective in
toughening Al2O3 and Si3N4 . Both silicon carbide whiskers and silicon carbide grit have
been effective in increasing the modulus of aluminium alloys [57]. It is, however, apparent
from the literature that particulates offer greater flexibility in tailor making the properties
of interest. Thus researchers have worked out separately to reinforce SiC, Al2O3 (i.e.
carbides, Nitrides and oxides) TiB2, Boron and Graphite in to the Aluminium matrix to
achieve different properties and are expensive.

The ever-increasing demand for low cost reinforcement stimulated the

interest towards production and utilization of red mud (an industrial waste from Bayer’s
process) that contains major elements like Al2O3, Fe2O3, TiO2, and Na2O for preparation of
a metal matrix composite for wear resistant application.

1.6 RED MUD

Red mud is the caustic insoluble waste residue generated by alumina

production from bauxite by the Bayer’s process at an estimated annual rate of 66 and 1.7
million tons, respectively, in the World and India. It is estimated that two tons of alumina
used to produce one ton of Aluminium and 58% of alumina and 42% of red mud come out
from one ton of bauxite approximately. Under normal conditions, when one ton of alumina
is produced nearly a ton of red mud is generated as a waste. In terms of metal production
the ratio of aluminium to red mud is 1:2. This waste material has been accumulating at an
increasing rate through out the world.

The disposal/utilization of red mud have been an acute problem and a clear-
cut solution is not available till date. Different avenues of red mud utilization are more or

18
less known but none of them have so far proved to be economically viable or commercially
feasible [58]. However, a survey of literature on utilization of red mud published so far
[59-72], it is revealed that use of red mud is restricted only for recovery of some metal
values like Titanium, Vanadium and Zinc; making of ceramics etc. It has also been used
for making cement, bricks, pigments and glazed sewer pipes etc. Research and
development work on red mud utilization that are under process in India are shown in table
1.5. Going through the available information on the utilization of red mud, it is seen that
use of red mud as reinforcement material for preparation of MMC has not been explored
till date.
Table - 1.5
Research and development work on red mud utilization in India [58].
Organization Investigation
1. Madras Aluminium Company Red mud as a component in cement
2. Central building research Production bricks with red mud and clay
institute with equal proportions
3. CECRI, Karaikudi Materials for primers
4. RRL, Bhubaneswar Recovery of vanadium, chromium &alumna
5. NEITCO Manufacture of red mud corrugated sheets.
6. RRL, Bhopal Utilization of red mud pvc and lab scale product
designed as red mud plastic (RMP).
7. Central glass and ceramic research Conversion of red mud to ceramics.
institute
8. NML, Jamshedpur &RRL, BBSR Recovery of V2 O5 and Al 2O 3.
9. Metallurgical Dept. B.H.U. Development of bricks, recovery of titanium and
Ferro titanium.
10. Rajasthan Financial Corporation. Manufacture of pipes and corrugated sheets.
11. NALCO, Ltd Filler to pvc sheets, pipes and pigment as per ISI
norm, patents file.
12. Lotus roofing pvt Ltd. Corrugated sheets.
13.Dept.of Metallurgy and Material Conversion of red mud into Ferro alloy and wear
Engg, IIT, Kharagpur. resistance cast iron.

19
 The main objective of this work therefore is to prepare a MMC using Red
mud as reinforcement and aluminium as matrix material. Out of the available
manufacturing procedures we have adopted the usual stir casting technique to prepare the
MMC. Different volume fraction of red mud has been mixed with the matrix material and
specimens were prepared for wear studies. The wear studies have been carried out using a
pin-on-disc wear-testing machine under simulated laboratory conditions. All the
experiments have been conducted in dry conditions only, with different variables. The
surfaces of the worn out samples have been studied using optical microscope to know the
metallurgical effect on the wear rate of different volume fraction of reinforcement.

In the second chapter detailed discussion on selection of aluminium as the

matrix material, reinforcement material, overview of the fabrication methods and work
related to present investigations available in literatures are presented.

In the third chapter wear characteristics of the composite, with different

volume fraction of reinforcement (red mud) has been presented.

Fourth chapter discusses the effect of heat treatment on wear behaviour of

composite.
Fifth chapter discusses the Neural Network Approach to predict the wear
characteristics. The wear predicted by ANN approach has been presented and compared
with the experimental results.

In Sixth chapter conclusions have been drawn from the above studies
mentioning scope for future work.

*****

20
 CHAPTER - 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The literature survey is carried out as a part of the thesis work to have an
overview of the production processes, properties and wear behaviour of metal matrix
composites. Composite structures have shown universally a savings of at least 20% over
metal counterparts and a lower operational and maintenance cost [1]. As the data on the
service life of composite structures is becoming available, it can be safely said that they are
durable, maintain dimensional integrity, resist fatigue loading and are easily maintainable
and repairable. Composites will continue to find new applications, but the large scale
growth in the marketplace for these materials will require less costly processing methods
and the prospect of recycling [73] will have to be solved [74].

It has been reported that the energy consumed when aluminium is recycled
is only about 5% of that required in the primary production of aluminium [75]. There are,
however, certain disadvantages associated with the recycling of aluminium such as the
presence of impurities, which to a large extent impair the mechanical properties of the
recycled material. This problem can be overcome by a careful selection of the constituents
and also the fabrication technique, as they can lead to the formation and piling up of
intermediate phases that are detrimental [74-76].

There are many interdependent variables to consider in designing an

effective MMC material. Since the upper bound on MMC properties is established by the
properties of the matrix and reinforcement material, careful selection of these components
is necessary.

21
2.2 MATERIAL SELECTION

2.2.1 Matrix Material

Because it is much more than dispersing glue in MMC, the matrix alloy
should be chosen only after giving careful consideration to its chemical compatibility with
the reinforcement, to its ability to wet the reinforcement, and to its own characteristics
properties and processing behaviour [73, 76].

One very crucial issue to consider in selection of the matrix alloy

composition involves the natural dichotomy between wettability of the reinforcement and
excessive reactivity with it [77]. Good load transfer from the matrix to the reinforcement
depends on the existence of a strongly adherent interface [78, 79]. In turn, a strong
interface requires adequate wetting of the reinforcement by the matrix. However, the
attainments of wetting and aggressive reactivity are both favored by strong chemical
bonding between the matrix and reinforcement. Adjusting the chemical composition to
accomplish this delicate compromise is difficult as many subtleties are involved. To
illustrate the complexity, several examples concerning alloying additions to aluminium
matrix metal relative to Silicon carbide whiskers, Boron reinforced and Graphite reinforced
aluminium composites and the effect of insidious impurities from various origins have
been documented by numerous investigators [77-91].

As a rule of alloying element addition, the added element should not form
intermetallic compounds with the matrix elements and should not form highly stable
compounds with the reinforcements. The best properties can be obtained in a composite
system when the reinforcement whiskers or particulates and matrix are as physically and
chemically compatible as possible. Special matrix alloy compositions, in conjunction with
unique whisker coatings, have been devised to optimize the performance of certain
metallic composites [92-96].
2.2.2 Why Al Matrix Selection?
MMC materials have a combination of different, superior properties to an
unreinforced matrix which are; increased strength, higher elastic modulus, higher service

22
temperature, improved wear resistance, high electrical and thermal conductivity, low
coefficient of thermal expansion and high vacuum environmental resistance. These
properties can be attained with the proper choice of matrix and reinforcement

Composite materials consist of matrix and reinforcement. Its main function

is to transfer and distribute the load to the reinforcement or fibres. This transfer of load
depends on the bonding which depends on the type of matrix and reinforcement and the
fabrication technique.

The matrix can be selected on the basis of oxidation and corrosion

resistance or other properties [34]. Generally Al, Ti, Mg, Ni, Cu, Pb, Fe, Ag, Zn, Sn and Si
are used as the matrix material, but Al, Ti, Mg are used widely.

Now a day’s researchers all over the world are focusing mainly on
aluminium [27] because of its unique combination of good corrosion resistance, low
density and excellent mechanical properties. The unique thermal properties of aluminium
composites such as metallic conductivity with coefficient of expansion that can be tailored
down to zero, add to their prospects in aerospace and avionics. Titanium [30] has been
used in aero engines mainly for compressor blades and discs due to its higher elevated
temperature resistance properly. Magnesium is the potential material to fabricate
composite for making reciprocating components in motors and for pistons, gudgeon pins
and spring caps [31]. It is also used in aerospace due to its low coefficient of thermal
expansion and high stiffness properties combined with low density. The choice of Silicon
Carbide as the reinforcement in aluminium composite is primarily meant to use the
composite in missile guidance system replacing certain beryllium components because
structural performance is better without special handling in fabrication demanded by
latter’s toxicity [32,33]. Recently aluminium-lithium alloy has been attracting the attention
of researches due to its good wettability characteristics [95].

In addition, literature also reveals that most of the published work has
considered aluminium-based composites with their attractions of low density, wide alloy

23
range, heat treatment capability and processing flexibility. Many of these features are also
exhibited by magnesium-based systems and with its lower elastic modulus. Magnesium
often achieves a larger property improvement with reinforcement than does aluminium
also many of the composite fabrication processes are common to both Al and Mg based
systems [35, 97].

Magnesium and magnesium alloys are among the lightest candidate

materials for practical use as the matrix phase in metal matrix composites. When compared
to other currently available structural materials. Magnesium is very attractive because of its
unique combination of low density and excellent machinability. However, it has been
reported by several authors [98-100] that though their low density (35% lower than that of
Al) makes them competitive in terms of strength/density values. Magnesium alloys do not
compare favorably with aluminium alloys in terms of absolute strength.

The reason for aluminium being a success over magnesium is said to be

mainly due to the design flexibility, good wettability and strong bonding at the interface.

2.2.3 Reinforcement

Reinforcement increases the strength, stiffness and the temperature

resistance capacity and lowers the density of MMC. In order to achieve these properties the
selection depends on the type of reinforcement, its method of production and chemical
compatibility with the matrix and the following aspects must be considered while selecting
the reinforcement material.

• Size – diameter and aspect ratio:

• Shape – Chopped fiber, whisker, spherical or irregular particulate, flake, etc:
• Surface morphology – smooth or corrugated and rough:
• Poly – or single crystal:
• Structural defects – voids, occluded material, second phases:
• Surface chemistry – e.g. SiO2 or C on SiC or other residual films:

24
 • Impurities – Si, Na and Ca in sapphire reinforcement;
• Inherent properties – strength, modulus and density.

Even when a specific type has been selected, reinforcement inconsistency

will persist because many of the aspect cited above in addition to contamination from
processing equipment and feedstock may vary greatly [101-103]. Since most ceramics are
available as particles, there is a wide range of potential reinforcements for particle-
reinforced composites [104-108].

The use of graphite reinforcement in a metal matrix has a potential to create

a material with a high thermal conductivity, excellent mechanical properties and attractive
damping behaviour at elevated temperatures [109]. However, lack of wettability between
aluminium and the reinforcement, and oxidation of the graphite [93,110] lead to
manufacturing difficulties and cavitations of the material at high temperatures.

Alumina [111] and other oxide particles like TiO2 [112] etc. have been used
as the reinforcing particles in Al-matrix. Alumina has received attention as reinforcing
phase as it is found to increase the hardness, tensile strength and wear resistance [111,113]
of aluminium metal matrix composites. Rohatgi and co-workers [114-117] have studied
mica, alumina, silicon carbide, clay, zircon, and graphite as reinforcements in the
production of composites. Numerous oxides, nitrides, borides and carbides were studied by
Zedalis et. al. [118] as reinforcements for reinforcing high temperature discontinuously
reinforced aluminiumn (HTDRA). It has been inferred from their studies that HTDRA
containing TiC TiB2, B4C, Al2O3, SiC and Si3N4 exhibit the highest values of specific
stiffness.

It is proven that the ceramic particles are effective reinforcement materials

in aluminium alloy to enhance the mechanical and other properties [119-121]. The
reinforcement in MMCs are usually of ceramic materials, these reinforcements can be
divided into two major groups, continuous and discontinuous. The MMCs produced by
them are called continuously (fibre) reinforced composites and discontinuously reinforced

25
composites. However, they can be subdivided broadly into five major categories:
continuous fibres, short fibres (chopped fibres, not necessarily the same length), whiskers,
particulate and wire (only for metal). With the exception of wires, reinforcements are
generally ceramics, typically these ceramics being oxides, carbides and nitrides. These are
used because of their combinations of high strength and stiffness at both room and elevated
temperatures. Common reinforcement elements are SiC, A1203, TiB2, boron and graphite.

2.2.3.1 Continuous fibre reinforcement

According to ASTM [122] the term fibre may be used for any material in an
elongated form that has a minimum length to a maximum average transverse dimension of
10:1, a maximum cross sectional area of 5.1X10-4 cm2 and a maximum transverse
dimension of 0.0254 cm. Continuous fibers in composites are usually called filaments, the
main continuous fibres includes boron, graphite, alumina and silicon carbide.

The fibre is unique for unidirectional load when it is oriented in the same
direction as that of loading, but it has low strength in the direction perpendicular to the
fibre orientation. As regards cost, continuous fibres are about 200 times higher than
discontinuous fibres. Therefore for specific purposes only, that continuous fibre is used.
The other advantage of discontinuous fibres is that they can be shaped by any standard
metallurgical processes such as forging, rolling, extrusion etc.

2.2.3.2 Short fibres

Short fibres are long compared to the critical length (lc = d Sf / Sm where d is
the fibre diameter, Sf is the reinforcement strength and Sm is the matrix strength) and hence
show high strength in composites, considering aligned fibres. Nevertheless, misoriented
short fibres have been used with some success as AMC (Aluminium Matrix Composite)
reinforcement [123-129]. Short fibres are still used mainly for refractory insulation
purposes due to their low strength compared with others, but they are cheaper than fibre
and whisker.

26
2.2.3.3 Whiskers

Whiskers are characterized by their fibrous, single crystal structures, which

have no crystalline defect. Numerous materials, including metals, oxides, carbides, halides
and organic compounds have been prepared under controlled conditions in the form of
whiskers. Generally, a whisker has a single dislocation, which runs along the central axis.
The relative freedom from discontinuous means that the yield strength of a whisker is close
to the theoretical strength of the material [28].

Silicon carbide, silicon nitride, carbon and potassium titanate whiskers are
available already. Among these, silicon carbide whiskers seem to offer the best
opportunities for MMC reinforcement. Presently, silicon carbide whisker reinforcement is
produced from rice husk, which is a low cost material. The physical characteristics of
whiskers are responsible for different chemical reactivity with the matrix alloy [130] and
also health hazard posed in their handling. Therefore the inherent interest shown by the
researches in whiskers reinforcement has declined.

2.2.3.4 Particulates

Particulates are the most common and cheapest reinforcement materials.

These produce the isotropic property of MMCs, which shows a promising application in
structural fields. Initially, attempts were made to produce reinforced Aluminium alloys
with graphite powder [131-138], but only low volume fractions of reinforcement had been
incorporated (<10%). Presently higher volume fractions of reinforcements have been
achieved for various kinds of ceramic particles (oxide, carbide, nitride). The SiC-
particulate-reinforced aluminium matrix composites have a good potential for use as wear
resistant materials. Actually, particulates lead to a favorable effect on properties such as
hardness, wear resistance and compressive strength.

The choice of reinforcement is not as arbitrary as this list of composites

might suggest, but is dictated by several factors [36].

27
 • The application: If the composite is to be used in a structural application, the
modulus, strength, and density of the composite will be important, which requires a
high modulus, low density reinforcement. Particle shape may be important, since
angular particles can act as local stress raisers, reducing ductility. If the composite
is to be used in thermal management applications, the coefficient of thermal
expansion and thermal conductivity are important. If the composite is to be used in
wear resistant applications, hardness is important.
• The method of composite manufacture: There are two generic methods for
composite manufacture, powder metallurgy (P/M) and methods involving molten
metal. For composites processed in the molten state, there are different
considerations such as, compatibility. Alumina is stable in most Mg free Al alloys,
but unstable in Mg alloys, reacting to form Al2MgO4. Reaction of the
reinforcement can severely degrade the properties of the composites, so the
reinforcement has to be chosen after considering the matrix alloy, and the
processing time and temperature.

• Cost: A major concern for using particulates is to reduce the cost of the
composites. Therefore, the reinforcement of reproducible grade has to be readily
available in quantities, size and shape required at low cost.

2.3 FABRICATION METHODS OF MMCs

In recent years the potential of metal-matrix composite (MMC) materials

for significant improvement in performance over conventional alloys has been recognized
widely. However, their manufacturing costs are still relatively high. There are several
fabrication techniques available to manufacture the MMC materials: there is no unique
route in this respect. Due to the choice of material and reinforcement and of the types of
reinforcement, the fabrication techniques can vary considerably. The processing methods
used to manufacture particulate reinforced MMCs can be grouped as follows.

• Solid-phase fabrication methods: diffusion bonding, hot rolling, extrusion,

drawing, explosive welding, PM route, pneumatic impaction, etc. [139-140].

28
 • Liquid-phase fabrication methods: liquid-metal infiltration, squeeze casting,
compocasting, pressure casting, spray codeposition, stir casting etc.[139-140].

• Two phase (solid/liquid) processes: Which include Rheocasting [141] and Spray
atomization [142].

Normally the liquid-phase fabrication method is more efficient [143] than

the solid-phase fabrication method because solid-phase processing requires a longer time.

The matrix metal is used in various forms in different fabrication methods.

Generally powder is used in pneumatic impaction and the powder metallurgy technique,
and a liquid matrix is used in liquid-metal infiltration, plasma spray, spray casting, squeeze
casting, pressure casting, gravity casting, stir casting, investment casting, etc. A molecular
form of the matrix is used in electroforming; vapour deposition and metal foils are used in
diffusion bonding, rolling, extrusion, etc.

There are certain main manufacturing processes which are used presently in
laboratories as well as in industries are diffusion bonding, the powder metallurgy route,
liquid-metal infiltration, squeeze casting, spray co-deposition, stir casting and compo
casting. Brief Description of these processes is given below.

2.3.1 Solid phase fabrication methods

There are several ways to fabricate MMC using solid-phase materials but
among them diffusion bonding and the powder metallurgy route are used widely.

2.3.1.1 Diffusion bonding

This method is normally used to manufacture fibre reinforced MMC with

sheets or foils of matrix material. Figure 2.1 [139] shows the different steps in fabricating
MMC by diffusion bonding.

29
 Here primarily the metal or metal alloys in the form of sheets and the
reinforcement material in the form of fibre are chemically surface treated for the
effectiveness of interdiffusion. Then fibres are placed on the metal foil in pre-determined
orientation and bonding takes place by press forming directly, as shown by the dotted line.
However sometimes the fibres are coated by plasma spraying or ion plating for enhancing
the bonding strength before diffusion bonding, the solid line shows this. After bonding,
secondary machining work is carried out. The applied pressure and temperature as well as
their durations for diffusion bonding to develop, vary with the composite systems.
However, this is the most expensive method of fabricating MMC materials.

2.3.1.2 Powder metallurgy (PM) technique

The PM technique shown in Fig. 2.2 is the most commonly used method for
the preparation of discontinuous reinforced MMCs [140]. This technique is used to
manufacture MMCs using either particulates or whiskers as the reinforcement materials. In
general process the powders of matrix materials and reinforcement are first blended and
fed into a mould of the desired shape. Pressure is then applied to further compact the
powder (cold pressing). In order to facilitate the bonding between the powder particles, the
compact is then heated to a temperature that is below the melting point but sufficiently
high to develop significant solid-state diffusion (sintering). The consolidated product is
then used as a MMC material after some secondary operation.

This method is popular because it is reliable compared with other alternative

methods, but it has also some demerits. The blending step is a time consuming, expensive
and potentially dangerous operation. In addition, it is difficult to achieve an even
distribution of particulate throughout the product and the use of powders requires a high
level of cleanliness, otherwise inclusions will be incorporated into the product with a
deleterious effect on fracture toughness, fatigue life, etc.

30
2.3.2 Liquid phase fabrication techniques

Most of the MMCs are produced by this technique. In this technique, the
ceramic particles are incorporated into liquid metal using various processes. The liquid
composite slurry is subsequently cast into various shapes by conventional casting
techniques or cast into ingots for secondary processing. The process has major advantage
that the production costs of MMCs are very low. The major difficulty in such processes is
the non-wettability of the particles by liquid aluminium and the consequent rejection of the
particles from the melt, non-uniform distribution of particles due to their preferential
segregation and extensive interfacial reaction.

2.3.2.1 Liquid metal infiltration

This process can also be called fibre-tow infiltration. Fibers tows can be
infiltrated by passing through a bath of molten metal. Usually the fibres must be coated in
line to promote wetting. Once the infiltrated wires are produced, they must be assembled
into a preform and given a secondary consolidation process to produce a component.
Secondary consolidation is generally accomplished through diffusion bonding or hot
moulding in the two-phase liquid and solid region.

The fabrication process of MMC by vacuum metal infiltration used by

Chapman et al. [144] is shown in Fig. 2.3. These authors used Aluminium oxide fibre FP
(polycrystalline fibre) of Du Pont Company. In this technique, as the first step, FP yarn is
made into a handleable FP tape with a fugitive organic binder in a manner similar to
producing a resin matrix composite prepeg. Fibre FP tapes are then laid-up in the desired
orientation, fibre volume loading, and shape, and are then inserted into a casting mold of
steel or other suitable material. The fugitive organic binder is burned away, and the mold is
infiltrated with molten metal and allowed to solidify. Metals such as Aluminium,
magnesium, silver and copper have been used as the matrix materials in this liquid
infiltration process because of their relatively lower melting points. This method is
desirable in producing relatively small-size composite specimens having unidirectional
properties.

31
2.3.2.2 Squeeze casting

Squeeze casting is a one-step metal forming process in which a metered

quantity of liquid metal in a reusable die is subjected to a rapid solidification under high
pressures (50 to 100 MPa) to produce close-tolerance, high-integrity finished shapes. The
fabrication process of MMC by squeeze casting is shown in Fig. 2.4. The preform of the
ceramic fibre is pre-heated to several hundred degrees centigrade below the melting
temperature of the matrix and then set into a metal die. The Al or Mg alloy is heated to just
above its melting temperature and is then squeezed into the fibre preform by a hydraulic
press to form a mixture of fibre and molten metal.

This process can be used for large scale manufacturing but it requires
careful control of the process variables, including the fiber and liquid metal preheat
temperature, the metal alloying elements, external cooling, the melt quality, the tooling
temperature, the time lag between die closure and pressurization, the pressure levels and
duration and the plunger speed. Imperfect control of these process variables results in
various defects, including freeze chocking, preform deformation, fiber degradation, oxide
inclusions and other common casting defects. However, in practical use, squeeze casting is
the most effective method of constructing a machine parts with a complex shape in a short
time.

2.3.2.3 Spray co-deposition method

Spray-deposition method is an economical method of producing a

particulate composite. A schematic of the Alcan spray deposition process is shown in Fig.
2.5. The alloy to be sprayed is melted in a crucible by induction heating. The crucible is
pressurized and the metal is ejected through a nozzle into an atomizer where, at the same
time, particles (reinforcement) are injected into the atomized metal and deposited on a pre-
heated substrate placed in the line of flight. A solid deposit is built up on the collector. The
deposited strip, when cold, is moved from the substrate for subsequent rolling. The shape
of the final product depends on the atomizing condition and the shape and the motion of
the collector.

32
2.3.2.4 Stir casting

Stir-casting techniques shown in Fig. 2.6 are currently the simplest and
most commercial method of production of MMCs. This approach involves mechanical
mixing of the reinforcement particulate into a molten metal bath and transferred the
mixture directly to a shaped mould prior to complete solidification. In this process, the
crucial thing is to create good wetting between the particulate reinforcement and the
molten metal.

. Microstructural inhomogeneties can cause notably particle agglomeration and

sedimentation in the melt and subsequently during solidification. Inhomogeneity in
reinforcement distribution in these cast composites could also be a problem as a result of
interaction between suspended ceramic particles and moving solid-liquid interface during
solidification. This process has major advantage that the production costs of MMCs are
very low.

2.3.2.5 Compocasting

Other than PM, thermal spraying, diffusion bonding and high-pressure

squeeze casting, this is the most economical method of fabricating a composite with
discontinuous fibres (chopped fibre, whisker and particulate). This process is the improved
process of slush- or stir-casting.

A schematic of the compo casting equipment used to fabricate the

composites is shown in Fig. 2.7. The apparatus consists of an induction power supply (50
kW, 3000 Hz), a water-cooled vacuum chamber with its associated mechanical and
diffusion pumps and a crucible and mixing assembly for agitation of the composites.

First, a metal alloy is placed in the system with the blade assembly in place.
Then the chamber is evacuated and the alloy is superheated above its melting temperature
and stirring is initiated by the DC motor to homogenize the temperature. The induction
power is lowered gradually until the alloy is 40 to 50% solid, at which point the non-
metallic particles are added to the slurry, However, the temperature is raised during adding

33
in such a way that the total amount of solid, which consists of fibres and solid globules of
the slurry, does not exceed 50%. Stirring is continued until interface interactions between
the particulates and the matrix promote wetting.

The melt is then superheated to above its liquid temperature and bottom
poured into the graphite mould by raising the blade assembly. The melt containing the non-
metallic particles is then transferred into the lower die-half of the press and the top die is
brought down to shape and solidify the Composite by applying the pressure. This is using
to make the composite of the highest values of volume fractions of reinforcement.

Literature in general, suggests that MMCs will be less forgiving in terms of

processing practice than unreinforced alloys, but if the appropriate practice is employed,
useful combinations of mechanical and physical properties can be obtained.

2.4 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

The attractive physical and mechanical properties that can be obtained with
metal matrix composites, such as high specific modulus, strength and thermal stability,
have been documented extensively [145-147]. The various factors controlling the
properties of particulate MMCs [41] and the influence of the manufacturing route on the
MMC properties has also been reviewed by several investigators [148-150]. Improvement
in modulus, strength, fatigue, creep and wear resistance has already been demonstrated for
a variety of reinforcements [38, 151]. Of these properties; the tensile strength is the most
convenient and widely quoted measurement and is of central importance in many
applications.

It is apparent from the literature that parameters controlling the mechanical

properties of particulate reinforced composites are still not understood in any detail.
However, some of the important factors are becoming apparent.

34
 • The strength of particle-reinforced composites is observed to be most strongly
dependent on the volume fraction and particle size of the reinforcement.

• Dislocation strengthening will play a more significant role in the MMC than in the
unreinforced alloy due to the increased dislocation density.

• Of greatest concern appears to be the introduction of defects and inhomogeneities

in the various processing stages, which has been found to result in considerable
scatter in the mechanical properties [152].

2.5 EFFECT OF REINFORCEMENT VOLUME FRACTION

It was predicted by Friend [153] that there exists a critical reinforcement

volume fraction above which the composite strength can be improved relative to that of the
unreinforced material and below which the composite strength decreases, owing to the
ineffective load transfer from matrix to reinforcement in MMCs. For low volume fraction
of reinforcement, the composite strength was observed to be governed by the residual
matrix strength, which decreases with increasing reinforcing volume fraction.

2.5.1 Effect of particle size

The deformation and fracture behaviour of the composite revealed the

importance of particle size [153]. A reduction in particle size is observed [154] to increase
the proportional limit, yield stress and the ultimate tensile stress. It is well established that
large particles are detrimental to fracture toughness due to their tendency towards fracture.
It would be highly desirable to have a composite system where the reinforcing particles are
relatively fine (4μm or less) so as to get the stiffness benefits of a composite without
significantly lowering fracture toughness.

2.5.2 Effect of reinforcement distribution

Apart from the reinforcement level, the reinforcement distribution also

influences the ductility and fracture toughness of the MMC and hence indirectly the

35
strength [155]. A uniform reinforcement distribution is essential for effective utilization of
the load carrying capacity of the reinforcement. Non-uniform distributions of
reinforcement in the early stages of processing was observed to persist to the final product
in the forms of streaks or clusters of uninfiltrated reinforcement with their attendant
porosity, all of which lowered ductility, strength and toughness of the material [77].

2.6 FRACTURE

The fracture behaviour of MMCs has been identified not only for extending
their applications but also for improving mechanical properties, especially strength and
ductility.

A better understanding of the underlying mechanisms affecting composite

properties are essential if the properties of the composite material are to be improved. The
fundamentals of fracture initiation and propagation mechanism in particle-reinforced
composites have been discussed in detail by Bhanuprasad et al. [156]. Tensile fracture of
conventional alloys is considered in terms of the micro void coalescence model (MVC).
Void nucleation in unreinforced alloys occurs at constituent particles, either through
particle failure, through interface decohesion. Decohesion is most common, but particle
cracking occurs with elongated particles. In composites, there are three possible
mechanisms for void nucleation particle cracking, interface decohesion, and matrix void
nucleation is the same mechanism as occurs in the unreinforced alloys

2.7 MICROSTRUCTURE

The most important aspects of the microstructure is the distribution of the

reinforcing particles, and this depends on the processing and fabrication routes involved.
The oxides of reinforcing particles used in the composites have a varying density. Density
of the particles is one of the important factors determining the distribution of the particles
in molten metal. Particles having higher density than molten metal can settle at the bottom
of the bath slowly and particles of lower density can segregate at the top. During
subsequent pouring of the composite melt, the particle content may vary from one casting

36
to another or even it can vary in the same casting from one region to another. Therefore
uniform distribution of the particles in the melt is a necessary condition for uniform
distribution of particles in the castings. The properties of composites are finally dependent
on the distribution of the particles. Hence the study of the distribution of the particles in the
composite is of great significance. Several investigators [156-160] have examined the
fracture samples of different metal matrix composites; it was observed that the fracture
occurred mainly through the matrix in a ductile manner.

2.8 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A detailed study was undertaken to pool-up the existing literature on

Aluminium based MMCs and efforts were put to understand the basic needs of the
growing Composite industry. This includes various aspects such as Characterization,
fabrication, testing, analysis and correlation between microstructure and the properties
obtained.

The conclusions drawn from this study are

• Pure aluminium matrix is preferred to various alloy matrices due to the high
temperature stability of the aluminium as compared with aluminium alloys. Lower
working temperature’s in case of alloy matrices is attributed to lower stability of
the alloy matrix and coarsening of the grains. In addition, the load transfer in case
of pure aluminium matrix is more effective due to the clean interface.

• There exists a wide range of database in the literature for different types of
reinforcements in Aluminium Metal Matrix Composites.

• In particle reinforced composites, the fracture mode was observed to depend on

reinforcement purity, reinforcement particle size, nature of interface, volume
fraction of reinforcement, fabrication route adopted, extent of hot working,
presence of any intermetallic precipitates and extent of coherency of second phase
with the matrix.

37
 • There are varieties of techniques available for production of metal matrix
composite. Each having its own merits and demerits.. In particular, some are far
more expensive than others. The manufacturer generally prefers the lowest cost
route. Therefore, stir-casting technique represents a substantial proportion of the
MMCs in commercial sectors today.

Thus the priority of this work will be to prepare MMC using red mud (an
industrial waste from Bayer’s process) as reinforcement material and to study its wear
characteristics. The effect of different dependant factors primarily sliding velocity, normal
load, effect of heat treatment temperature and cooling media are also to be studied.

38
 Starting material

Monofilament Bundle
Foil

Surface treatment
Surface treatment
Winding

Plasma spraying Iron plating

Cutting of preformed material

Assembly of preformed material

Fabrication (diffusion bonding)

Heat treatment

Semi product: Check

Sheet,Strip, etc.

Machining

Joining parts

Composite components Final check

Fig.2.1 Flow chart for composite fabrication by diffusion bonding

39
 POWDER WHISKERS OR
Metal or Metal alloy PARTICULATE

BLENDING

COLD PRESSING HOT PRESSING

SINTERING

BILLET, SLAB
Consolidate

EXTRUSION ROLLING
FORGING

MMC

Fig.2.2 General flow chart for fabrication of composite by

powder metallurgy technique

40
FIBER FP PREPARATION MOLD PREPARATION AL-LI ALLOY
PREPARATION

PREPARE FIBER FP TAPE

* Flexible, fugitive binder

PRE-FORM OR CONSOLIDATE
*Volume loading
* Orientation AL-2.0 WT % LI
ALLOY
APPLY WASHCOAT *conventional foundry
LOAD FP PREFORM TO INTERNAL melting with flux cover
INTO MOLD SURFACES OF

BURNOFF COMPLETE MOLD

BINDER ASSEMBLY
*Conventional * Install system
heating to 5000 C * Vacuum seal mould

INFILTRATE
PREHEAT FP PREFORM
CASTING MOLD

SOLIDIFY

Fig. 2.3 Flow chart for FP/Al plate casting

41
 Fiber Preform
Die 1 p

Die 2

Platen
MMC

Tt
Ta
v
Casting with MMC

a) b) c) d)

Fig.2.4 Sequences of the Squeeze casting process with a vertical

machine (a) pouring (b) casting (c) squeezing and (d) ejecting

Furnace
SiC
Sic injection Atomiser

Solid deposit
Pressure relief

Collector

Mezanine Floor
spray chamber To air
Over spray
d

Reinforced wall
Cyclone

Collector Over spray

powder

Floor

Fig. 2.5 Schematic of spray deposition equipment

42
 M otor

S crew
D Drive
rive

S tirrer

F u rn a c e

C ru cib le

M olten m eta l

B ottom p ou rin g
system

Fig.2.6 MMC by casting route through Stir Casting method

43
 D. C. motor

sight port
rotation

shaft and blade assembly

bearing

Feeder trough Thermo couple

Power cables
motor and feeder control
inlet

water cooled
induction coils
outlet
water cooled stainless
steel chamber
insulation
water cooled
Graphite mould

stand

Fig. 2.7 Compocasting: mixing fibres (or Particulates) with metal

******

44
 CHAPTER - 3

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF WEAR CHARACTERISTICS

OF ALUMINIUM RED MUD COMPOSITE

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Wear of metals is probably the most important yet at least understood

aspects of tribology. It is certainly the youngest of the tri of topics, friction, lubrication and
wear, to attract scientific attention, although its practical significance has been recognizes
throughout the ages. The findings of Guillaume Amontons in 1699 [161] establishing
scientific studies of friction are almost of 300 years age, while Petrov [162], Tower [163]
and Reynolds [164] brought enlightenment to the subject of lubrication a century ago in
the hectic 1880s. Substantial Studies of wear can be associated only with the five decades
that have elapsed since R.Holm [165] explored the fundamental aspects of surface
interactions encountered in electrical contacts.

One third of our global energy consumption is consumed wastefully in

friction. In addition to this primary saving of energy, very significant additional economics
can be made by the reduction of the cost involved in the manufacture and replacement of
prematurely worn out components. The dissipation of energy by wear impairs strongly the
national economy and the life style of most of people. So, the effective decrease and
control of wear of metals are always desired [166].

Wear causes an enormous annual expenditure by industry and consumers.

Most of this is replacing or repairing equipment that has worn to the extent that it no longer
performs a useful function. For many machine components this occurs after a very small
percentage of the total volume has been worn away. For some industries, such as
agriculture, as many as 40% of the components replaced on equipment have failed by
abrasive wear. Other major sources of expenditure are losses production consequential

45
upon lower efficiency and plant shutdown, the need to invest more frequently in capital
equipment and increased energy consumption as equipment wears. Estimates of direct cost
of abrasive wear to industrial nations vary from 1 to 4 % of gross national product and
Rigney [167] has estimated that about 10% of all energy generated by man is dissipated in
various friction processes.

Wear is not an intrinsic material property but characteristics of the

engineering system which depend on load, speed, temperature, hardness, presence of
foreign material and the environmental condition [168]. Widely varied wearing conditions
causes wear of materials. It may be due to surface damage or removal of material from one
or both of two solid surfaces in a sliding, rolling or impact motion relative to one another.
In most cases wear occurs through surface interactions at asperities. During relative
motion, material on contacting surface may be removed from a surface, may result in the
transfer to the mating surface, or may break loose as a wear particle. The wear resistance of
materials is related to its microstructure may take place during the wear process and hence,
it seems that in wear research emphasis is placed on microstructure [169]. Wear of metals
depends on many variables, so wear research programs must be planned systematically.
Therefore researchers have normalized some of the data to make them more useful. The
wear map proposed by Lim and Ashby [168] is very much useful in this regard to
understand the wear mechanism in sliding wear, with or without lubrication.

3.2 RECENT TRENDS IN METAL WEAR RESEARCH

Much of the wear researches carried out in the 1940’s and 1950’s were
conducted by mechanical engineers and metallurgists to generate data for the construction
of motor drive, trains, brakes, bearings, bushings and other types of moving mechanical
assemblies [170].

It became apparent during the survey that wear of metals was a prominent
topic in a large number of the responses regarding some future priorities for research in
tribology. Some 22 experienced technologists in this field, who attended the 1983 ‘Wear of
Materials Conference’ in Reston, prepared a ranking list [171]. Their proposals with top

46
priority were further investigations of the mechanism of wear and this no doubt reflects the
judgments that particular effects of wear should be studied against a background of the
basic physical and chemical processes involved in surface interactions. The list proposed is
shown in table 3.1.

Peterson [166] reviewed the development and use of tribo-materials and

concluded that metals and their alloys are the most common engineering materials used in
wear applications. Grey cast iron for example has been used as early as 1388. Much of the
wear research conducted over the past 50 years is in ceramics, polymers, composite
materials and coatings [172].

Table – 3.1

Priority in wears research [171]

Ranking Topics

1. Mechanism of Wear
2. Surface Coatings and treatments
3. Abrasive Wear
4. Materials
5. Ceramic Wear
6. Metallic Wear
7. Polymer Wear
8. Wear with Lubrication
9. Piston ring-cylinder liner Wear
10. Corrosive Wear
11. Wear in other Internal Combustion Machine
Components

Wear of metals encountered in industrial situations can be grouped into

categories shown in table 3.2. Though there are situations where one type changes to
another or where two or more mechanism plays together.

47
 Table - 3.2

Type of wear in industry [170]

Type of wear in Industry Approximate percentage involved

Abrasive 50
Adhesive 15
Erosion 8
Fretting 8
Chemical 5

3.3 THEORY OF WEAR

Wear occurs as a natural consequence when two surfaces with a relative

motion interact with each other. Wear may be defined as the progressive loss of material
from contacting surfaces in relative motion. Scientists have developed various wear
theories in which the Physico-Mechanical characteristics of the materials and the physical
conditions (e.g. the resistance of the rubbing body and the stress state at the contact area)
are taken in to consideration. In 1940 Holm [165] starting from the atomic mechanism of
wear, calculated the volume of substance worn over unit sliding path.

Barwell and Strang [173] in 1952: Archard [174] in 1953 and Archard and
Hirst [175] in 1956 developed the adhesion theory of wear and proposed a theoretical
equation identical in structure with Holm’s equation. In 1957, Kragelski developed the
fatigue theory of wear. Because of the Asperities in real bodies their interactions on sliding
is discrete and contact occurs at individual locations, when taken together, form the real
contact area. Under normal force the asperities penetrate into each other or are flattened
out and in the region of real contact points corresponding stress and strain rise. In sliding, a
fixed volume of material is subjected to the many times repeated action, which weakens
the material and leads finally to rupture.

48
 Though all the theories are based on different mechanisms of wear, the
basic consideration is the frictional work. Hence friction is the prime consideration.

In the last two decades numerous studies of wear properties of Aluminium

based Metal Matrix Composites with different type of reinforcements has been studied.
Kirit J. Bhansali and Robert Mehrabian [38] have studied the abrasive wear resistance of
aluminum matrix composites containing Al2O3 and SiC using a dry sand/rubber wheel
abrasion tester. Their results show that composites containing Al2O3 were found to be
superior to those containing SiC. G.Wang, & I.M. Huttching [39] reported the
investigations of the response of alumina fiber- aluminum metal matrix composites
systems to wear by two-body abrasion. Their results show that wear resistance of the
composites was found to range from almost two to six times that of the unreinforced
matrix alloy. A.T. Alpas and J.Zhang [42] studied the dry sliding wear of aluminum matrix
composites and determined how the micro structural parameters such as volume fraction of
particulate and particulate size affect the wear resistance of these materials. V.Constantin
et. al. [176] investigated the sliding wear behaviour of Aluminum Silicon Carbide metal
matrix composites reinforced with different volume fraction of particulate against a
stainless steel slider. Their results show that addition of reinforced particles increases the
resistance of the composites to sliding wear under dry conditions, even for small volume
fraction of particles. Rohatgi.P.K et. al. [43] in their work report test examination of
abrasive wear resistance of Aluminum alloy (A356) containing fly-ash particles. Their
results show that the wear resistance of specimen containing fly ash was comparable to that
of alumina fiber-reinforced alloy and superior to that of base A356 alloy.T.Miyajima,&
Y.Iwai [177] studied the effect of reinforcements on sliding wear behaviour of aluminum
matrix composites. Their results show that the degree of improvement of wear resistance of
metal matrix composites (MMC) is strongly dependent on the kind of reinforcement as
well as its volume fraction. Aluminum metal matrix composites are emerging as promising
friction materials. One of the important applications that is being considered for MMCs is
as rotor (disc/drum) material in automotive brake system. K.M.Shorowordi et. al. [125]
studied the effect of velocity on the wear, friction and tribochemistry of aluminum MMC
sliding against phenolic brake pad. Their results show that higher sliding velocity leads to

49
lower wear rate and lower friction coefficient for Al-B4C and Al-SiC metal matrix
composites. Hutching I.M [178] studied the “Tribological properties of Metal Matrix
Composites” and have the opinion that under certain conditions MMCs show high wear
resistance but this is not the case always and is some time depended on the wear
mechanism. Axen et. al. [123] studied the friction and wear behaviour of an Al-Si, Mg-Mn
aluminum alloy reinforced with 10%, 15%, and 30% volume of alumina fibers. Their
results shows that fiber reinforcement increases the wear resistance in milder abrasion
situations and the coefficient of friction decreases with increasing fiber content and matrix
hardness of composites. Zongy Ma Jing et. al. [124] studied the abrasive wear of
discontinuous SiC reinforced aluminum alloy composites. Their result shows that the
composites exhibits excellent abrasive resistance compared with the unreinforced matrix
alloy. A.Alahelisten et. al. [50] studied the effect of fiber reinforcement of aluminum
magnesium and Mg-9 Al-1 Zn on the wear properties. Their results shows that
tribological behaviour of MMCs depends much on type of MMC and the type of contact
situation i.e. tribosystem. L. Cao et. al. [128] studied the wear behaviour of a SiC whisker
reinforced aluminum composite. Their results show that the SiC whisker–Al composite
exhibits a fairly good wear resistance especially for higher sliding velocities and / or higher
loads. Liang.Y.N et.al. [127] studied the effect of particle size on the wear behaviour of
SiC particulate reinforced 2024 Al composites investigated using three tests, sliding wear
test, impact abrasion test, and erosion test. Their results show that the wear behaviour of
particulate reinforced aluminum composite is significantly affected by particle size.
Composites contain large particles exhibited excellent wear under sliding wear conditions
with steady applied load. Wang and Rack [41] studied on the comparative assessment of
the effect of different types of reinforcement. Their results show that in the case of 20%
vol. SiC particles Vs 20% Volume SiC-whisker (perpendicular or parallel), the steady state
wear rates of the composites were generally independent of the reinforcement geometry
(Particulate or whisker) and orientation (perpendicular Vs Parallel).A.Ravikiran, M. K.
Surappa [129], studied the effect of sliding speed on wear behaviour of Al-30 wt % SiCp
MMC, concluded that the wear rate of pin material (MMC) decreases with increasing
speed, and also the wear rate of the composite decreases with increasing area fraction of
SiC particles. Manish Narayan et. al. [179] have done an experimental study on dry sliding

50
wear behaviour of Al alloy 2024 Al2O3 particle metal matrix composites and have shown
that the Al 2014, 15 vol% Al2O3 composite shows better seizure resistance than does the
unreinforced alloy in the peak aged condition and also in the as-extruded condition the
wear resistance of the unreinforced alloy is better than that of composite.

As reported earlier the fabrication techniques for MMCs vary depending

upon choice of matrix material and the type of reinforcement. Tjong. S.C et. al. [53]
studied the wear behaviour of aluminum silicon alloy reinforced with low volume fraction
of SiC particles prepared by Compo Casting process. The wear behaviour of unreinforced
Al-12 % SiC alloy and metal matrix composites was investigated by them using a block–
on-ring test at room temperature under dry conditions. Their result shows that the addition
of low volume fraction of SiC particles (2 to 8%) is a very effective way of increasing
wear resistance of composite. Yoshiro.Iwai et. al. [126] studied the wear properties of SiC
whisker reinforced 2024 Al alloy with volume fraction of whiskers ranging from 0 to 16%
produced by Powder Metallurgy technique. Their results show that SiC whisker
reinforcement can improve the wear resistance of aluminum alloy for both severe and mild
wear. D. Huda et. al. [139, 95] reported that a particular fabrication technique depends on
the type of the proper matrix and reinforcement materials to form the MMC.

Sannino and Rack [44] however showed that the effect of the shape of
reinforcement depends on the sliding velocity. It is difficult to deduce the effects of
reinforcement from the literature because in the reported studies experimental conditions
such as contact load and sliding velocity spread over very wide ranges and these studies
employ different kinds of test apparatus. The effects of sliding velocity on the frictional
and wear behavior of aluminum MMC sliding against ferrous counter body have been
studied by a number of researchers [180-182]. Their studies reveled that the frictional and
wear characteristics of aluminum MMC depend on the sliding speed in a complicated way.
Depending upon the sliding velocity range, both increase and decrease in wear rate with
sliding velocity were reported.

51
 It is clear from the above discussions that the wear properties are
improved remarkable by introducing a hard inter metallic compound into the aluminum
matrix [56]. It has also been demonstrated that because the bonding strength between
intermetallic and matrix is very strong, pulling out is prevented even at high loads [183].
The Wear of aluminum based metal matrix composites (MMCs) depends on several factors
such as volume fraction, morphology, and size of reinforcing phase as well as the strength
of the interface. Work published in the literature is mainly concerned with SiC, Al2O3
particles. There are also relatively few discussions on the wear behavior of aluminum
MMCs reinforced with alumna fibers [54] and also with natural minerals [55]. But till now
as per the information of the investigator no work has been done with red mud as
reinforcement. Therefore the present investigation is aimed at preparation of a Metal
Matrix Composite using red mud as reinforcing material and to study its friction and wear
behaviour.

3.4 TYPES OF WEAR

In most basic wear studies where the problems of wear have been a primary
concern, the so-called dry friction has been investigated to avoid the influences of fluid
lubricants.
Dry friction’ is defined as friction under not intentionally lubricated
conditions but it is well known that it is friction under lubrication by atmospheric gases,
especially by oxygen [184].

A fundamental scheme to classify wear was first outlined by Burwell and

Strang [185]. Later Burwell [186] modified the classification to include five distinct types
of wear, namely (1) Abrasive (2) Adhesive (3) Erosive (4) Surface fatigue (5) Corrosive.

3.4.1 Abrasive wear

Abrasive wear can be defined as wear that occurs when a hard surface slides
against and cuts groove from a softer surface. It can be account for most failures in
practice. Hard particles or asperities that cut or groove one of the rubbing surfaces produce

52
abrasive wear. This hard material may be originated from one of the two rubbing surfaces.
In sliding mechanisms, abrasion can arise from the existing asperities on one surface (if it
is harder than the other), from the generation of wear fragments which are repeatedly
deformed and hence get work hardened for oxidized until they became harder than either
or both of the sliding surfaces, or from the adventitious entry of hard particles, such as dirt
from outside the system.

Fig. 3.1 Schematic representations of the abrasion wear mechanism

Two body abrasive wear occurs when one surface (usually harder than the
second) cuts material away from the second, although this mechanism very often changes
to three body abrasion as the wear debris then acts as an abrasive between the two surfaces.
Abrasives can act as in grinding where the abrasive is fixed relative to one surface or as in
lapping where the abrasive tumbles producing a series of indentations as opposed to a
scratch. According to the recent tribological survey, abrasive wear is responsible for the
largest amount of material loss in industrial practice (187).

3.4.2 Adhesive wear

Adhesive wear can be defined as wear due to localized bonding between

contacting solid surfaces leading to material transfer between the two surfaces or the loss
from either surface. For adhesive wear to occur it is necessary for the surfaces to be in
intimate contact with each other. Surfaces, which are held apart by lubricating films, oxide
films etc. reduce the tendency for adhesion to occur.

53
 Fig .3.2 Schematic representations of the adhesive wear mechanism

3.4.3 Erosive wear

Erosive wear can be defined as the process of metal removal due to

impingement of solid particles on a surface. Erosion is caused by a gas or a liquid, which
may or may not carry, entrained solid particles, impinging on a surface. When the angle of
impingement is small, the wear produced is closely analogous to abrasion. When the angle
of impingement is normal to the surface, material is displaced by plastic flow or is
dislodged by brittle failure.

Fig. 3.3 Schematic representations of the erosive wear mechansim

54
3.4.4 Surface fatigue wear

Wear of a solid surface caused by fracture arising from material fatigue. The
term ‘fatigue’ is broadly applied to the failure phenomenon where a solid is subjected to
cyclic loading involving tension and compression above a certain critical stress. Repeated
loading causes the generation of micro cracks, usually below the surface, at the site of a
pre-existing point of weakness. On subsequent loading and unloading, the micro crack
propagates. Once the crack reaches the critical size, it changes its direction to emerge at the
surface, and thus flat sheet like particles is detached during wearing. The number of stress
cycles required to cause such failure decreases as the corresponding magnitude of stress
increases. Vibration is a common cause of fatigue wear.

Fig. 3.4 Schematic representations of the surface fatigue wear mechanism

3.4.5 Corrosive wear

Most metals are thermodynamically unstable in air and react with oxygen to
form an oxide, which usually develop layer or scales on the surface of metal or alloys
when their interfacial bonds are poor. Corrosion wear is the gradual eating away or
deterioration of unprotected metal surfaces by the effects of the atmosphere, acids, gases,
alkalis, etc. This type of wear creates pits and perforations and may eventually dissolve
metal parts.

55
 3.5 SYMPTOMS OF WEAR

A summary of the appearance and symptoms of different wear mechanism

is indicated in Table 3.3 and the same is a systematic approach to diagnose the wear
mechanisms.

Table - 3.3

Symptoms and appearance of different types of wear [188]

Types of wear Symptoms Appearance of the worn-out

surface
Abrasive Presence of clean furrows cut out by Grooves
abrasive particles
Adhesive Metal transfer is the prime symptoms Seizure, catering rough and torn-
out surfaces.
Erosion Presence of abrasives in the fast Waves and troughs.
moving fluid and short abrasion
furrows
Corrosion Presence of metal corrosion products. Rough pits or depressions.
Fatigue Presence of surface or subsurface Sharp and angular edges around
cracks accompanied by pits and spalls pits.
Impacts Surface fatigue, small sub micron Fragmentation, peeling and
particles or formation of spalls pitting.
Delamination Presence of subsurface cracks parallel Loose, long and thin sheet like
to the surface with semi-dislodged or particles
loose flakes
Fretting Production of voluminous amount of Roughening, seizure and
loose debris development of oxide ridges
Electric attack Presence of micro craters or a track Smooth holes
with evidence of smooth molten metal

56
 Literature available on the rate controlling wear mechanism demonstrated
that it may change abruptly from one another at certain sliding velocities and contact loads,
resulting in abrupt increases in wear rates. The conflicting results in the wear literature
arise partly because of the differences in testing conditions, but they also make clear that a
deeper understanding of the wear mechanism is required if an improvement in the wear
resistances of the metal matrix composites is to be achieved. This in turn requires a
systematic study of the wear under different stresses, velocities and temperatures. It is
generally recognized that wear is a characteristic of a system and influenced by many
parameters. Laboratory scale investigation if designed properly allows careful control of
the tribo system where by the effects of different variables on wear behaviour of MMCs
can be isolated and determined. The data generated through such investigation under
controlled conditions may help in correct interpretation of the results.

In the present work studies have been carried out to assess the Friction and
Wear behaviour of Al-red mud composite under controlled laboratory condition. A
comprehensive picture of wear under different working conditions has been presented by
conducting laboratory tests in pure sliding mode using a pin-on-disc machine and studying
them under optical microscope to know the wear mechanism.

3.6 EXPERIEMENTS

Pin-on-Disc wear testing machine

Experiments have been conducted in the Pin-on-disc type Friction and Wear
monitor (DUCOM; TL-20) with data acquisition system, (Fig. 3.5) which was used to
evaluate the wear behaviour of the composite, against hardened ground steel disc (En-32)
having hardness 65 HRC and surface roughness (Ra) 0.5 μm. It is versatile equipment
designed to study wear under sliding condition only. Sliding generally occurs between a
stationary Pin and a rotating disc. The disc rotates with the help of a D.C. motor; having
speed range 0-2000 rev/min with wear track diameter 50 mm-180 mm, which could yield
sliding speed 0 to 10 m/sec. Load is to be applied on pin (specimen) by dead weight
through pulley string arrangement. The system has a maximum loading capacity of 200N.

57
3.6.1 EXPERIEMENTAL ASPECTS

MATERIALS USED

Aluminium

Commercially pure aluminium of IE–07 grades from National Aluminium

Company (NALCO), Angul of Orissa was collected and was used for experimental
purpose. The composition analysis along with other test results such as hardness, density,
& tensile strength are presented in table-3.4 and 3.5.

Table – 3.4

Compositional analysis of aluminium

Sl.No Si Fe Ti V Cu Mn Al
1 0.08 0.15 0.001 0.007 0.001 0.003 99.76

Table – 3.5

Density, Hardness & Tensile Strength of Aluminium

Density 2.7 gm/cc

Hardness 40.8 VHN
Tensile strength 67 MPa

Red mud

The red mud used for the present investigation was brought from the
aluminum refinery of NALCO located at Damanjodi, Koraput, Orissa. Dust was prepared
manually. The size of the dust was measured by using a sieve. As per this analysis the
average size of the dust was 150 micron. Red mud dust was subjected to XRD, and
chemical analysis. The presence of different elements as confirmed by chemical analysis is
presented in table - 3.6.

58
XRD Results for red mud

XRD analysis was done to detect the presence of different elements in the
red mud. XRD work was carried out on a Philips X-ray diffractometer. The X-ray
diffractograms are taken using Cu Kα radiation at scan speed of 30 / min. Fig.3.6 shows the
XRD analysis of red mud particles. The large peak found are of Al2O3 particles, where as
small peaks indicates the presence of Fe2O3 in red mud. The noisy peaks indicate the
presence of other trace elements like SiO2, Al3Fe etc.

XRD Results for composite

The selected 20% red mud added sample has been analyzed by x-ray
diffraction analysis. The composites were produced under different conditions to identify
the different phases in it; the study was made on the analysis chart, which is shown in the
diffractogram Fig.3.7. The large peaks found are of Al2O3 particles, where as small peaks
indicate the presence of FeO, and Al3Fe in MMC. The noisy peaks indicate the presence of
other trace elements like SiO2 in the diagram and confirm the presence of red mud particles
in the composites. The other particles presents in MMCs are very small peaks.

3.6.2 Preparation for the test specimens

Treatment of aluminium ingot

The cut pieces from ingot were pickled in 10% sodium hydroxide solution
0
at 95-100 C for 10 minutes. The sinut formed was removed by immersion for one minute
in a mixture of one part nitric acid and one part water followed by washing in methanol.
Immediately after drying in air, the weighted quantity of pickled aluminium was melted in
a crucible.

Preparation of red mud

The required quantities of red mud (10, 15, 20 and 30 percent by weight)
were taken in powder containers. The red mud was preheated in a furnace up to 400oC and
maintained at that temperature before mixing with Aluminum melt.

59
Melting and casting of test specimen

The weighted quantity of pickled aluminium were melted to desired

superheating temperature of 8000C in graphite crucible 3 phase electrical resistance
furnace with temperature controlling device was used for melting. After melting was over,
the required quantity of red mud particulates, preheated to around 4000C were then added
to the molten metal and stirred continuously by using mechanical stirrer. The stirring time
was maintained between 60-80 seconds at an impeller speed of 550 rpm. During stirring to
enhance the wettability small quantities of Magnesium was added to the melt [73]. The
melt with the reinforced particulates were then poured to a prepared cylindrical mould by
bottom pouring method. After pouring is over the melt was allowed to cool and solidify in
the mould. For the purpose of comparison, the matrix material was also cast under similar
processing conditions.

After solidification the casting were taken out from the mould and were cut
to required shape and sizes for wear testing. To ascertain the distribution of reinforcement
particulates cut pieces of the samples were polished and were inspected under optical
microscope. The distribution with different volume fraction of red mud particles in the
matrix are shown in Figs. 3.8. It is clear from these figures that the reinforcing particles
were distributed uniformly in the aluminium matrix.

3.6.3 Testing of mechanical properties

Hardness test

The hardness of the heat treated samples was measured using a Leitz
Wetzlar Germant-088303, Vickers micro hardness measuring machine with a load of
0.4903 N. The load was applied for 30 seconds. In order to eliminate possible segregation
effect a minimum of three hardness readings were taken for each specimen at different
locations of the test samples. The hardness so obtained is presented in table - 3.7.

60
Tensile test

The tensile behaviour of all the prepared samples were determined to

examine the possibility of correlations between wear and tensile properties. Circular cross
section specimen with a specific gauge length of 60 mm, grip distance of 100 mm and a
gauge diameter of 8 mm were used for the tensile tests. These tests were carried out at a
constant crosshead speed of 5 mm/min and full scale load range of 20 kN corresponding to
an initial sample rate 9.103 pts/sec in an INSTRON-1195 tensile testing machine of 100
kN capacities. The results of the tensile tests for different composites are presented in
table-3.7.

Impact test

The size of the specimen for the impact test was 10 mm x 10 mm x 50 mm

with a rectangle notch size of 2 mm. The tests were carried out at room temperature using
an impact-testing machine of Charpy type. The tests was carried out with an initial energy
of hammer 30 Kg.m and with a striking velocity of 5.6 m/s. Impact test result for different
test specimen are presented in table–3.7.

3.6.4 Determination of the amount of wear

Before conducting the test, the pin and the disc surfaces were polished with
emery papers, so that the contact will be a smooth one. All the wear tests were carried out
as per ASTM G-99 standard under unlubricated condition in a normal laboratory
atmosphere at 50-60% relative humidity and a temperature of 28-320C. Each test was
carried out for 6 hrs run. The mass loss in the specimen after each test was estimated by
measuring the weight of the specimen before and after each test using an electronic
weighing machine having accuracy up to 0.01mg. Care has been taken that the specimens
under test are continuously cleaned with woolen cloth to avoid the entrapment of wear
debris and to achieve uniformly in experiential procedure. The test pieces are cleaned with
tetra-chloro-ethylene solution prior and after each test.

61
Wear Test

The tests have been carried out under the following conditions;

• The specimens under tests were fixed to the collect (Fig.3.5). The collect along
with the specimen (Pin) is positioned at a particular track diameter. This track
diameter is to be changed after each tests i.e. a fresh track is to be selected for each
specimen. During experiment the specimens remains fixed and disc rotates.

• Load is applied through a dead weight loading system to press the pin against the
disc.

• Frictional force arises at the contact can be read out from the controller.

• The speed of the disc or motor rpm can be varied through the controller.

• For a particular type of composite 27 sets of test pieces were tested.

• Each set of test was carried out for a period of 6 hrs run. After each one hour run
the test pieces were removed from the machine and weighted accurately to
determine the loss in weight.

Calculation

Wear rate was estimated by measuring the mass loss in the specimen after
each test and mass loss, ∆m in the specimen was obtained. Cares have been taken after
each test to avoid entrapment of wear debris in the specimen. Wear rate which relates to
the mass loss to sliding distance (L) was calculated using the expression,

Wr = ∆m/L ------------------------------------- (3.1)

62
 The volumetric wear rate Wv of the composite is relate to density (ρ) and the
abrading time (t), was calculated using the expression,

Wv = ∆m / ρt -------------------------------- (3.2)

The friction force was measured for each pass and then averaged over the
total number of passes for each wear test. The average value of co-efficient of friction, μ of
composite was calculated from the expression,

μ = Ff / Fn --------------------------------------------------- (3.3)

Where Ff is the average friction force and Fn is the applied load.

For characterization of the abrasive wear behaviour of the composite, the
specific wear rate is employed. This is defined as the volume loss of the composite per unit
sliding distance and per unit applied normal load. Often the inverse of specific wear rate
expresses in terms of the volumetric wear rate as

Ws = Wv / Vs Fn ---------------------------------------------------- (3.4)

where Vs is the sliding velocity.

Experimental results of the wear test of different test pieces (10, 15, 20, and
30 % by weight of red mud) at different test conditions are tabulated and presented in table
3.8 to 3.52.

3.7 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Based on the tabulated results, various graphs are plotted and presented in
Figs. 3.9 to 3.24 for different percentage of reinforcement under different test conditions.

Figs.3.9 to 3.11 shows the variation of wear rate with sliding distance for
different loads (10N, 20N, 30N) at 200 rpm. It is seen from the plots that with addition of
red mud particles the wear rate of the composite is decreasing. Also as the sliding distance
increases the wear rate first decreases and then almost remains same for the entire test

63
period. Since the trend for 300 and 400 rpm remains same as 200 rpm, it has not been
presented here.

Figs. 3.12 to 3.14 shows the variation of specific wear rate with filler
volume fraction i.e. red mud. It is clear from the plot that the specific wear rate decreases
with increase in filler volume fraction and after attaining a minimum value within 10-20%
it again increases. Thus there exists an optimum filler volume fraction, which gives
maximum wear resistance to the composite.

Figs.3.15 to 3.17 shows variation of specific wear rate with sliding velocity.
The plot shows that the specific wear rate of the composite increases with increase in
sliding velocity. From the figure it is also clear that rate of increase of wear rate is initially
high and decreases as the load increases. For 30% volume of red mud this is some what
deviating in all cases i.e. the wear rate increases to a very high value in comparison to
other. This deviation some what relates to the results projected in Figs. 3.12 to 3.14.

Figs. 3.18 to 3.20 shows the variation of volumetric wear rate with normal
load. It can be observed from the plots that the volumetric wear rate increases with increase
in normal load. This is because at higher load, the frictional thrust increases, which results
in increased debonding and fracture. A similar effect of normal load on volumetric wear
rate has been observed by Cirino et.al. [189] in the case of carbon epoxy composite and
Verma et. al. [190] for GRP composite. It is also evident from the plot that at higher speed
and high volume fraction, the volumetric wear rate of the composite for a load of 20 N is
higher than pure aluminium. This shows the dependence of load and the volume fraction of
red mud on the volumetric wear behaviour of the composite over pure aluminium. At 400
rpm (i.e. velocity, vs = 3.141 m/sec) the critical load (the load above which the composite
shows higher volumetric wear rate than pure aluminium) was reduced to 20 N.

As many parameters e.g. sliding velocity, sliding distance and load are
responsible for wear and are expressed in the earlier figures, it is more appropriate to
express the sliding wear results in terms of the wear constant, K [191,192] as extracted

64
from Archard’s law. For known values of V (wear volume), H (Vickers hardness of the
softer material), S (sliding distance), and L (normal load), the wear coefficient (K) can be
determined from the following equations:
V=KLS/H --------------------------- (3.5)
Rabinowicz interpreted the wear constant K as a co-efficient related to the
probability of asperity fracture [193]. Thus the wear constant K is a correlation factor
between several variables of the sliding wear experimental results and is related to various
microscopic mechanisms. Fig 3.21 shows the variation of wear co-efficient with particle
volume content. It is apparent in this figure that the wear co-efficient tends to decrease
with increasing particle volume content. Thus red mud addition is beneficial in reducing
the wear of the aluminium red mud composite. Same type of results has been reported by
S.C.Tjong et.al. [54] for the wear behaviour of aluminium based MMC composite
reinforced with a preform aluminosilicate fiber.

Figs. 3.22 to 3.24 shows the variation of coefficient of friction with normal
load. This shows that the coefficient of friction in all cases decreases with the increase of
normal load. This decrease in value occurs likely as a result of particulate standing above
the surface making contacting area of the specimen smaller.

3.8 Micro structural Observation

The worn-out surface of some selected /typical specimens after the wear test
are observed under optical microscope Figs. 3.25, (a-c) shows the surface morphology of
aluminium 10% red mud composite, tested under two different load and speed conditions .
When the sample is tested at slow speeds i.e. at sliding velocity of 300 rpm, Fig. 3.25 (a), it
appears that cavities are formed in the composite matrix and have aligned parallel to the
direction of sliding. Some particles also have chopped off during sliding. With increase in
sliding velocity i.e. at 400 rpm, Fig. 3.25 (b), worn surface shows a different appearance.
The amount of cavitations is less than that of the previous case. In some regions, the
substructures are aligned parallel to the sliding direction. In some area smaller particulate
have come out from the composite matrix. For the same composite, at same sliding speed
of 400 rpm and with increasing applied load i.e. from 20 N to 30 N, cracks have appeared

65
and are propagated in different direction. These might have help in chipping of hard
particles i.e. red mud. In case of aluminium-15% red mud composite tested with sliding
velocity of 300 and 400 rpm, are shown in Figs.3.26, (a) and (b) respectively. From the
Figs. it can be seen that with increasing the sliding velocity grooves have appeared
[Fig.3.26 (b)] where as at lower speeds, wave types structures is observed [Fig.3.26 (a)].

The structures of the worn surfaces are greatly dependent on sliding speed
and applied load conditions [194]. The surface structures of the samples (Al+20% RM) are
shown in Figs.3.27 (a-e). Comparing these figures it can be visualized that when the
sample is rubbed, against steel wheel, at low sliding speed and low applied load hard
particles might have chipped off and the aluminium grains are grown into bigger sizes with
increase in applied load i.e. from 10 N to 30 N, [(Figs.3.27, (b) and (c)], the aluminium
matrix appears to be smeared along the direction of the sliding. Amount of cavitations also
have increased. Some cavities appear to be formed around the hard particles, (i.e. red mud
particulates). For the same composite the worn surfaces obtained at higher sliding velocity,
(i.e.400 rpm), for two different applied load (i.e.10 N and 20 N) are shown in Figs. 3.27 (d)
and (e) respectively. The worn surfaces are relatively smoother than that at lower sliding
speeds [Figs. 3.27 (a) and (b)]. It may be noted that cracks are formed parallel to the
sliding direction. When the applied load is less/small, fracture/fragmentation/motion of
hard particles (i.e. red mud) occurs along the crack lines. With increase in applied load
although the amount of cavitations appears to be low but deep cracks and grooves are
clearly visible [Fig. 3.27 (e)].

It has been observed that during sliding hard particulate erode the steel
counter face and forms a very thin layer of oxidized iron which acts as a lubricant therefore
the change in this structural appearance is observed [195]. Hard particles at grain
boundaries would lead to less amount of particulate breakage. Large plastics strains can
arise in the composite matrix coming into direct contact with the steel counter face leads to
subsurface crack propagation and subsurface delamination [196]. From the micrograph
[Figs.3.27 (a-c], it is seen that some cracks are formed/originated at the grain boundaries of
aluminium. This might be due to [194] strain hardening of aluminium during sliding with a

66
applied load and due to pulling up of hard phase particles i.e. red mud from the aluminium
grain boundaries [195]. With increasing the applied load this effect is more pronounced
[Fig.3.3 (c)]. This might have been caused also due to embrittlement of hard particles
during sliding.

3.9 CONCLUSIONS

The following conclusions have been drawn from the above study

• Aluminium matrix composites have been successfully fabricated with fairly

uniform distribution of red mud particles.

• Dispersion of red mud particles in aluminium matrix improves the hardness of the
matrix material and also the wear behaviour of the composite. The effect is the
increase in interfacial area between aluminium matrix and red mud particles
leading to the increase in strength appreciably.

• Co-efficient of friction decreases as the load increases.

• At higher load and higher speed specific wear rate decreases with increases in Red
mud content.

• Wear co-efficient tends to decrease with increasing particle volume content. It also
indicates that red mud addition is beneficial in reducing wear of the aluminium red
mud composite.

• Wear resistance of the composite increases due to addition of red mud particles.
However there exists an optimum filler volume friction which gives maximum
wear resistance to the composite.

67
 Table – 3.6

Chemical (dry) analysis of red mud

Constituents % (wt) Constituents % (wt)

Al2O3 15.0 Fe2O3 54.8
TiO2 3.7 SiO2 8.44
Na2O 4.8 CaO 2.5
P2O5 0.67 V2O5 0.38
Ga2O3 0.096 Mn 1.1
Zn 0.018 Mg 0.056
Organic C 0.88 L.O.I Balance

Table - 3.7

Mechanical properties of specimens

Specimen Yield Ultimate Modulus of Percentage Impact Hardness

Stress Stress Elasticity Elongation Strength (VHN)
(MPa) (MPa) (GPa) (Kg.m/cm2)
Pure Al 24.5 67 73 25 6.3 40.8

90% Al + 23.47 6.75 34.98 9.23 7.44 52.78

10% RM
85% Al + 31.77 7.68 47.53 11.51 8.98 53.6
15% RM
80% Al + 25.83 5.83 42.1 14.18 8.34 55.8
20% RM
70% Al + 31.96 7.1 57.1 16.15 10.66 54.82
30% RM

68
 Table– 3.8

Aluminium Load – 10 N ρ = 2.62 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr ×10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
8.25 8.18 0.07 3600 0.33 0.33 4.53 0.15175 7.4215 6.018
8.25 8.12 0.13 7200 0.33 0.33 9.06 0.14091 6.8914 5.5886
8.25 8.04 0.21 10800 0.29 0.29 13.59 0.15175 7.4215 6.0185
8.25 7.97 0.28 14400 0.33 0.33 18.12 0.15175 7.4215 6.0185
8.25 7.92 0.33 18000 0.30 0.30 22.65 0.14308 6.997 5.674
8.25 7.87 0.38 21600 0.33 0.33 27.18 0.1373 6.714 5.444

Table – 3.9

Aluminium Load – 10 N ρ = 2.62 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 300 Vs = 1.885 m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)

8.00 7.88 0.12 3600 0.33 0.33 6.786 0.1734 12.722 6.87
8.00 7.79 0.21 7200 0.32 0.32 13.572 0.1445 10.602 5.733
8.00 7.71 0.29 10800 0.33 0.33 20.358 0.1397 10.25 5.543
8.00 7.64 0.36 14400 0.33 0.33 27.144 0.130 9.542 5.16
8.00 7.56 0.44 18000 0.34 0.34 33.930 0.1272 9.33 5.045
8.00 7.47 0.53 21600 0.34 0.34 40.716 0.1276 9.365 5.064

69
 Table – 3.10

Aluminium, Load – 10 N ρ = 2.62 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 400 Vs = 3.141 m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.77 7.57 0.20 3600 0.49 0.49 11.309 0.1731 21.204 6.882
7.77 7.49 0.28 7200 0.31 0.31 22.618 0.1215 14.843 4.817
7.77 7.37 0.40 10800 0.47 0.47 33.927 0.1157 14.136 4.586
7.77 7.19 0.58 14400 0.47 0.47 45.236 0.1257 15.373 4.989
7.77 6.99 0.78 18000 0.43 0.43 56.545 0.1353 16.539 5.367
7.77 6.87 0.90 21600 0.38 0.38 67.854 0.1301 15.903 5.161

Table – 3.11

Aluminium Load – 20 N ρ = 2.62 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs =1.257 m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.85 7.69 0.16 3600 0.5 0.25 4.530 0.3469 16.96 6.877
7.85 7.57 0.28 7200 0.54 0.27 9.06 0.3035 14.84 6.017
7.85 7.49 0.36 10800 0.6 0.3 13.59 0.2601 12.72 5.158
7.85 7.42 0.43 14400 0.58 0.29 18.12 0.233 11.397 4.622
7.85 7.34 0.51 18000 0.58 0.29 22.65 0.2211 10.814 4.385
7.85 7.27 0.58 21600 0.54 0.27 27.18 0.2096 10.249 4.156

70
 Table – 3.12

Aluminium Load – 20 N ρ = 2.62 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 300 Vs =1.885 m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.51 7.29 0.22 3600 0.54 0.27 6.786 0.318 23.320 6.305
7.51 7.17 0.34 7200 0.66 0.33 13.572 0.245 18.023 4.873
7.51 7.06 0.45 10800 0.64 0.32 20.358 0.216 15.903 4.300
7.51 6.94 0.59 14400 0.70 0.35 27.144 0.213 15.638 4.228
7.51 6.78 0.73 18000 0.58 0.29 33.930 0.211 15.479 4.185
7.51 6.58 0.93 21600 0.6 0.3 40.716 0.224 16.433 4.443

Table – 3.13

Aluminium Load – 20 N ρ = 2.62 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 400 Vs =3.141 m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
8.29 7.99 0.30 3600 0.44 0.22 11.309 0.260 31.81 5.161
8.29 7.71 0.58 7200 0.40 0.20 22.618 0.251 30.74 4.988
8.29 7.37 0.92 10800 0.26 0.13 33.927 0.266 32.51 5.275
8.29 7.97 1.32 14400 0.92 0.46 45.236 0.286 34.98 5.676
8.29 7.67 1.62 18000 1.08 0.54 56.545 0.281 34.35 5.676
8.29 7.42 1.87 21600 0.94 0.47 67.854 0.279 33.04 5.419

71
 Table – 3.14

Aluminium Load – 30 N ρ = 2.62 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs =1.257 m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)

8.09 7.88 0.21 3600 0.69 0.23 4.530 0.455 22.26 6.076
8.09 7.72 0.37 7200 0.48 0.16 9.06 0.401 19.61 5.30
8.09 7.59 0.50 10800 0.72 0.24 13.59 0.361 17.67 4.771
8.09 7.49 0.60 14400 0.78 0.26 18.12 0.325 15.90 4.291
8.09 7.40 0.69 18000 0.75 0.25 22.65 0.299 14.631 3.96
8.09 7.33 0.76 21600 0.69 0.23 27.18 .0.275 13.43 3.63

Table – 3.15

Aluminium Load – 30 N ρ = 2.62 x103 Kg/m3

RPM = 300 Vs =1.885 m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.74 7.49 0.25 3600 0.51 0.17 6.786 0.361 26.50 4.776
7.74 7.32 0.42 7200 0.60 0.20 13.572 0.303 22.26 4.012
7.74 7.10 0.64 10800 0.63 0.21 20.358 0.308 22.61 4.075
7.74 6.75 0.99 14400 0.81 0.27 27.144 0.357 26.24 4.730
7.74 6.45 1.29 18000 0.54 0.18 33.930 0.372 27.35 4.930
7.74 6.20 1.54 21600 0.6 0.20 40.716 0.371 27.21 4.900

72
 Table – 3.16

Aluminium Load – 30 N ρ = 2.62 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 400 Vs =3.141m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)

8.35 7.96 0.39 3600 0.72 0.24 11.309 0.3368 41.34 4.472
8.35 7.68 0.67 7200 0.69 0.23 22.618 0.2906 35.51 3.841
8.35 7.37 0.98 10800 0.90 0.30 33.927 0.2834 34.632 3.746
8.35 6.92 1.43 14400 0.87 0.29 45.236 0.3101 37.902 4.10
8.35 6.58 1.77 18000 1.02 0.34 56.545 0.3071 37.531 4.06
8.35 6.33 2.02 21600 0.84 0.28 67.854 0.2920 35.694 3.861

Table – 3.17

Al+10%RM Load – 10 N ρ = 2.47 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs =1.257m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
8.40 8.36 0.04 3600 0.33 0.33 4.53 0.0867 4.498 3.647
8.40 8.33 0.07 7200 0.31 0.31 9.06 0.07587 3.936 3.191
8.40 8.29 0.11 10800 0.34 0.34 13.59 0.0795 4.123 3.343
8.40 8.25 0.15 14400 0.28 0.28 18.12 0.0813 4.2173 3.42
8.40 8.20 0.20 18000 0.33 0.33 22.65 0.0867 4.4984 3.648
8.40 8.13 0.27 21600 0.32 0.32 27.18 0.0831 4.311 3.496

73
 Table – 3.18

Al+10%RM Load – 10 N ρ = 2.47 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 300 Vs =1.885m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
8.46 8.39 0.07 3600 0.33 0.33 6.786 0.1012 7.872 4.257
8.46 8.24 0.12 7200 0.31 0.31 13.572 0.0867 6.747 3.648
8.46 8.30 0.16 10800 0.34 0.34 20.358 0.077 5.997 3.243
8.46 8.23 0.23 14400 0.28 0.28 27.144 0.0831 6.466 3.496
8.46 8.16 0.30 18000 0.33 0.33 33.930 0.08674 6.748 3.649
8.46 8.08 0.38 21600 0.32 0.32 40.716 0.09156 7.1225 3.8517

Table – 3.19

Al+10%RM Load – 10 N ρ = 2.47 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 400 Vs =3.141m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
8.25 8.15 0.10 3600 0.47 0.47 11.309 0.0801 11.24 3.647
8.25 8.07 0.18 7200 0.55 0.55 22.618 0.7808 10.82 3.284
8.25 7.93 0.32 10800 0.56 0.56 33.927 0.0925 11.99 3.891
8.25 7.83 0.42 14400 0.55 0.55 45.236 0.0919 11.8 3.829
8.25 7.70 0.55 18000 0.53 0.53 56.545 0.0954 12.37 4.014
8.25 7.50 0.75 21600 0.59 0.59 67.854 0.1084 14.05 4.559

74
 Table – 3.20

Al+10%RM Load – 20 N ρ = 2.47 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM 200 Vs =1.257m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)

7.52 7.40 0.12 3600 0.54 0.27 4.53 0.261 13.49 5.469
7.52 7.35 0.17 7200 0.44 0.22 9.06 0.184 9.55 3.872
7.52 7.29 0.23 10800 0.48 0.24 13.59 0.166 8.62 3.495
7.52 7.20 0.32 14400 0.48 0.24 18.12 0.173 8.996 3.647
7.52 7.12 0.40 18000 0.54 0.27 22.65 0.1734 8.996 3.647
7.52 7.04 0.48 21600 0.60 0.30 17.18 0.1734 8.996 3.647

Table – 3.21

Al +10%RM Load –20 N ρ = 2.45 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 300 Vs = 1.885 m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)

8.06 7.94 0.12 3600 0.76 0.38 6.786 0.1734 13.49 3.647
8.06 7.88 0.18 7200 0.70 0.35 13.572 0.1301 10.12 2.736
8.06 7.82 0.24 10800 0.76 0.38 20.358 0.1156 8.99 2.43
8.06 7.76 0.30 14400 0.80 0.40 27.144 0.1084 8.43 2.28
8.06 7.70 0.36 18000 0.78 0.39 33.93 0.1084 8.097 2.189
8.06 7.64 0.42 21600 0.76 0.38 40.716 0.1012 7.872 2.129

75
 Table –3.22

Al +10%RM Load – 20 N ρ = 2.47 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 400 Vs = 3.141m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
8.11 7.91 0.2 3600 0.56 0.28 11.309 0.173 22.49 3.649
8.11 7.75 0.36 7200 0.74 0.37 22.618 0.1561 20.24 3.284
8.11 7.47 0.64 10800 0.68 0.34 33.927 0.185 23.99 3.829
8.11 7.15 0.96 14400 0.68 0.34 45.236 0.2082 26.99 4.379
8.11 7.87 1.24 18000 0.66 0.33 56.545 0.2151 27.89 4.525
8.11 7.67 1.44 21600 0.64 0.32 67.8540 0.02083 26.99 4.379

Table – 3.23

Al +10%RM Load – 30 N ρ = 2.47 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs =1.257m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)

8.15 8.00 0.15 3600 0.63 0.21 4.53 0.3251 16.86 4.557
8.15 7.84 0.31 7200 0.66 0.22 9.06 0.336 17.43 4.711
8.15 7.75 0.4 10800 0.48 0.16 13.59 0.289 14.99 4.052
8.15 7.63 0.52 14400 0.66 0.22 18.12 0.281 14.612 3.949
8.15 7.50 0.65 18000 0.54 0.18 22.65 0.282 14.62 3.95
8.15 7.40 0.75 21600 0.63 0.21 27.18 0.271 14.05 3.79

76
 Table – 3.24

Al+10%RM Load – 30 N ρ = 2.47 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 300 Vs =1.885 m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
8.19 7.99 0.20 3600 0.54 0.18 6.786 0.2891 22.492 4.050
8.19 7.90 0.29 7200 0.63 0.21 13.572 0.2096 16.301 2.938
8.19 7.80 0.39 10800 0.54 0.18 20.358 0.1879 14.619 2.633
8.19 7.65 0.54 14400 0.54 0.18 27.144 0.1951 15.182 2.736
8.19 7.55 0.64 18000 0.54 0.18 33.93 0.185 14.39 2.593
8.19 7.48 0.71 21600 0.51 0.17 40.716 0.171 13.30 2.397

Table – 3.25

Al+10%RM Load – 30 N ρ = 2.47 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 400 Vs =3.141 m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.80 7.55 0.25 3600 0.93 0.31 11.309 0.2168 28.155 3.039
7.80 7.37 0.43 7200 0.81 0.27 22.618 0.1865 24.179 2.607
7.80 7.17 0.63 10800 0.90 0.30 33.927 0.1821 23.616 2.553
7.80 6.83 0.97 14400 0.96 0.32 45.236 0.2103 27.271 2.953
7.80 6.59 1.21 18000 0.84 0.28 56.545 0.209 27.215 2.942
7.80 6.39 1.41 21600 0.96 0.32 67.854 0.203 26.428 2.855

77
 Table –3.26

Al + 15 %RM Load – 10 N ρ = 2.49 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs =1.257 m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr ×10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)

7.88 7.85 0.03 3600 0.47 0.47 4.53 0.0650 3.3467 2.714
7.88 7.82 0.06 7200 0.55 0.55 9.06 0.0650 3.3467 2.714
7.88 7.78 0.10 10800 0.56 0.56 13.59 0.0723 3.7185 3.0155
7.88 7.75 0.13 14400 0.55 0.55 18.12 0.0705 3.6256 2.940
7.88 7.70 0.18 18000 0.53 0.53 22.65 0.0780 4.0161 3.2568
7.88 7.67 0.21 21600 0.59 0.59 27.18 0.0759 3.9045 3.1663

Table – 3.27

Al + 15 %RM Load – 10 N ρ = 2.49 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 300 Vs =1.885 m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws ×10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
8.02 7.97 0.05 3600 0.36 0.36 6.786 0.0722 5.577 3.051
8.02 7.91 0.11 7200 0.34 0.34 13.572 0.0795 6.135 3.317
8.02 7.88 0.14 10800 0.36 0.36 20.358 0.0674 5.206 2.812
8.02 7.85 0.17 14400 0.26 0.26 27.144 0.0614 4.741 2.541
8.02 7.81 0.21 18000 0.36 0.36 33.93 0.0671 4.685 2.531
8.02 7.78 0.24 21600 0.37 0.37 14.716 0.0578 4.462 2.521

78
 Table – 3.28

Al + 15 %RM Load – 10 N ρ = 2.49 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM =400 Vs =3.141 m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D ×103 Wr × 10-6 Wv ×10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.70 7.58 0.12 3600 0.36 0.36 11.309 0.1041 13.38 4.348
7.70 7.41 0.29 7200 0.34 0.34 22.618 0.1257 16.17 5.257
7.70 7.21 0.49 10800 0.36 0.36 33.927 0.1417 18.22 5.906
7.70 7.04 0.66 14400 0.26 0.26 45.236 0.1431 18.40 5.971
7.70 6.90 0.80 18000 0.36 0.36 56.545 0.1388 17.849 5.792
7.70 8.85 0.85 21600 0.37 0.37 67.875 0.1229 15.801 5.127

Table – 3.29

Al + 15 %RM Load – 20 N ρ = 2.49 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM =200 Vs =1.257m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D ×103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)

7.78 7.69 0.09 3600 0.36 0.36 4.53 0.195 10.041 4.091
7.78 7.64 0.14 7200 0.34 0.34 9.06 0.151 7.809 3.166
7.78 7.60 0.18 10800 0.36 0.36 13.59 0.130 6.693 2.712
7.78 7.54 0.24 14400 0.26 0.26 18.12 0.130 6.693 2.712
7.78 7.49 0.29 18000 0.36 0.36 22.65 0.125 6.470 2.623
7.78 7.46 0.32 21600 0.37 0.37 27.18 0.115 5.949 2.408

79
 Table – 3.30

Al + 15 %RM Load – 20 N ρ = 2.49 x103 Kg/m3

RPM = 300 Vs =1.885m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.95 7.85 0.10 3600 0.54 0.27 6.786 0.1445 11.15 3.014
7.95 7.73 0.22 7200 0.66 0.33 13.572 0.159 12.27 3.317
7.95 7.58 0.37 10800 0.72 0.36 20.348 0.1783 13.758 3.72
7.95 7.41 0.54 14400 0.70 0.35 27.144 0.1952 15.06 4.072
7.95 7.23 0.72 18000 0.66 0.33 33.93 0.2082 16.064 4.344
7.95 7.04 0.91 21600 0.72 0.36 40.716 0.2193 16.92 4.575

Table – 3.31

Al + 15 %RM Load – 20N ρ = 2.49 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 400 Vs =3.141m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)

7.73 7.61 0.12 3600 0.68 0.34 11.208 0.1041 13.381 2.171
7.73 7.44 0.29 7200 0.66 0.33 22.618 0.1257 16.178 2.625
7.73 7.24 0.49 10800 0.84 0.42 33.927 0.1417 18.221 2.953
7.73 6.89 0.84 14400 0.88 0.44 45.236 0.156 23.427 3.801
7.73 6.65 1.08 18000 0.78 0.39 56.545 0.187 18.741 3.044
7.73 6.45 1.28 21600 0.72 0.36 67.854 0.192 23.798 3.864

80
 Table – 3.32

Al + 15 %RM Load – 30 N ρ = 2.49 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs =1.257m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
8.08 7.96 0.12 3600 0.45 0.15 4.53 0.261 13.338 3.616
8.08 7.85 0.23 7200 0.72 0.24 9.06 0.249 12.829 3.468
8.08 7.72 0.36 10800 0.54 0.18 13.59 0.260 13.386 3.618
8.08 7.58 0.50 14400 0.45 0.15 18.12 0.271 13.945 3.77
8.08 7.46 0.62 18000 0.51 0.17 22.60 0.269 13.833 3.74
8.08 7.38 0.70 21600 0.57 0.19 27.18 0.253 13.015 3.518

Table – 3.33

Al + 15 %RM Load – 30 N ρ = 2.49 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM 300 Vs =1.885m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
8.11 7.81 0.30 3600 0.78 0.26 6.786 1.879 14.51 2.612
8.11 7.61 0.50 7200 0.75 0.25 13.572 0.361 27.88 5.025
8.11 7.51 0.60 10800 0.39 0.13 20.358 0.289 22.31 4.021
8.11 7.41 0.70 14400 0.45 0.15 27.144 0.252 19.522 3.519
8.11 7.34 0.77 18000 0.48 0.16 33.13 0.222 15.61 2.812
8.11 7.29 0.82 21600 0.42 0.14 40.716 0.197 15.24 2.747

81
 Table – 3.34

Al + 15 %RM Load – 30 N ρ = 2.49 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 400 Vs = 3.141 m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)

8.46 8.20 0.26 3600 1.26 0.42 11.309 0.225 29.00 3.137
8.46 8.03 0.43 7200 1.14 0.38 22.618 0.186 23.98 2.594
8.46 7.82 0.64 10800 1.23 0.41 33.927 0.185 23.79 2.573
8.46 7.58 0.88 14400 0.96 0.32 45.236 0.191 24.59 2.654
8.46 7.33 1.16 18000 0.72 0.24 56.545 0.201 25.88 2.799
8.46 7.15 1.13 21600 0.87 0.29 67.855 0.163 21.01 2.271

Table – 3.35

Al + 20 % RM Load – 10 N ρ = 2.527 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
8.47 8.43 0.04 3600 0.36 0.36 4.53 0.0867 4.41 3.576
8.47 8.39 0.08 7200 0.34 0.34 9.06 0.0867 4.41 3.576
8.47 8.35 0.12 10800 0.36 0.36 13.59 0.0867 4.41 3.576
8.47 8.32 0.15 14400 0.26 0.26 18.12 0.0813 4.1336 3.352
8.47 8.30 0.17 18000 0.36 0.36 22.65 0.0737 3.7478 3.04
8.47 8.27 0.20 21600 0.37 0.37 27.18 0.0723 3.6743 2.98

82
 Table –3.36

Al + 20 % RM Load – 10 N ρ = 2. 52 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM - 300 Vs = 1.885 m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv ×10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
8.33 8.29 0.04 3600 0.36 0.36 6.786 0.0578 4.41 2.384
8.33 8.27 0.06 7200 0.34 0.34 13.572 0.043 3.31 1.789
8.33 8.23 0.10 10800 0.36 0.36 20.358 0.048 3.67 1.986
8.33 8.18 0.15 14400 0.26 0.26 27.144 0.054 4.13 2.23
8.33 8.15 0.18 18000 0.36 0.36 33.93 0.05 3.96 2.14
8.33 8.13 0.20 21600 0.37 0.37 40.716 0.048 3.67 1.984

Table – 3.37

Al + 20 % RM Load – 10 N ρ = 2. 52 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 400 Vs = 3.141 m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
8.10 7.84 0.16 3600 0.36 0.36 11.309 0.138 17.636 5.723
8.10 7.64 0.36 7200 0.34 0.34 22.618 0.156 19.841 6.439
8.10 7.45 .0.55 10800 0.36 0.36 33.927 0.159 20.208 6.558
8.10 7.32 0.68 14400 0.26 0.26 45.236 0.147 18.738 6.081
8.10 7.13 0.87 18000 0.36 0.36 56.545 0.151 14.991 4.864
8.10 6.93 1.07 21600 0.37 0.37 67.857 0.154 19.657 6.379

83
 Table - 3.38

Al + 20 % RM Load – 20 N ρ = 2. 52 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs =1. 257 m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.73 7.66 0.07 3600 0.38 0.19 4.53 0.1517 7.716 3.128
7.73 7.67 0.12 7200 0.36 0.18 9.06 0.130 6.613 2.681
7.73 7.55 0.18 10800 0.38 0.19 13.59 0.1301 6.613 2.681
7.73 7.48 0.25 14400 0.52 0.26 18.12 0.1354 6.889 2.793
7.73 7.44 0.29 18000 0.50 0.25 22.65 0.1257 6.393 2.592
7.73 7.37 0.36 21600 0.56 0.28 27.16 0.130 6.613 2.681

Table - 3.39

Al + 20 % RM Load – 20 N ρ = 2. 52 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 300 Vs = 1.885 m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/N-m)
7.85 7.70 0.15 3600 0.70 0.35 6.786 0.2168 16.53 4.469
7.85 7.52 0.33 7200 0.68 0.34 13.572 0.238 18.187 4.917
7.85 7.28 0.47 10800 0.90 0.45 20.358 0.226 17.26 4.666
7.85 7.00 0.85 14400 0.68 0.34 27.145 0.307 23.42 6.332
7.85 6.73 1.12 18000 0.66 0.33 33.93 0.323 24.69 6.675
7.85 6.50 1.35 21600 0.76 0.38 40.716 0.325 24.81 6.708

84
 Table – 3.40

Al + 20 % RM Load 20 N ρ = 2. 52 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 400 Vs =3.141m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.93 7.62 0.31 3600 0.72 0.36 11.309 0.268 34.171 5.544
7.93 7.26 0.67 7200 0.76 0.38 22.618 0.291 36.926 5.991
7.93 6.82 1.11 10800 0.82 0.41 33.97 0.321 40.784 6.617
7.93 6.41 1.52 14400 0.76 0.38 45.236 0.329 41.887 6.796
7.93 5.89 2.04 18000 0.90 0.45 56.545 0.353 44.973 7.297
7.93 5.49 2.44 21600 0.80 0.40 67.854 0.352 44.826 7.273

Table – 3.41

Al + 20 % RM Load – 30 N ρ = 2.62 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs =1.257 m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
8.34 8.24 0.10 3600 0.60 0.20 4.53 0.216 11.022 2.979
8.34 8.10 0.24 7200 0.45 0.15 9.06 0.260 13.227 3.575
8.34 7.90 0.44 10800 0.63 0.21 13.59 0.318 16.166 4.369
8.34 7.83 0.51 14400 0.39 0.13 18.12 0.276 14.054 3.791
8.34 7.79 0.55 18000 0.45 0.15 22.65 0.238 12.125 3.277
8.34 7.78 0.56 21600 0.33 0.11 27.18 0.208 10.288 2.781

85
 Table – 3.42

Al + 20 % RM Load – 30 N ρ = 2. 52 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 300 Vs =1.885m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D ×103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
8.27 8.07 0.20 3600 0.66 0.22 6.786 0.2891 22.04 3.975
8.27 7.95 0.32 7200 0.81 0.27 13.572 0.2313 17.63 3.179
8.27 7.84 0.43 10800 0.87 0.29 20.358 0.2072 15.79 2.846
8.27 7.72 0.55 14400 0.87 0.29 27.144 0.1988 15.19 2.731
8.27 7.66 0.61 18000 0.75 0.253 33.92 0.1764 13.44 2.423
8.27 7.62 0.65 21600 0.84 0.28 40.716 0.1566 11.95 2.15

Table – 3.43

Al + 20 % RM Load – 30 N ρ = 2. 52 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 400 Vs = 3.141m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.96 7.61 0.35 3600 0.78 0.26 11.309 0.3036 38.58 4.173
7.96 7.37 0.59 7200 0.90 0.30 22.618 0.2559 32.517 3.517
7.96 7.13 0.83 10800 0.78 0.26 33.927 0.2400 30.496 3.299
7.96 6.81 1.15 14400 0.69 0.23 45.236 0.2565 31.691 3.428
7.96 6.53 1.43 18000 0.72 0.24 56.945 0.2481 31.525 3.410
7.96 6.33 1.63 21600 0.75 0.25 67.854 0.2356 29.94 3.238

86
 Table – 3.44

Al + 30 % RM Load – 10 N ρ = 2. 55 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs =1. 257m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
8.45 8.40 0.05 3600 0.36 0.36 4.53 0.1083 5.446 4.416
8.45 8.38 0.07 7200 0.34 0.34 9.06 0.0759 3.812 3.091
8.45 8.34 0.11 10800 0.36 0.36 13.59 0.0794 3.994 3.238
8.45 8.33 0.12 14400 0.26 0.26 18.12 0.0668 3.267 2.649
8.45 8.30 0.15 18000 0.36 0.36 22.65 0.065 3.267 2.649
8.45 8.28 0.17 21600 0.37 0.37 27.18 0.0614 3.086 2.502

Table – 3.45

Al + 30 % RM Load – 10N ρ = 2. 55 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM - 300 Vs = 1.885m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)

7.66 7.61 0.05 3600 0.36 0.36 6.786 0.0724 5.447 2.946
7.66 7.60 0.06 7200 0.34 0.34 13.572 0.0423 3.267 1.766
7.66 7.54 0.12 10800 0.36 0.36 20.358 0.0578 4.357 2.356
7.66 7.51 0.15 14400 0.26 0.26 27.144 0.0542 4.084 2.208
7.66 7.48 0.18 18000 0.36 0.36 33.93 0.0346 3.921 2.12
7.66 7.44 0.22 21600 0.37 0.37 40.716 0.0530 3.994 2.159

87
 Table – 3.46

Al + 30 % RM Load – 10 N ρ = 2. 55 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 400 Vs = 3.141 m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)

7.80 7.65 0.15 3600 0.36 0.36 11.309 0.130 16.339 5.303
7.80 7.56 0.24 7200 0.34 0.34 22.618 0.1041 13.071 4.242
7.80 7.43 0.37 10800 0.36 0.36 33.927 0.1069 13.435 4.36
7.80 7.27 0.53 14400 0.26 0.26 45.236 0.114 14.433 4.684
7.80 7.18 0.62 18000 0.36 0.36 56.545 0.1075 13.507 4.383
7.80 7.08 0.72 21600 0.37 0.37 67.854 0.1041 13.071 4.242

Table – 3.47

Al + 30 % RM Load – 20 N ρ = 2. 55 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.99 7.89 0.10 3600 0.38 0.19 4.53 0.216 10.893 4.416
7.99 7.86 0.13 7200 0.50 0.25 9.05 0.141 7.081 2.871
7.99 7.78 0.21 10800 0.50 0.25 13.59 0.1517 7.625 3.102
7.99 7.72 0.27 14400 0.48 0.24 18.12 0.1463 7.352 3.049
7.99 7.68 0.31 18000 0.48 0.24 22.65 0.112 6.753 2.738
7.99 7.61 0.38 21600 0.50 0.25 27.18 0.1373 6.899 2.797

88
 Table – 3.48

Al + 30 % RM Load – 20 N ρ = 2. 55 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 300 Vs 1.885m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
8.42 8.22 0.20 3600 0.48 0.24 6.786 0.2891 21.786 5.89
8.42 7.96 0.46 7200 0.58 0.29 13.572 0.3324 25.05 6.77
8.42 7.66 0.76 10800 0.66 0.33 20.358 0.3662 27.596 7.46
8.42 7.32 1.10 14400 0.48 0.24 27.144 0.3975 29.95 8.098
8.42 7.02 1.40 18000 0.62 0.31 33.93 0.4047 30.56 8.246
8.42 6.80 1.62 21600 0.52 0.26 40.716 0.3903 29.41 7.952

Table – 3.49

Al + 30 % RM Load – 20 N ρ = 2.55 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 400 Vs = 3.141 m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.88 7.46 0.42 3600 0.80 0.40 11.309 0.3643 45.751 7.423
7.88 7.01 0.87 7200 0.84 0.42 22.618 0.3773 47.385 7.689
7.88 6.45 1.43 10800 0.86 0.43 33.927 0.4135 51.924 8.425
7.88 6.04 1.84 14400 0.82 0.41 45.236 0.3991 50.108 8.130
7.88 5.66 2.22 18000 0.98 0.49 56.545 0.3851 48.366 7.848
7.88 5.26 2.62 21600 0.92 0.46 67.855 0.3788 47.567 7.718

89
 Table – 3.50

Al + 30 % RM Load –30 N ρ = 2. 55 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)

8.07 7.97 0.10 3600 0.36 0.12 4.53 0.2167 10.893 2.944
8.07 7.91 0.16 7200 0.60 0.20 9.06 0.1734 8.714 2.355
8.07 7.79 0.28 10800 0.72 0.24 13.59 0.2023 10.167 2.748
8.07 7.65 0.42 14400 0.66 0.22 18.12 0.2276 11.437 3.091
8.07 7.55 0.52 18000 0.63 0.21 22.65 0.2254 11.328 3.062
8.07 7.49 0.58 21600 0.48 0.16 27.18 0.2096 10.530 2.846

Table –3.51

Al + 30 % RM Load – 30 N ρ = 2.55 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 300 Vs =1.885 m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr ×10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
8.04 7.76 0.28 3600 0.51 0.19 6.786 0.4047 30.501 5.497
8.04 7.62 0.42 7200 0.72 0.24 13.572 0.3035 22.87 4.122
8.04 7.52 0.52 10800 0.78 0.26 20.358 0.2505 18.881 3.403
8.04 7.42 0.62 14400 0.75 0.25 27.114 0.2240 16.884 3.043
8.04 7.37 0.67 18000 0.375 0.25 33.93 0.1937 14.596 2.631
8.04 7.34 0.70 21600 0.72 0.24 40.716 0.1686 12.708 2.290

90
 Table – 3.52

Al + 30 % RM Load – 30N ρ = 2.55 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 400 Vs =3.141 m/sec

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D ×103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)

8.23 7.72 0.51 3600 0.84 0.28 11.309 0.4424 55.55 6.01
8.23 7.28 0.95 7200 0.87 0.29 22.618 0.4120 51.742 5.597
8.23 6.82 1.41 10800 1.05 0.35 33.927 0.4077 51.198 5.538
8.23 6.29 1.94 14400 0.90 0.30 45.236 0.4207 52.832 5.715
8.23 5.85 2.38 18000 0.99 0.33 56.545 0.4129 51.851 5.609
8.23 5.50 2.73 21600 0.93 0.31 67.854 0.3947 49.564 5.361

91
 Controller

Fig. 3.5 (a)

Pin holder

Disc
Load Pan

Fig.3.5 (b) Pin on disc Fig 3.5 (c) Loading panel

Figs. 3.5 (a-c) Experimental set up

92
93
94
 a b

c d

Fig.-3.8 Micrographs showing red mud distribution in the composites of different

volume fractions (a) 10% (b) 15% (c) 20% and (d) 30% at (200 X)

95
 0.25
Al
90Al+10RM Load – 10 N
85Al+15RM
80Al+20RM RPM – 200
0.2 70Al+30RM
Test duration – 6 hrs
Wear Rate X 10 N/m

0.15
-6

0.1

0.05

0
0 4.53 9.06 13.59 18.12 22.65 27.18
3
Sliding Distance X 10 (meter)

Fig. - 3.9 Variation of wear rate with sliding distance

0.5
Al
90Al+10RM Load - 20 N
85Al+15RM
80Al+20RM RPM - 200
0.4 70Al+30RM
Test duration - 6hrs
Wear Rate X 10 N/m

0.3
-6

0.2

0.1

0
0 4.53 9.06 13.59 18.12 22.65 27.18
3
Sliding Distance X 10 (meter)

Fig - 3.10 Variation of wear rate with sliding distance

96
 0.5
Al
90Al+10RM
85Al+15RM
80Al+20RM
0.4 70Al+30RM
N/m

0.3
-6
Wear Rate X 10

0.2

Load - 30N
0.1 RPM - 200
Test duration - 6 hrs

0
0 4.53 9.06 13.59 18.12 22.65 27.18
Sliding Distance X 10 3(meter)

Fig.3.11 Variation of wear rate with sliding distance

7
1.257 m/sec
1.885 m/sec
m /N-m

6 3.141 m/sec
3

5
-13
Specific Wear Rate X 10

3
Load – 10 N
Test duration – 6 hrs
2

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Filler Volume Fraction, %
Fig. - 3.12 Variation of specific wear rate with filler volume
fraction

97
 9
1.257 m/sec

m 3 /N-m
8 1.885 m/sec
3.141 m/sec
7
-13

6
Specific W ear Rate X 10

Load – 20 N
5 Test duration – 6 hrs
4
3
2
1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Filler Volume Fraction, %
Fig. - 3.13 Variation of specific wear rate with filler volume fraction

6
1.257 m/sec
m 3 /N-m

1.885 m/sec Load – 30 N

5 3.141 m/sec Test duration – 6 hrs
-13

4
Specific Wear Rate X 10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Filler Volume Fraction, %

Fig. - 3.14 Variation of specific wear rate with filler volume fraction

98
 7
Al
90Al+10RM Load -10 N
85Al+15RM
6 80Al+20RM Test duration - 6 hrs
m /N-m 70Al+30RM

5
3
-13

4
Specific Wear Rate X 10

0
0.628 1.256 1.884 2.512 3.14
Sliding Velocity (m/sec)

Fig. - 3.15 Variation of specific wear rate with sliding velocity

9
Al
8 90Al+10RM
m /N-m

85Al+15RM
80Al+20RM
7
3

70Al+30RM
-13

6
Specific Wear Rate X 10

5
4
3
2 Load -20 N
Test duration - 6 hrs
1
0
0.628 1.256 1.884 2.512 3.14
Sliding Velocity (m/sec)

Fig. - 3.16 Variation of specific wear rate with sliding velocity

99
 6
Al
90Al+10RM
m /N-m
85Al+15RM
5 80Al+20RM
70Al+30RM
3
-13

4
Specific Wear Rate X 10

2
Load – 30 N
1 Test duration – 6 hrs

0
0.628 1.256 1.884 2.512 3.14
Sliding Velocity, (m/sec)

Fig. - 3.17 Variation of specific wear rate with sliding velocity

16
Al
90Al+10RM
14
m3/s

85Al+15RM
80Al+20RM
70Al+30RM
12
-12
Volumetric Wear Rate X 10

10

6
RPM - 200
4 Test duration – 6 hrs

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Normal Load (N)

Fig. - 3.18 Variation of volumetric wear rate with normal load

100
 35
Al
90Al+10RM
m /s
30 85Al+15RM
3

80Al+20RM
70Al+30RM
-12

25
Volumetric Wear Rate X 10

20

15

10
RPM - 300
5 Test duration – 6 hrs

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Normal Load (N)

Fig. - 3.19 Variation of volumetric wear rate with normal load

60
Al
90Al+10RM
m /s

50 85Al+15RM
3

80Al+20RM
-12

70Al+30RM

40
Volumetric Wear Rate X 10

30

20

RPM - 400
10
Test duration - 6 hrs

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Normal Load (N)

Fig. - 3.20 Variation of volumetric wear rate with normal load

101
 5
-5

Load – 30 N
Wear coefficient (K) X 10

4.5
Test duration – 6 hrs

3.5

3
5 10 15 20 25 30

Filler volume fraction, %

Fig. - 3.21 Variation of wear coefficient with filler volume fraction

0.5
Al
90Al+10RM
0.4 85Al+15RM
80Al+20RM
Coefficient of Friction, μ

70Al+30RM
0.3

0.2

0.1 RPM - 200

Test duration - 6 hrs

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Normal Load (N)

Fig. - 3.22 Variation of coefficient of friction with normal load

102
 0.5
Al
90Al+10RM RPM - 300
85Al+15RM
80Al+20RM Test duration – 6 hrs
Coefficient of Friction, μ 0.4 70Al+30RM

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Normal Load (N)

Fig. - 3.23 Variation of coefficient of friction with normal load

0.7
Al
90Al+10RM
0.6 85Al+15RM
80Al+20RM
70Al+30RM
0.5
Co-efficient of Friction, μ

0.4

0.3

0.2
RPM - 400
0.1 Test duration - 6 hrs

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Normal Load (N)

Fig.3.24 Variation of coefficient of friction with normal load

103
 200 X

(a)

200 X

(b)

200 X

(c)

Figs. 3.25 Micrographs showing wear surface of 10% red mud (a) load 20N
& 300 rpm (b) load 20N & 400 rpm & (c) load 30N & 400 rpm.

104
 200 X 200 X

(a) (b)

Figs. 3.26 Micrographs showing wear surface of 15% red mud

(a) load 20N & 300 rpm (b) load 20N & 400 rpm

200 X 200 X

(a) (b)

Figs. 3.27 Micrographs showing wear surface of 20% red mud

(a) load 10N & 200 rpm (b) load 20N & 200 rpm

105
 200 X

(c)

200 X

(d)

200 X

(e)

Fig. 3.27 Micrographs showing wear surface of 20% red mud (c) load 30N
& 200 rpm (d) load 10N & 300 rpm & (e) load 20N & 400 rpm

******

106
 CHAPTER – 4

EFFECT OF HEAT TREATMENT ON WEAR BEHAVIOUR

OF ALUMINIUM RED MUD COMPOSITES

4.1 INTRODUCTION

It is concluded from the previous chapter that the specific wear rate of the
composite decreases with increase in filler volume fraction. The optimum filler volume for
the present case lies between 15 to 20 percent. The specific wear rate equation describes
the physical nature of the wear rate as a volume loss of material by a given amount of
energy input. Often the wear resistance of a material is referred to specific wear rate which
is simply the inverse of wear rate. For the present case we have assumed the lower limit of
the filler volume i.e. 15 percent as optimal and has been taken in to consideration for
further investigation. It is decided to increase the wear resistance of the composite by heat
treatment process. The subsequent section will elaborate the experimental work done and
the results obtained there from to achieve the objective.

4.2 Experiment

Most of the engineering properties of metals and alloys are related to their
structure. Equilibrium structure can be predicted for an alloy with the help of an
equilibrium diagram. Mechanical properties can be changed by varying the relative
properties of micro constituents. In practice change in mechanical properties are achieved
by the process of heat treatment. The process consists of heating a metal or alloy to a
specific predetermined temperature, holding at this temperature for required time and
finally cooling from this temperature. All these operations are carried out in solid state.
Sometimes it becomes necessary to repeat these operations to impart some characteristics.
Heat treatment of metals is also an important operation in the final fabrication process of
many engineering components. The object of this process is to make the metal better
suited, structurally and physically, for some specific applications.

107
 In the present investigation the prepared test samples (15% by weight of red
mud) was heated in furnace up to 3500C, 4000C, 4500C and 5000C and holding at these
temperature for one and half hour followed by air (at 350C temperature) and water (at 250C
temperature) quenching for all the heat treatment temperature selected and water (at 150C
and 50C temperature) quenching for only 4000C and 4500C. After quenching the samples
were tested for prediction of wear behavior.

HEAT TREATMENT

In the present investigation the prepared test samples (15% by volume of

red mud) was heated in furnace up to 3500C, 4000C, 4500C and 5000C and holding at these
higher temperature for 1 hr. 30 minutes followed by air cooling (at 350C temp) and Water
(at 250C temp) quenching for all the four heating temperature and water (at 150C & 50C
temp.) quenching for only heating temperature of 4000C & 4500C. After quenching the
samples are cooled to room temperature for further prediction of wear behaviors.

4.3 HARDNESS TEST

The hardness of the heat treated samples was measured using a Leitz
Wetzlar Germant-088303, Vickers micro hardness measuring machine with a load of
0.4903 N. The load was applied for 30 seconds In order to eliminate possible segregation
effect a minimum of three hardness readings were taken for each specimen at different
locations of the test samples. The values of the hardness number for different test samples
were presented in the table 4.1.

4.4 WEAR TEST

The wear tests were performed for heat treated aluminum red mud samples
on Pin-On-Disc wear testing machine. A constant sliding velocity of 1.257 m/sec was
maintained for the entire test. The experimental procedure remains same as described in
chapter–3, art 3.6.4. Results of wear test of different heat treated samples at different test
conditions are tabulated and presented in table 4.2 to 4.37.

108
4. 5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Based on the experiment and tabulated results, various graphs are plotted
and presented below for comparison.
Wear rate of the composite with air cooling after different heat treatment
temperatures for three loads (10 N, 20 N, and 30 N) are shown in Figs. 4.1 (a-d). It is noted
from the plots that the wear rate almost remains same as the sliding distance increases and
increases with increase in applied load. However there is much decrease in the value of the
wear rate for all loads when compared with untreated samples.
Figs. 4.2 (a-d) Shows the variation of wear rate of the heat treated samples
with sliding distance for water quenching (250C) at different loads. It is seen from this plot
that wear rate almost remains same as the sliding distance increases. However at a
temperature of 400 and 4500C the wear rate remains less in comparison to 3500C and
5000C. Further to decrease the wear rates, the temperature of the cooling media water has
been changed to 15 and 50C keeping the heat treated temperature limited to 4000C and
4500C.
Figs. 4.2 (e-f), shows the variation of wear rate of the heat treated samples
(400 & 4500C) with sliding distance for cooling water quenching (15 & 50C) at different
loads. It is clear from these plots that the wear rate of the composite almost remains same
as the sliding distance increases.

Figs. 4.3 (a-b) shows the variation of volumetric wear rate with normal
loads for both air cooling and water quenching for different heat treatment temperatures. It
is observed from the plots that volumetric wear rate increases with the increase of normal
loads for both the cases. However its variation is minimum in case of heat treatment
temperature at 4500C with water at 50C quenching temperature.

Figs. 4.4 (a-d) shows the specific wear rate of the heat treated composite at
different temperature with sliding distance for air cooling at different loads. It is observed
from the plot that the specific wear rate first increases and then almost remains same for
the entire test period for all cases.

109
 Figs. 4.5 (a-b), shows the specific wear rate of the composite with different
quenching temperature for different loads. It is clear from the plot that at higher loads and
low temperature of the quenching media the specific wear rate of the composite decreases.
It can be conclude in general from these plots that by choosing suitably the heat treatment
temperature and the cooling/quenching media the wear rate of the composite can be
controlled.
Figs. 4.6 (a-d), presents the effect of load on coefficient of friction as
sliding distance changes both for air and water cooling. It can be seen that the composite at
some loads showing increase in the value of coefficient of friction and there is a decrease
in the value of coefficient of friction for some other cases. But almost remains constant
through out the experiment. This reduction in coefficient of friction occurs likely as a
result of particulates standing above the surface. Hence, the contacting surface area of the
specimen becomes smaller. In addition this decrease in coefficient of friction may be
attributed to the wear of the matrix from the pin surface leaving the particulates standing
proud. A similar of coefficients of friction has been observed by M.H. Korkut [197] for
their newly developed Al 2024\SiFe and Al 2024\SiFe\Al2O3 composites.

Fig. 4.7 (a-b) shows the comparison of wear rate with normal loads with
and without heat treatment for all temperatures. It clearly indicates that for all the cases,
wear rate increases as the load increases. However the variation of wear rate for without
heat treatment is maximum and it is minimum for heat treatment temperature at 4500C
with 50C water quenching temperature.

Figs. 4.8 (a-c), shows the comparison of specific wear rate with and without
heat treatment for different loads. It is observed from these plots that the samples heat
treated and subsequent quenching at a temperature of 15 & 50C showed higher wear rate at
lower loads. At these temperatures the hardness of the heat treated samples showed lower
values which leads to higher wear rate. The lower hardness in these samples is expected
due to decrease in bonding / cohesive strength between the particles which in turn leads to
higher wear rate. Hence, at lower loads only normal water quenching is sufficient to get the
maximum wear resistance of the composite. However for higher loads to increase the wear

110
resistance it is desirable to go for a suitable cooling media lower than the normal water
temperature.

4.6 MICRO STRUCTURAL OBSERVATION

Micrographs of the worn surfaces of the composite heat treated and

subsequent cooling by air and water have been investigated.

From the investigation it is found that, wear rate i.e. removal of material
form the sample is minimum with aluminium 15% red mud composite, than that of the
other composition. It is also noted that wear rate is less at lower sliding velocity i.e. at 200
rpm. Hence to investigate the effect of thermal treatment to improve the wear behavior,
aluminium 15% red mud composite is selected. Samples are heated at different
temperatures for one and half hours followed by air cooling and water quenching. The
worn surfaces (of aluminium 15% red mud composite) made with air cooling from 3500C
and 4500C are shown in Figs. 4.9 (a) and (b) respectively. Comparing these two figures, it
is seen that, for the samples treated at 3500C [Fig. (4.9 (a)] large number of cavity/pores
are formed during sliding. Cavities are joined and aligned along the direction of sliding. In
the major area of the surface finer grooves are seen. Where as, when the samples are
treated at 4500C, there is great change in surface morphology as observed in Fig. 4.9 (b).
The grooves formed during sliding are wider and deeper than that of Fig. 4.9 (a). Some
hard particles aligned along the sliding direction, surrounded by cavity are observed. The
grooves were probably caused by removal of red mud particles which causes the debris to
be formed from the composite on the steel disc.

During wear test debris were formed due to cracking and spalling of
the surface of the samples. During severe wear these debris takes of a flake type
appearance. Figs.4.10 (a-c) shows the worn surfaces of the aluminium red mud 15%
composites heat treated at 4500C and water quenched. When the applied load is less i.e. at
10 N, deep groves are observed on the worn surface Fig. 4.10 (a). With increasing the

111
applied load i.e. 20 N, although the grooves are finer than the previous case, but large
numbers of cavities are observed. Cavities are joined/connected perpendicular to sliding
direction. Some finer particles are aligned in the cavity area along the direction of sliding.
With further increase in applied load condition, i.e. at 30 N, the appearance of worn
surfaces is completely different. Amount of cavities observed are least. Smaller particles
are aligned along with the fine grooves in the direction of sliding Fig. 4.10 (c). This
appears to be inhibiting the material loss.

From the above observations, this can be said that, during mild wear
the formation of oxide films is substantially accelerated by rubbing contact. It has been
observed that [198] the quantity of oxide developed during sliding depends on
environmental condition and the debris mainly consists of iron oxide (Fe2O3). Hence under
mild wear condition, steel disc counter face suffered mild scuffing during any sliding and
structure of oxide depends on sliding velocity and applied load [199]. The oxide/ metal
layer formed as a result of fragmentation of oxide particles, embedded into the metal
surface again. This might generate localized stresses on the specimen surface which is
responsible for massive deformation of the surface.

So in our observation crack formation, propagation and

alignment of hard particles (red mud) are the consequence of the operating mechanisms.
When a sample is quenched, although the grain size of aluminium remains smaller but
heating at 4500C has generated grain growth and matrix hardening. So with increased in
applied load the debris which are formed might have got pressed on the surface there by
reducing the material loss in these samples.

112
 Table – 4.1

Hardness of heat treated composite samples

Heat treated Air Cooling Water Water Water

Temperature ( VHN ) Quenching at Quenching at Quenching at
0 0 0 0
( C) (35 C) 25 C 15 C 50C
( VHN ) ( VHN ) ( VHN )
350 60.15 63.66 --- ---
400 72.91 80.1 28.2 29.8
450 92.21 100.93 26.3 25.8
500 83.31 80.19 --- ---

113
 AIR COOLING

Table – 4.2

Al +15% RM Load – 10 N ρ = 2.49 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec Heating Temp. = 3500C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.50 7.482 0.018 3600 0.64 0.64 4.53 0.0390 2.008 1.6284
7.50 7.462 0.038 7200 0.69 0.69 9.06 0.0411 2.1196 1.7189
7.50 7.43 0.07 10800 0.67 0.67 13.59 0.0505 2.6030 2.1109
7.50 7.395 0.105 14400 0.60 0.60 18.12 0.0568 2.9284 2.3748
7.50 7.363 0.137 18000 0.68 0.68 22.65 0.0593 3.0567 2.4788
7.50 7.331 0.169 21600 0.49 0.49 27.18 0.0610 3.1422 2.5482

Table – 4.3

Al +15% RM Load – 20 N ρ = 2.49x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec Heating Temp. = 3500C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws ×10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.92 7.872 0.048 3600 1.03 0.515 4.53 0.104 5.3548 2.1712
7.92 7.823 0.097 7200 1.03 0.515 9.06 0.105 5.411 2.194
7.92 7.771 0.147 10800 0.84 0.42 13.59 0.108 5.541 2.247
7.92 7.717 0.203 14400 0.85 0.425 18.12 0.111 5.662 2.296
7.92 7.655 0.265 18000 1.27 0.635 22.65 0.115 5.9125 2.397
7.92 7.60 0.320 21600 1.02 0.51 27.18 0.116 5.95 2.413

114
 Table – 4.4

Al +15% RM Load – 30 N ρ = 2.49 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec Heating Temp. = 3500C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.73 7.69 0.04 3600 1.99 0.66 4.53 0.0866 4.4623 1.2062
7.73 7.57 0.16 7200 1.64 0.55 9.06 0.1732 8.9246 2.4125
7.73 7.48 0.25 10800 1.92 0.64 13.59 0.1805 9.2964 2.513
7.73 7.39 0.34 14400 1.69 0.56 18.12 0.1841 9.4824 2.5633
7.73 7.289 0.441 18000 1.84 0.61 22.65 0.191 9.8394 2.6598
7.73 7.2 0.53 21600 1.79 0.59 27.18 0.1913 9.8542 2.6638

Table – 4.5

Al +15% RM Load – 10 N ρ = 2.49x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec Heating Temp. = 4000C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
8.03 8.015 0.015 3600 0.79 0.79 4.53 0.0325 1.6734 1.357
8.03 7.985 0.045 7200 0.66 0.66 9.06 0.0487 2.51 2.0355
8.03 7.96 0.07 10800 0.77 0.77 13.59 0.0505 2.603 2.1109
8.03 7.926 0.104 14400 0.81 0.81 18.12 0.0563 2.9005 2.3522
8.03 7.898 0.132 18000 0.85 0.85 22.65 0.0572 2.9451 2.3883
8.03 7.865 0.165 21600 0.80 0.80 27.18 0.0596 3.0678 2.4879

115
 Table – 4.6

Al +15% RM Load – 20 N ρ = 2.49 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec Heating Temp. = 4000C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
8.06 8.021 0.039 3600 1.47 0.73 4.53 0.0845 4.3507 1.7461
8.06 7.975 0.085 7200 1.3 0.65 9.06 0.092 4.7412 1.9224
8.06 7.923 0.137 10800 1.31 0.66 13.59 0.0989 2.0657 2.0657
8.06 7.863 0.197 14400 0.95 0.47 18.12 0.1067 2.2278 2.2278
8.06 7.803 0.257 18000 1.24 0.62 22.65 0.1113 2.325 2.325
8.06 7.751 0.309 21600 1.29 0.65 27.18 0.1115 5.7452 2.3295

Table – 4.7

Al +15% RM Load – 30 N ρ = 2.49x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec Heating Temp. = 4000C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.84 7.8 0.04 3600 1.71 0.57 4.53 0.0866 4.4623 1.2062
7.84 7.72 0.12 7200 1.80 0.60 9.06 0.1299 6.6934 1.8094
7.84 7.64 0.2 10800 1.89 0.63 13.59 0.1444 7.4372 2.0104
7.84 7.54 0.3 14400 1.45 0.48 18.12 0.1624 8.3668 2.2617
7.84 7.46 0.68 18000 0.87 0.29 22.65 0.1646 8.4784 2.2919
7.84 7.38 0.46 21600 0.87 0.29 27.18 0.166 8.5527 2.312

116
 Table – 4.8

Al +15% RM Load – 10 N ρ = 2.49 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec Heating Temp. = 4500C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)

8.05 8.04 0.01 3600 0.73 0.73 4.53 0.0217 1.1156 0.9047
8.05 8.021 0.029 7200 0.60 0.60 9.06 0.0314 1.6176 1.3118
8.05 7.997 0.053 10800 0.61 0.61 13.59 0.0383 1.9708 1.5983
8.05 7.947 0.103 14400 0.69 0.69 18.12 0.0558 2.8726 2.3295
8.05 7.921 0.129 18000 0.7 0.7 22.65 0.0559 2.8782 2.3341
8.05 7.886 0.164 21600 0.59 0.59 27.18 0.0592 3.0492 2.4728

Table – 4.9

Al +15% RM Load – 20 N ρ = 2.49x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec Heating Temp. = 4500C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
8.07 8.047 0.023 3600 1.08 0.54 4.53 0.0498 2.5658 1.0404
8.07 8.012 0.058 7200 1.04 0.52 9.06 0.0628 3.2352 1.3118
8.07 7.943 0.127 10800 0.13 0.57 13.59 0.0917 4.7226 1.9149
8.07 7.88 0.19 14400 0.93 0.47 18.12 0.1029 5.299 2.1486
8.07 7.83 0.24 18000 1.01 0.51 22.65 0.1039 5.3548 2.1712
8.07 7.76 0.31 21600 0.78 0.39 27.18 0.1119 5.7638 2.3371

117
 Table – 4.10

Al +15% RM Load – 30 N ρ = 2.49 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec Heating Temp. = 4500C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.80 7.757 0.043 3600 1.68 0.56 4.53 0.0931 4.797 1.2967
7.80 7.693 0.107 7200 1.46 0.49 9.06 0.1082 5.9683 1.6133
7.80 7.58 0.22 10800 1.70 0.57 13.59 0.1588 8.1809 2.2114
7.80 7.513 0.287 14400 1.34 0.45 18.12 0.1554 8.0042 2.1637
7.80 7.41 0.39 18000 1.30 0.43 22.65 0.1689 8.7015 2.3522
7.80 7.32 0.48 21600 1.35 0.45 27.18 0.1732 8.9246 2.4125

Table – 4.11

Al +15% RM Load – 10 N ρ = 2.49x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec Heating Temp. = 5000C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.83 7.82 0.01 3600 0.79 0.79 4.53 0.0217 1.1156 0.9047
7.83 7.796 0.034 7200 0.60 0.60 9.06 0.0368 1.8965 1.538
7.83 7.78 0.05 10800 0.75 0.75 13.59 0.0361 1.8593 1.5078
7.83 7.734 0.096 14400 0.76 0.76 18.12 0.052 2.6774 2.1712
7.83 7.70 0.13 18000 0.80 0.80 22.65 0.0563 2.9005 2.3522
7.83 7.664 0.166 21600 0.79 0.79 27.18 0.0599 3.0864 2.5029

118
 Table – 4.12

Al +15% RM Load – 20 N ρ = 2.49 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec Heating Temp. = 5000C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.82 7.79 0.03 3600 1.17 0.59 4.53 0.065 3.3467 1.357
7.82 7.74 0.08 7200 0.99 0.49 9.06 0.0866 4.4623 1.8094
7.82 7.69 0.13 10800 0.96 0.48 13.59 0.0938 4.8342 1.9601
7.82 7.63 0.19 14400 0.94 0.47 18.12 0.1029 5.299 2.1486
7.82 7.57 0.25 18000 1.07 0.54 22.65 0.1083 5.5779 2.2617
7.82 7.52 0.30 21600 1.15 0.57 27.18 0.1083 5.5779 2.2617

Table – 4.13

Al +15% RM Load – 30 N ρ = 2.49x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec Heating Temp. = 5000C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.92 7.86 0.06 3600 1.59 0.53 4.53 0.1299 6.6934 1.8094
7.92 7.77 0.15 7200 1.17 0.39 9.06 0.1624 8.3668 2.2617
7.92 7.70 0.22 10800 1.54 0.51 13.59 0.1588 8.1809 2.2114
7.92 7.63 0.29 14400 0.99 0.33 18.12 0.1570 8.0879 2.1863
7.92 7.55 0.37 18000 1.26 0.42 22.65 0.1603 8.2552 2.2315
7.92 7.47 0.45 21600 1.32 0.44 27.18 0.1624 8.3668 2.2617

119
 WATER QUENCHING

Table – 4.14

Al +15% RM Load – 10 N ρ = 2.49 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec Heating Temp. = 3500C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr ×10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.700 7.690 0.010 3600 0.83 0.83 4.53 0.0217 1.1156 0.9047
7.700 7.677 0.023 7200 0.59 0.59 9.06 0.0249 1.2829 1.0404
7.700 7.651 0.049 10800 0.63 0.63 13.59 0.0354 1.8221 1.4776
7.700 7.608 0.092 14400 0.69 0.69 18.12 0.0498 2.5658 2.0808
7.700 7.576 0.124 18000 0.73 0.73 22.65 0.0537 2.7666 2.2436
7.700 7.539 0.161 21600 0.70 0.70 27.18 0.0581 2.9935 2.4276

Table – 4.15

Al +15% RM Load – 20 N ρ = 2.49x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec Heating Temp. = 3500C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.79 7.751 0.039 3600 1.06 0.53 4.53 0.0845 4.3507 1.7641

7.79 7.722 0.068 7200 1.05 0.525 9.06 0.0736 3.7929 1.5380

7.79 7.671 0.119 10800 0.843 0.421 13.59 0.0859 4.4251 1.7943

7.79 7.611 0.179 14400 1.011 0.506 18.12 0.0969 4.9922 2.0242

7.79 7.555 0.235 18000 1.182 0.594 22.65 0.1018 5.2432 2.1260

7.79 7.484 0.306 21600 1.00 0.50 27.18 0.1104 5.6894 2.3069

120
 Table – 4.16

Al +15% RM Load – 30 N ρ = 2.49 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec Heating Temp. = 3500C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)

7.66 7.64 0.02 3600 1.56 0.52 4.53 0.0433 2.2311 0.6031
7.66 7.58 0.08 7200 1.57 0.52 9.06 0.0866 4.4623 1.2062
7.66 7.515 0.145 10800 1.44 0.48 13.59 0.1047 5.3919 1.4575
7.66 7.43 0.23 14400 1.74 0.58 18.12 0.1245 6.4145 1.7340
7.66 7.274 0.386 18000 1.56 0.52 22.65 0.1672 8.6122 2.3280
7.66 7.175 0.485 21600 1.53 0.51 27.18 0.1750 9.0176 2.4376

Table – 4.17

Al +15% RM Load – 10 N ρ = 2.49x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257m/sec Heating Temp. = 4000C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)

7.84 7.829 0.011 3600 0.8 0.8 4.53 0.0238 1.2271 0.9951
7.84 7.813 0.027 7200 0.65 0.65 9.06 0.0292 1.5060 1.2213
7.84 7.791 0.049 10800 0.84 0.84 13.59 0.0354 1.8221 1.4776
7.84 7.750 0.090 14400 0.60 0.60 18.12 0.0487 2.5100 2.0355
7.84 7.712 0.128 18000 0.78 0.78 22.65 0.0554 2.8559 2.3160
7.84 7.684 0.156 21600 0.81 0.81 27.18 0.0563 2.9005 2.3522

121
 Table – 4.18

Al +15% RM Load – 20 N ρ = 2.49 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec Heating Temp. = 4000C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.50 7.470 0.030 3600 1.28 0.64 4.53 0.0650 3.3467 1.3570
7.50 7.410 0.090 7200 1.10 0.55 9.06 0.0975 5.0201 2.0355
7.50 7.370 0.130 10800 1.08 0.54 13.59 0.0938 4.8342 1.9601
7.50 7.300 0.200 14400 1.06 0.53 18.12 0.1083 5.5779 2.2617
7.50 7.246 0.254 18000 1.20 0.60 22.65 0.1100 5.6671 2.2979
7.50 7.199 0.301 21600 1.12 0.56 27.18 0.1086 5.5965 2.2692

Table – 4.19

Al +15% RM Load – 30 N ρ = 2.49x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec Heating Temp. = 4000C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)

7.78 7.721 0.059 3600 1.77 0.59 4.53 0.1278 6.5819 1.7792
7.78 7.656 0.124 7200 1.47 0.49 9.06 0.1343 6.9166 1.8697
7.78 7.580 0.200 10800 1.68 0.56 13.59 0.1444 7.4372 2.0104
7.78 7.500 0.280 14400 1.65 0.55 18.12 0.1516 7.8090 2.1109
7.78 7.430 0.350 18000 1.68 0.56 22.65 0.1516 7.8090 2.1109
7.78 7.351 0.429 21600 1.68 0.56 27.18 0.1548 7.9763 2.1561

122
 Table – 4.20

Al +15% RM Load – 10 N ρ = 2.49 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec Heating Temp. = 4500C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)

8.21 8.201 0.009 3600 0.94 0.94 4.53 0.0195 1.0040 0.8142
8.21 8.184 0.026 7200 0.86 0.86 9.06 0.0282 1.4502 1.1761
8.21 8.159 0.051 10800 0.92 0.92 13.59 0.0368 1.8965 1.5380
8.21 8.116 0.094 14400 0.95 0.95 18.12 0.0509 2.6216 2.1260
8.21 8.089 0.121 18000 0.77 0.77 22.65 0.0524 2.6997 2.1893
8.21 8.058 0.152 21600 0.59 0.59 27.18 0.0549 2.8261 2.2919

Table – 4.21

Al +15% RM Load – 20 N ρ = 2.49x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec Heating Temp. = 4500C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv ×10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
8.09 8.070 0.020 3600 1.16 0.58 4.53 0.0433 2.2311 0.9047
8.09 8.044 0.046 7200 1.12 0.56 9.06 0.0498 2.5658 1.0404
8.09 7.984 0.106 10800 1.08 0.54 13.59 0.0765 3.9417 1.5983
8.09 7.922 0.168 14400 1.14 0.57 18.12 0.0910 4.6854 1.8998
8.09 7.858 0.232 18000 1.08 0.54 22.65 0.1005 5.1763 2.0989
8.09 7.81 0.280 21600 1.24 0.62 27.18 0.1011 5.2060 2.1109

123
 Table – 4.22

Al +15% RM Load – 30 N ρ = 2.49 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec Heating Temp. = 4500C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv ×10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
8.35 8.31 .040 3600 2.01 0.67 4.53 0.0866 4.4623 1.2062
8.35 8.258 0.092 7200 1.89 0.63 9.06 0.0996 5.1316 1.3872
8.35 8.140 0.210 10800 1.56 0.52 13.59 0.1516 7.8090 2.1109
8.35 8.061 0.289 14400 1.68 0.56 18.12 0.1565 8.0600 2.1788
8.35 7.969 0.381 18000 1.65 0.55 22.65 0.1650 8.5007 2.2979
8.35 7.891 0.459 21600 1.65 0.55 27.18 0.1657 8.5341 2.3069

Table – 4.23

Al +15% RM Load – 10 N ρ = 2.49x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec Heating Temp. = 5000C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv ×10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.75 7.739 0.011 3600 0.85 0.85 4.53 0.0238 1.2271 0.9951
7.75 7.723 0.027 7200 0.58 0.58 9.06 0.0292 1.5060 1.2213
7.75 7.700 0.050 10800 0.80 0.80 13.59 0.0361 1.8593 1.5078
7.75 7.695 0.091 14400 0.77 0.77 18.12 0.0493 2.5379 2.0581
7.75 7.619 0.131 18000 0.73 0.73 22.65 0.0567 2.9228 2.3703
7.75 7.592 0.158 21600 0.57 0.57 27.18 0.0570 2.9377 2.3823

124
 Table – 4.24

Al +15% RM Load – 20 N ρ = 2.49 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec Heating Temp. = 5000C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)

7.92 7.895 0.025 3600 1.36 0.68 4.53 0.0541 2.7889 1.1308
7.92 7.860 0.060 7200 1.16 0.58 9.06 0.0650 3.3467 1.3570
7.92 7.798 0.122 10800 1.14 0.57 13.59 0.0881 4.5367 1.8395
7.92 7.741 0.179 14400 1.28 0.64 18.12 0.0969 4.9922 20242
7.92 7.694 0.226 18000 1.14 0.57 22.65 0.0979 5.0424 2.0446
7.92 7.630 0.290 21600 0.98 0.49 27.18 0.1047 5.3919 2.1863

Table – 4.25

Al +15% RM Load – 30 N ρ = 2.49x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec Heating Temp. = 5000C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv ×10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.87 7.810 0.060 3600 1.8 0.60 4.53 0.1299 6.6934 1.8094
7.87 7.725 0.145 7200 1.89 0.63 9.06 0.1570 8.0879 2.1863
7.87 7.645 0.225 10800 1.45 0.48 13.59 0.1624 8.3668 2.2617
7.87 7.560 0.310 14400 1.59 0.53 18.12 0.1678 8.6457 2.3371
7.87 7.481 0.389 18000 1.62 0.54 22.65 0.1685 8.6792 2.3461
7.87 7.395 0.475 21600 1.63 0.54 27.18 0.1714 8.8316 2.3873

125
 Table – 4.26

Al + 15%RM Load – 10 N ρ = 2.49x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec

Heating Temp. = 4000C Cooling Water Temp. = 150C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.91 7.85 0.06 3600 0.73 0.73 4.53 0.13007 6.69344 5.428
7.91 7.79 0.12 7200 0.73 0.73 9.06 0.13007 6.69344 5.428
7.91 7.75 0.16 10800 0.74 0.74 13.59 0.11562 5.9497 4.8249
7.91 7.71 0.20 14400 0.84 0.84 18.12 0.10839 5.57786 4.5234
7.91 7.67 0.24 18000 0.68 0.68 22.65 0.10406 5.35475 4.34245
7.91 7.63 0.28 21600 0.77 0.77 27.18 0.10117 5.206 4.22182

Table – 4.27

Al + 15%RM Load – 20 N ρ = 2.49x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec

Heating Temp. = 4000C Cooling Water Temp. = 150C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv ×10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
8.08 8.03 0.05 3600 1.08 0.54 4.53 0.10839 5.57786 2.26169
8.08 7.96 0.12 7200 0.95 0.475 9.06 0.13007 6.69344 2.71403
8.08 7.90 0.18 10800 1.21 0.605 13.59 0.13007 6.69344 2.71403
8.08 7.83 0.25 14400 1.34 0.67 18.12 0.13549 6.97233 2.82712
8.08 7.76 0.32 18000 1.25 0.625 22.65 0.13874 7.13967 2.895
8.08 7.71 0.37 21600 1.18 0.59 27.18 0.13368 6.87937 2.78942

126
 Table – 4.28

Al + 15%RM Load – 30 N ρ = 2.49x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec

Heating Temp. = 4000C Cooling Water Temp. = 150C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr ×10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
8.39 8.33 0.06 3600 1.6 0.533 4.53 0.13007 6.693 1.809
8.39 8.28 0.11 7200 1.58 0.527 9.06 0.11923 6.136 1.659
8.39 8.21 0.18 10800 1.8 0.6 13.59 0.13007 6.693 1.809
8.39 8.12 0.27 14400 1.7 0.567 18.12 0.1463 7.53 2.035
8.39 8.04 0.35 18000 1.7 0.567 22.65 0.15175 7.809 2.111
8.39 7.96 0.43 21600 1.64 0.547 27.18 0.15536 7.995 2.161

Table – 4.29

Al + 15%RM Load – 10 N ρ = 2.49x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec

Heating Temp. = 4500C Cooling Water Temp. = 150C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv ×10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.58 7.74 0.04 3600 0.72 0.72 4.53 0.0867 4.4623 3.6187
7.58 7.48 0.10 7200 0.63 0.63 9.06 0.108 5.5779 4.5234
7.58 7.44 0.14 10800 0.64 0.64 13.59 0.1012 5.206 4.222
7.58 7.39 0.19 14400 0.63 0.63 18.12 0.103 5.299 4.297
7.58 7.35 0.23 18000 0.59 0.59 22.65 0.0997 5.1316 4.1617
7.58 7.31 0.27 21600 0.65 0.65 27.18 0.0976 5.02 4.071

127
 Table – 4.30

Al + 15%RM Load – 20 N ρ = 2.49x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec

Heating Temp. = 4500C Cooling Water Temp. = 150C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv ×10-12 Ws ×10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.84 7.77 0.07 3600 0.86 0.43 4.53 0.1518 7.809 3.166
7.84 7.71 0.13 7200 1.00 0.50 9.06 0.1409 7.251 2.94
7.84 7.64 0.20 10800 0.99 0.495 13.59 0.14453 7.4372 3.01561
7.84 7.58 0.26 14400 0.97 0.485 18.12 0.1409 7.25123 2.9402
7.84 7.53 0.31 18000 0.97 0.485 22.65 0.1344 6.91655 2.8045
7.84 7.48 0.36 21600 1.02 0.51 27.18 0.13007 6.69344 2.71403

Table – 4.31

Al + 15%RM Load – 30 N ρ = 2.49 x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec

Heating Temp. = 4500C Cooling Water Temp. = 150C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr ×10-6 Wv ×10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)

7.58 7.51 0.07 3600 1.47 0.49 4.53 0.1518 7.809 2.111
7.58 7.45 0.13 7200 1.58 0.527 9.06 0.1409 7.251 1.96
7.58 7.37 0.21 10800 1.51 0.503 13.59 0.15175 7.80901 2.1109
7.58 7.29 0.29 14400 1.4 0.467 18.12 0.15717 8.0879 2.1863
7.58 7.20 0.38 18000 1.61 0.537 22.65 0.16475 8.47836 2.29185
7.58 7.13 0.45 21600 1.64 0.547 27.18 0.16259 8.3668 2.26169

128
 Table – 4.32

Al + 15%RM Load – 10 N ρ = 2.49x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec

Heating Temp. = 4000C Cooling Water Temp. = 50C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D × 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv ×10-12 Ws ×10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.79 7.75 0.04 3600 0.86 0.86 4.53 0.08671 4.46229 3.6187
7.79 7.70 0.09 7200 0.88 0.88 9.06 0.09755 5.02008 4.07105
7.79 7.64 0.15 10800 0.85 0.85 13.59 0.10839 5.57787 4.52339
7.79 7.59 0.20 14400 0.87 0.87 18.12 0.10839 5.57787 4.52339
7.79 7.55 0.24 18000 0.77 0.77 22.65 0.10406 5.35475 4.34245
7.79 7.50 0.29 21600 0.79 0.79 27.18 0.10478 5.39194 4.37261

Table – 4.33

Al + 15%RM Load – 20 N ρ = 2.49x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec

Heating Temp. = 4000C Cooling Water Temp. = 50C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D× 103 Wr × 10-6 Wv ×10-12 Ws× 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
8.10 8.07 0.03 3600 1.18 0.59 4.53 0.06504 3.34672 1.35702
8.10 8.02 0.08 7200 1.44 0.72 9.06 0.08671 4.46229 1.80935
8.10 7.97 0.13 10800 1.41 0.705 13.59 0.09394 4.83415 1.96013
8.10 7.92 0.18 14400 1.25 0.625 18.12 0.09755 5.02008 2.03552
8.10 7.86 0.24 18000 1.18 0.59 22.65 0.10406 5.35475 2.17123
8.10 7.82 0.28 21600 1.10 0.55 27.18 0.10117 5.20601 2.11091

129
 Table – 4.34
Al + 15%RM Load – 30 N ρ = 2.49x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec

Heating Temp. = 4000C Cooling Water Temp. = 50C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D ×103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)
7.73 7.67 0.06 3600 1.9 0.633 4.53 0.13007 6.69344 1.80936
7.73 7.61 0.12 7200 1.8 0.60 9.06 0.13007 6.69344 1.80936
7.73 7.53 0.20 10800 1.8 0.60 13.59 0.14452 7.43716 2.0104
7.73 7.47 0.26 14400 1.9 0.633 18.12 0.14091 7.25123 1.96014
7.73 7.40 0.33 18000 1.86 0.62 22.65 0.14308 7.36278 1.99029
7.73 6.33 0.40 21600 1.88 0.627 27.18 0.14452 7.4372 2.0104

Table – 4.35

Al + 15%RM Load – 10 N ρ = 2.49x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec

Heating Temp. = 4500C Cooling Water Temp. = 50C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D ×103 Wr ×10-6 Wv × 10- Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) 12
(m3/N-m)
(m3/sec)
7.15 7.12 0.03 3600 0.77 0.77 4.53 0.06504 3.3467 2.714
7.15 7.08 0.07 7200 0.66 0.66 9.06 0.07588 3.905 3.1668
7.15 7.04 0.11 10800 0.69 0.69 13.59 0.07949 4.0904 3.3171
7.15 7.00 0.15 14400 0.67 0.67 18.12 0.0813 4.1834 3.3925
7.15 6.96 0.19 18000 0.78 0.78 22.65 0.08238 4.2392 3.4378
7.15 6.92 0.23 21600 0.66 0.66 27.18 0.0831 4.2764 3.468

130
 Table – 4.36

Al + 15%RM Load – 20 N ρ = 2.49x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec

Heating Temp. = 4500C Cooling Water Temp. = 50C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D ×103 Wr ×10-6 Wv × 10- Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) 12
(m3/N-m)
3
7.40 7.38 0.02 3600 1.14 0.57 4.53 0.04336 (2.2311
/ ) 0.9047
7.40 7.34 0.06 7200 1.19 0.595 9.06 0.06504 3.3467 1.357
7.40 7.30 0.10 10800 1.24 0.62 13.59 0.07226 3.7186 1.5078
7.40 7.26 0.14 14400 1.28 0.64 18.12 0.07588 3.9045 1.5832
7.40 7.20 0.20 18000 1.25 0.625 22.65 0.08671 4.4623 1.8094
7.40 7.15 0.25 21600 1.15 0.575 27.18 0.09033 4.6482 1.8847

Table – 4.37

Al + 15%RM Load – 30 N ρ = 2.49x 103 Kg/m3

RPM = 200 Vs = 1.257 m/sec

Heating Temp. = 4500C Cooling Water Temp. = 50C

m1 m2 ∆m t Ff µ R.D ×103 Wr × 10-6 Wv × 10-12 Ws × 10-13

(gm) (gm) (gm) (sec) (kgf) (m) (N/m) (m3/sec) (m3/N-m)

7.93 7.89 0.04 3600 1.5 0.5 4.53 0.08671 4.4623 1.2062
7.93 7.84 0.09 7200 1.9 0.633 9.06 0.09755 5.0201 1.357
7.93 7.78 0.15 10800 2.0 0.667 13.59 0.1084 5.5779 1.5078
7.93 7.72 0.21 14400 1.9 0.633 18.12 0.11381 5.85676 1.5832
7.93 7.65 0.28 18000 1.8 0.6 22.65 0.1214 6.2472 1.6887
7.93 7.59 0.34 21600 1.5 0.5 27.18 0.12285 6.32158 1.70883

131
 0.25
Load 10 N
Load 20 N H.T.Temp. - 3500C
Load 30 N
0.2
N/m
-6

0.15
Wear Rate X 10

0.1

0.05

0
0 4.53 9.06 13.59 18.12 22.65 27.18
Sliding Distance X 103 (meter)

Fig. 4.1 (a)

0.25
Load 10 N
Load 20 N H.T.Temp. - 4000C
Load 30 N
0.2
N/m

0.15
-6
Wear Rate X 10

0.1

0.05

0
0 4.53 9.06 13.59 18.12 22.65 27.18
3
Sliding Distance X 10 (meter)

Fig. 4.1 (b)

132
 0.2
Load 10 N
Load 20 N
H.T.Temp. - 4500C
Load 30 N

0.15
N/m
-6
Wear Rate X 10

0.1

0.05

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
3
Sliding Distance X 10 (meter)
Fig. 4.1 (c)

0.2
Load 10 N
H.T.Temp. - 5000C
Load 20 N
Load 30 N

0.15
Wear Rate X 10 N / m
-6

0.1

0.05

0
0 4.53 9.06 13.59 18.12 22.65 27.18
Sliding Distance X 103 (meter)
Fig. 4.1 (d)
Figs. 4.1 (a-d) Variation of wear rate with sliding distance for air cooling.

133
 0.2
Load 10 N
Load 2 0 N
H.T.Temp. - 3500C
Load 30 N

0.15
N/m
-6

0.1
Wear Rate X 10

0.05

0
0 4.53 9.06 13.59 18.12 22.65 27.18
Sliding Distance X 103 (meter)

Fig. 4.2 (a)

0.2
Load 10 N
Load 20 N H.T.Temp. - 4000C
Load 30 N

0.15
Wear Rate X 10 N/m

0.1
-6

0.05

0
0 4.53 9.06 13.59 18.12 22.65 27.18

Sliding Distance X 103 (meter)

Fig. 4.2 (b)

134
 0.2
Load 10 N
Load 20 N H.T.Temp. - 4500C
Load 30 N

0.15
N/m
-6

0.1
Wear Rate X 10

0.05

0
0 4.53 9.06 13.59 18.12 22.65 27.18

Sliding Distance X 103 (meter)

Fig. 4.2 (c)

0.25
Load 10 N
Load 20 N H.T.Temp. - 5000C
Load 30 N
0.2
N/m
-6

0.15
Wear Rate X 10

0.1

0.05

0
0 4.53 9.06 13.59 18.12 22.65 27.18
3
Sliding Distance X 10 (meter)
Fig. 4.2(d)
Figs. 4.2 (a-d) Variation of wear rate with sliding distance for
normal water quenching.

135
 0.25
L-10N&15deg
L-10N&5deg H.T.Temp. - 4000C
L-20N&15deg
L-20N&5deg
0.2 L-30N&15deg
L-30N&5deg
N/m

0.15
-6
Wear Rate X 10

0.1

0.05

0
0 4.53 9.06 13.59 18.12 22.65 27.18
3
Sliding Distance X 10 (meter)
Fig. 4.2 (e)

0.25
L-10N&15deg
L-10N&5deg
L-20N&15deg H.T.Temp. - 4500C
L-20N&5deg
0.2 L-30N&15deg
L-30N&5deg
N/m
-6

0.15
Wear Rate X10

0.1

0.05

0
0 4.53 9.06 13.59 18.12 22.65 27.18
Sliding Distance X 103 (meter)

Fig. 4.2 (f)

Figs. 4.2 (e-f) Variation of wear rate with sliding distance for
cooling water (15 & 5oC) quenching.

136
 12
Temp. 350
Temp. 400 Air Cooling
Temp. 450
m /s 10 Temp. 500
3
-12
Volumetric Wear Rate X 10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Normal Load (N)

Fig. 4.3 (a)

10
T - 350
T - 400 Water Quenching
T - 400(15)
T - 400(5)
m /s

8 T - 450
3

T - 450(15)
T - 450(5)
-12

T - 500
Volumetric Wear Rate x 10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Normal Load (N)
Fig. 4.3 (b)
Figs. 4.3 Variation of volumetric wear rate with normal load for
(a) air cooling, & (b) water quenching.

137
 3.5
Load 10 N
Load 20 N H.T.Temp. - 3500C
m /N-m
3
3 Load 30 N

2.5
-13
Specific Wear Rate X 10

1.5

0.5

0
0 4.53 9.06 13.59 18.12 22.65 27.18
3
Sliding Didtance X 10 (meter)

Fig. 4.4 (a)

3
Load 10 N H.T.Temp. - 4000C
Load 20 N
2.5 Load 30 N
m / N-m
3

2
-13
Specific Wear Rate X 10

1.5

0.5

0
0 4.53 9.06 13.59 18.12 22.65 27.18
Sliding Distance X 103 (meter)

Fig. 4.4 (b)

138
 3
Load 10 N 0
Load 20 N H.T.Temp. - 450 C
Load 30 N
m / N-m 2.5
3

2
-13
Specific Wear Rate X 10

1.5

0.5

0
0 4.53 9.06 13.59 18.12 22.65 27.18
3
Sliding Distance X 10 (meter)
Fig. 4.4 (c)

3
Load 10 N
Load 20 N H.T.Temp. - 5000C
Load 30 N
2.5
m /N-m
3

2
-13
Specific Wear Rate X 10

1.5

0.5

0
0 4.53 9.06 13.59 18.12 22.65 27.18

Sliding Distance X 103 (meter)

Fig. 4.4 (d)
Figs. 4.4 (a-d) Variation of specific wear rate with sliding distance
for air cooling.

139
 8
Load10N&15deg
Load20N&15deg
7 Load30N&15deg H.T.Temp. - 4000C
m /N-m Load10N&5deg
Load20N&5deg
6 load30N&5deg
3
-13

5
Specific Wear Rate X 10

0
0 4.53 9.06 13.59 18.12 22.65 27.18

Sliding Distance x 103 (meter)

Fig. 4.5 (a)

8
Load10N&15deg
Load10N&5deg
7 Load20N&15deg H.T.Temp. - 4500C
m /N-m

Load20N&5deg
Load30N&15deg
Load30N&5deg
6
3
-13

5
Specific Wear Rate X 10

0
0 4.53 9.06 13.59 18.12 22.65 27.18
3
Sliding Distance X 10 (meter)

Fig. 4.5 (b)

Figs. 4.5 (a-b) Variation of specific wear rate with sliding distance for
cooling water quenching.

140
 1.2
Load 10 N (A)
Load 20 N (A)
Load 30 N (A)
H.T.Temp. - 3500C
Load 10 N (W)
1 Load 20 N (W)
Load 30 N (W)

0.8
Coefficient of Friction, μ

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 4.53 9.06 13.59 18.12 22.65 27.18

Sliding Distance X 103 (meter)

Fig. 4.6 (a)

1.2
Load 10 N(A)
Load 20 N (A)
Load 30 N (A) H.T.Temp. - 4000C
Load 10 N (W)
1 Load 20 N (W)
Load 30 N(W)
Coefficient of Friction, μ

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 4.53 9.06 13.59 18.12 22.65 27.18
3
Sliding Distance X 10 (meter)
Fig. 4.6 (b)

141
 1.2
Load 10 N (A)
H.T.Temp. - 4500C Load 20 N (A)
Load 30 N (A)
1 Load 10 N (W)
Load 20 N (W)
Coefficient of Friction, μ Load 30 N (W)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 4.53 9.06 13.59 18.12 22.65 27.18

Sliding Distance X 103 (meter)

Fig. 4.6 (c)

1.2
Load 10 N (A)
Load 20 N (A)
Load 30 N (A) H.T.Temp. - 5000C
1 Load 10 N (W)
Load 20 N (W)
Load 30 N (W)
Coefficient of Friction, μ

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 4.53 9.06 13.59 18.12 22.65 27.18
3
Sliding Distance X 10 (meter)
Fig. 4.6 (d)
Figs. 4.6 (a-d) Variation of coefficient of friction with sliding distance for
different heat treated temperatures.

142
 0.3
WHT
350 A
350 W
0.25 400 A
400 W
450 A
450 W
Wear Rate X 10 N/m

500 A
0.2 500 W
-6

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Normal Load (N)
Fig. 4.7 (a) Comparison of wear rate with and without heat treatment
for air cooling and normal water (250C) quenching.

0.3
WHT
400W(15)
400W(5)
0.25 450W(15)
450W(5)

0.2
Wear Rate x 10 N/m
-6

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Normal Load (N)

Fig. 4.7 (b) Comparison of wear rate with and without heat treatment
for cooling water (15 & 50C) quenching.

143
 5
WHT
A
Normal Load - 10 N
m /N-m W
4 W at15
W at 5
3
-13

3
Specific Wear Rate X 10

0
350 400 450 500
0
Heat Treated Temperature (in C)

Fig. 4.8 (a)

5
WHT
A Normal Load - 20 N
W
m / N-m

W at 15
4 W at 5
3
-13

3
Specific Wear Rate X 10

0
350 400 450 500
Heat Treated Temperature (in 0C)

Fig. 4.8 (b)

144
 5
WHT Normal Load - 30 N
A
W
m / N-m

W at 15
4 W at 5
3
-13

3
Specific Wear Rate X 10

0
350 400 450 500

Heat Treated Temperature (in 0C)

Fig. 4.8 (c)

Figs.4.8 (a-c) Comparison of specific wear rate with and without heat treatment
for different loads

145
 200 X

(a)

200 X

(b)

Figs. 4.9 Micrographs showing wear surface of heat treated samples for
air cooling (a) load 30N & temperature 3500C
(b) load 30N & temperature 4500C

146
 200 X

(a)

200 X

(b)

200 X

(c)
Figs.4.10 Micrographs showing wear surface of heat treated samples for water
quenching (a) load 10N, temp. 4500C & quenching water temp. 150C
(b) load 20N, temp. 4500C & quenching water temp. 50C
(c) load 30N, temp. 4500C & quenching water temp. 50C.

******

147
 CHAPTER – 5
PREDICTION OF WEAR BY USING NEURAL NETWORKS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

An artificial neural network is a parallel distributed information processing

system. ANN (Artificial Neural Network) is developed in the model of human brain. A
brief description is included in the following section.

Biological neurons

The structure and the functioning of the human brain have been studied by
many neurophysiologists. However, only an overview of it is available at present.
Basically the brain functions with a very dense network of neurons. Fig 5.1 (a) below
indicates a typical biological neuron. The brain contains as many as 1011 neurons
connected to each other by as many as 1015 interconnections among them.

Fig 5.1 (a) A biological neuron (b) An artificial neuron

148
A neuron consists mainly of the following parts:
The cell body
The axon
The dendrite

The dendrite is responsible for carrying the signals from various other
neurons to the neuron of which it is a part. These dendrites are spread in a branched form
to carry complex electro-chemical signals. On the other hand, an axon carries the signal
from the cell body to various other neurons. When many dendrites carry signals to the cell
body they are essentially accumulated there. After a sufficient time a signal is generated by
the cell body and the same is sent down by the axon if the accumulation exceeds a
threshold. The biological neural network also demonstrates various other behaviors which
are very difficult to simulate using presently available hardware and software. Hence the
neural units in the artificial neural network are developed as a very approximate model of
the biological neurons.

Artificial neurons

An artificial neuron can carry out a simple mathematical operation and or

can compare two values. Fig 5.1(b) describes an artificial neuron gets input from other
neurons or directly from the environment. The path connecting two neurons is associated
with a certain variable weight which represents the synaptic strength of the connection.
The input to a neuron from another neuron is obtained by multiplying the output of the
connected neuron by the synaptic strength of the connection between them. The artificial
neuron then sums up all the weighted inputs coming to it.
m
xj = ∑i =1
w ij o i ------------------- (5.1)

Where Xj = summation of all the inputs for neuron j

Wij = synaptic strength between neuron i and neuron j
Oi = output of neuron i
m = total number of neurons sending input to neuron j

149
 Each neuron is associated with a threshold value and a squashing function.
The squashing function is used to compare the weighted sum of inputs and the threshold
value of that neuron. If the threshold value is exceeded by the weighted sum the neuron
goes to a higher state, i.e. the output of the neuron becomes high. Different squashing
functions are used in different applications. In the present work a back propagation
learning algorithm has been used.

The output of the neuron for a given input can be controlled to a desired
value by adjusting the synaptic strengths and the threshold values of the neuron. In an
artificial neural network (ANN) several neurons can be connected in variety of ways.
Many different types of neural nets have been developed [200]. The network architecture
has to be selected keeping the problem at hand in mind. For the present investigation a feed
forward network is most suitable.

5.2 FEED FORWARD NETWORK

In a feed forward network the neural units are classified into different
layers. The network consists of one input layer, one or two hidden layers and one

Back Propagation

Hidden Layers

Input Layer
Output Layer

Feedforward

Fig.5.2 A feed forward network

150
output layer of neurons. Fig.5.2 presents a typical feed forward network. It may be noted
that all the neurons between two successive layers are fully connected, i.e. each neuron of a
layer is connected to each neuron of neighboring layers. However, there is no connection
between neurons of the same layers. The input layer receives input information and passes
it onto the neurons of the hidden layer(s), which in turn pass the information to the output
layer. The output from the output layer is the prediction of the net for the corresponding
input supplied at the input nodes. Each neuron in the network behaves in the same way.
There is no reliable method for deciding the numbers of neural units require for a particular
problem. This is decided based on experience and a few trials are required to determine the
best configuration of the net.

In a feed forward network the knowledge is stored in a distributed manner,

in the form of synaptic strengths and thresholds. Thus it can generalized, i.e. it may be
used for the situations for which the net has not been trained. Initially, the synaptic
strengths and the threshold values are allocated randomly. To train the network for a
specific knowledge a set of training examples are prepared. A training example consists of
a set of values for the input neurons and the corresponding values for the output neurons.
Several of such input- output pairs are to be prepared carefully to reflect all the aspects that
the net needs to learn. All the training examples together form the training set. In the
beginning of the training process, as the synaptic strengths and threshold are selected
randomly the output predicted by the net for a particular input and the output supplied in
the corresponding training examples may not match. However, the synaptic strengths and
the thresholds can be adjusted so that the net predicts the output correctly. As several
examples are to be learnt by the net there must be a sufficient number of neural units in the
net. The adjustments in the synaptic strengths and thresholds are carried out following a
learning algorithm. The back propagation algorithm has been used in the present work for
this purpose.
The back Propagation algorithm
The back propagation algorithm is a generalized form of the least mean
square training algorithm for perceptron learning [201,202]. It uses the gradient search

151
method to minimize the error function which is the mean square difference between the
desired and the predicted output. The error for the pth example is given by

Ep = ∑ (d
i
j - oj )2 ----------------------- (5.2)

Where dj = the output desired at neuron j and oj = the actual output of neuron j.
Oj = f (ßj) = f ( ∑ wij oi ) ----------------------- (5.3)
i

The error can be minimized by moving along the steepest decent direction on the error
surface
∂E ∂E ∂β j ∂E
= = oi = δjoi --------------- (5.4)
∂wij ∂β j ∂wij ∂β j

Where δj for a neuron is

δ=f'(ßj) ∑ δ k wkj --------------------------------- (5.5)
k

and f ' indicates the first order derivative of the function and k indicates a neuron in the
layer which is successive to the layer which contains neuron j. Therefore, the weight
matrix can be adjusted recursively for each example
wij (t +1) = wij (t) + η δj xi ---------------------------- (5.6)
Where η is an adjustable gain term which controls the rate of convergence.
The above operation is repeated for each example and for all the neurons
until a satisfactory convergence is achieved for all the examples present in the training set.

5.3 NEURAL NETWORKS IN MATERIAL SCIENCE

The feed forward neural networks have been applied to the solution of
various engineering problems such as design of equipment and structures, fault detection,
management of manufacturing and construction, etc. They have also been effective in
computer implementations of natural process such as natural language understanding,
speech recognition, pattern recognition, etc. This tool can be utilized very effectively in the
solution of problems of material science. The materials are either available in nature or are
the product of engineering. The behaviour of the material is best understood by carrying
out experiments. Conventionally, the experimentally observed behaviour of a material

152
using is modeled analytically using simple algebraic expressions. The analytical expression
should predict the material behaviour which agrees closely with the experimental
observations. However, it may not always be possible to capture every material behaviour
by means of a simple expression. The development of such expressions can be extremely
difficult and time consuming. Moreover, the behaviour of modern materials is becoming
more and more complicated and they demand a more detailed study. The feedforward
neural networks can be extremely helpful in capturing the experimentally observed
material behaviour directly which precludes the necessity of developing analytical
expressions. The neural networks generalize on their own. Therefore, they are also
effective in predicting the behaviour of a new material before the material is produced in
the laboratory. This may reduce the cost of expensive experiments.

ANN for Prediction of Wear

Very few works have been reported for modeling and prediction of wear
properties of MMCs by using ANN technique.

K.Velten [203], Jones [204], K.Genel [205] have used different ANN
models in tribological applications. Their modeling results confirm the feasibility of ANN
and its good co-relation with the experimental results. Rosit Koker [206], S. Schmauder
[207] used ANN technique for finding out the properties of different MMCs. They have
the opinion that ANN is a powerful tool to predict the properties of MMCs if it is properly
trained. Wear is not an intrinsic material property but characteristics of the engineering
system which depend on load, speed, temperature, hardness, presence of foreign material
and environmental conditions. Experiments have been successfully completed and have
already been discussed in chapter - 3 & 4. In this present investigation attempt has been
made to confirm the applicability of ANN techniques for prediction of Wear of MMC by
comparing the results of ANN with the experimental results.

In this study, the back propagation which is a widely used algorithm is used
in training. It can map non linear process. It is a feed forward network with one or more
hidden layers. The elementary architecture of the back propagation network has three

153
layers. There are no constraints about the number of hidden layers. Back propagation is a
systematic method of training multiplayer artificial neural networks. Several applications
of artificial neural network for modeling of non linear process system and subsequent
control have been reported by Bhat and Mc.Avoy [208] and Singh and Mohanty [209].

In the present investigation, a software package developed by Rao & Rao

[210] has been used for predicting the wear behaviour of aluminium red mud composite.
The four layered ANN structure used for the present study is shown in Fig. 5.3.

Input Layer Hidden Layer 1 Hidden Layer 2

Output Layer
Normal Load
Wear Rate
Sliding Distance Volumetric
Wear Rate
. .
Heat treated Specific Wear
. .
temperature Rate
. .

Fig.5.3 Structure of four Layered Neural

Validation of the system

From the original process data two neural networks were tested with fifty
nine data sets. Neural net work-1 was used for air & water cooled samples where as
network II was used for water cooled at 15 and 50 C respectively. Each data set contained
inputs such as normal load, sliding distance, heat treated temperatures and an out put
values (wear rate, volumetric wear rate and specific wear rate) were returned by the
prediction neural network. Training parameters used for network I and II are shown in
table 5.1 and 5.2.

154
5.4 RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS

The Predicted values of wear rate, volumetric wear rate, & specific wear
rate with normal load for different heat treated temperatures are shown in Figs.5.4 (a-d),
5.5 (a-d), and 5.6 (a-d). Dotted line refers to neural network results and solid line refers to
experimental results. It is seen from these figures that the predicted values are coinciding
with the experimental values with mean relative error varying between 4 to 0.46 percent.
Hence the predicted results can be acceptable.

5.5 CONCLUSION

In this work, a neural network is designed to predict the volumetric,

specific, and wear rate of the particle reinforced aluminium matrix composite according to
given volume percent of red mud particles. This study has shown the capability of ANN to
predict the wear properties of aluminium red mud composite. It can be concluded that
ANN is a good analytical tool that has potential used in the field of tribology if properly
used. The well trained neural network provides more useful data from relatively small
experimental data base and also can be used to know the results of the critical and large
operating conditions.

155
 Table - 5.1

Training parameters used in Prediction Neural Network – I

Training input parameters Values

Error tolerance 0.01

Learning parameter 0.01
Momentum coefficient 0.001
Noise factor 0.001
Cycles 500000
Slope parameter of sigmoid function 0.6
Hidden layer 2
Number of inputs 3
Number of hidden layer neurons 12
Number of output 3

Table - 5.2

Training parameters used in Prediction Neural Network – II

Training input parameters Values

Error tolerance 0.01
Learning parameter 0.01
Momentum coefficient 0.001
Noise factor 0.001
Cycles 200000
Slope parameter of sigmoid function 0.6
Hidden layer 2
Number of inputs 3
Number of hidden layer neurons 12
Number of output 3

156
 0.25
Ea
Pa
Ew 0
Pw H.T.Temp. - 350 C
0.2
Wear Rate x 10 N/m

0.15
-6

0.1

0.05

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Normal Load (N)
Fig. 5.4 (a)

0.2
Ea
Pa 0
Ew H.T.Temp. - 400 C
Pw
Ew15
Wear Rate x 10 N / m

0.15 Pw15
Ew5
Pw5
-6

0.1

0.05

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Normal Load (N)

Fig. 5.4 (b)

157
 0.2
Ea
Pa 0
Ew H.T.Temp. - 450 C
Pw
Ew15
0.15 Pw15
Ew5
Pw5
Wear Rate x 10 N/m
-6

0.1

0.05

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Normal Load (N)

Fig. 5.4 (c)

0.2
Ea
Pa
Ew 0
Pw H.T.Temp. - 500 C
0.15
Wear Rate X 10 N / m
-6

0.1

0.05

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Normal Load (N)

Fig. 5.4 (d)

Figs.5.4 (a-d) Comparison between experimental and predicted values of

wear rate with different load (using ANN- I & II).

158
 12
Ea
Pa
Ew

Volumetric Wear Rate x 10 m /s

0
3
-12 10 Pw H.T.Temp. - 350 C

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Normal Load (N)
Fig. 5.5 (a)

10
Ea
Pa
Ew 0
H.T.Temp.- 400 C
m /s

Pw
3

Ew15
8 Pw15
-12

Ew5
Pw5
Volumetric Wear Rate x 10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Normal Load (N)

Fig. 5.5 (b)

159
 10
Ea
Pa
Ew 0

m /s
3
Pw H.T.Temp. - 450 C
Ew15
8 Pw15
-12

Ew5
Volumetric Wear Rate x 10
Pw5

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Normal Load (N)
Fig. 5.5 (c)

9
Ea
Pa
8
Volumetric Wear Rate x 10 m /s

Ew 0
H.T.Temp. - 500 C
3

Pw
7
-12

6
5
4
3
2
1

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Normal Load (N)
Fig. 5.5 (d)

Fig. 5.5(a-d) Comparison between experimental and predicted values of

volumetric wear rate with different load (using ANN- I & II).

160
 3
Ea
Pa 0
H.T.Temp. - 350 C
m / N-m
Ew
3
-13 2.5 Pw

2
Specific Wear Rate x 10

1.5

0.5

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Normal Load (N)

Fig. 5.6 (a)

6
Ea
Pa
Ew
5 Pw 0
m / N-m

Ew15 H.T.Temp. - 400 C

Pw15
Ew5
Pw5
3

4
-13
Specific Wear Rate x 10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Normal Load (N)

Fig. 5.6 (b)

161
 10
Ea
Pa 0
Ew H.T.Temp. - 450 C
m /N-m Pw
8 Ew15
Pw15
3

Ew5
Pw5
-13
Specific Wear Rate x 10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Normal Load (N)

Fig. 5.6 (c)
3
Ea
Pa 0
Ew H.T.Temp. - 500 C
Pw
Specific Wear Rate x 10 m / N-m

2.5
3

2
-13

1.5

0.5

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Normal Load (N)
Fig. 5.6 (d)
Figs.5.6 (a-d) Comparison between experimental and predicted values of
specific wear rate with different load (using ANN- I & II).

*****

162
 CHAPTER - 6

CONCLUSIONS

The conclusions drawn from the present investigation are as follows:

• Red mud, the waste generated from alumina plant can be successfully used as a
reinforcing material to produce Metal-Matrix Composite (MMC) component in
aluminium matrix to be used in wear environment. It can be successfully used in
place of conventional aluminium intensive material, there by a saving of about 15
percent matrix material could be achieved.

• There is good dispersibility of red mud particles in aluminium matrix which

improves the hardness of the matrix material and also the wear behaviour of the
composite. The effect is increase in interfacial area between the matrix material and
the red mud particles leading to increase in strength appreciably.

• The specific wear rate of the composite decreases with addition of filler volume
fraction, and after attaining a minimum value (15-20%) it again increases. Thus there
exists an optimum filler volume fraction which gives maximum wear resistance to
the composite.

• Many parameters e.g. sliding velocity, sliding distance and load are responsible for
wear. However it is more appropriate to express the sliding wear results in terms of
wear co-efficient (K), extracted from Archard’s law. Wear Co-efficient (K) is a Co-
relation factor between several variables of the sliding wear experimental results.
For the present case it is found that wear co-efficient tends to decrease with
increasing particles volume contact (15-20%), which confirms that red mud
addition is beneficial in reducing the wear of aluminium red mud composite.

163
• The results indicate that quenching of heat treated samples in water gives better
wear resistance than that achieved by air cooling. This is due to higher cooling rates
attained in water quenching which induces more strain in the samples when
compared to those induced by air cooling.

• The heat treatment temperatures concerned are low. So the occurrence of chemical
reaction between the phases present is approximately nil. However, there is the
chance of mutual dissolution among the phases present and the phases formed to
increase the wear resistance by heat treatment.

• It appears from this study that the oxide phases like Al2O3, Fe2O3, TiO2 etc. might
have dispersed uniformly through out in the aluminium matrix thus strengthening
the resulting (heat treated) composite.

• It has been observed that the debris formed during sliding wear is mainly consist of
iron oxide (Fe2O3). Crack formation, propagation and alignment of hard particles
(red mud) are the consequence of the operating mechanisms. When a sample is
quenched; although the grain size of aluminium remains smaller but heating at
4500C has generated grain growth and matrix hardening. So with increased applied
load debris which is formed might have pressed on the surface there by reducing
the material loss in the samples.

• The wear properties of the composite depends on many factors, such as sliding
velocity, filler volume fraction, sliding distance and load. Computation through
neural networks is one of the recently growing areas of artificial intelligence.
Neural networks are promising due to their ability to learn highly non-liner
relationship. It can also be gainfully employed to simulate property-parameters co-
relationship in a space larger than the experimental domain. It is evident from the
present study that the artificial neural technique has the potential to predict and
analyze the wear behaviour of metal matrix composites if it is properly trained.

164
 Recommendation for Further Research

• In this study red mud particles of 150 microns have been used. This can further be
extended to other particle sizes to study the effect of particle size on wear
behaviour of the composite.

• Since the heat treated samples with different quenching media are showing good
wear resistant properties, the work can be further extended to other quenching
media like brine solution, oil quenching etc. The heat treatment temperatures of
4000 C to 4500 C are showing better wear resistance values. Therefore, at these
temperatures the soaking time can be increased and further the wear properties can
be evaluated.

• The present investigation is limited to sand casting only. However other available
casting techniques could be tried and analyzed so that a final conclusion can be
drawn there from. However the results provided in this thesis can act as a base for
the utilization of this industrial waste to prepare a composite to be used in wear
environment.

*****

165
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187
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No Title Page No

2.1 Flow chart for composite fabrication by diffusion bonding 39

2.2 General flow chart for fabrication of composite by powder 40

metallurgy technique

2.3 Flow chart for FP/AI plate casting 41

2.4 Sequences of the squeeze casting process with a vertical 42

machine.

2.5 Schematic of spray deposition equipment 42

2.6 MMC by casting route through Stir Casting method 43

2.7 Compocasting: mixing fibers(or Particulates) with metal 44

3.1 Schematic representations of the abrasion wear mechanism 53

3.2 Schematic representations of the adhesive wear mechanism 54

3.3 Schematic representations of the erosive wear mechanism 54

3.4 Schematic representations of the Surface Fatigue wear 55

mechanism

3.5 Pin on disc experimental set up 92

3.6 XRD Pattern of NALCO red mud 93

3.7 XRD Pattern of 20% red mud composite 94

3.8 Micrographs showing red mud distribution in the composites of 95

different volume fractions

3.9 - 3.11 Variation of wear rate with sliding distance at different load 96

3.12 - 3.14 Variation of specific wear rate with filler volume fraction for 97
different load

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3.15 - 3.17 Variation of specific wear rate with sliding velocity for 99
different load

3.18 - 3.20 Variation of volumetric wear rate with normal load for 100
different rpm

3.21 Variation of wear coefficient (K) with filler volume fraction 102

3.22 - 3.24 Variation of coefficient of friction (µ) with normal load for 102
different rpm

3.25 Micrographs showing wear surface of 10% red mud at different 104
load and different rpm

3.26 Micrographs showing wear surface of 15% red mud at different 105
load and different rpm

3.27 Micrographs showing wear surface of 20% red mud at different 105
load and different rpm

4.1 Variation of wear rate with sliding distance for air cooling at 133
different heat treated temperatures

4.2 Variation of wear rate with sliding distance for normal water 135
quenching at different heat treated temperature

4.3 Variation of volumetric wear rate with normal load for air 137
cooling & water quenching

4.4 Variation of specific wear rate with sliding distance for air 138
cooling at different heat treated temperature

4.5 Variation of specific wear rate with sliding distance for cooling 140
Water quenching at 400 & 4500C heat treated temperature

4.6 Variation of coefficient of friction with sliding distance for air 141
cooling & water quenching at different heat treated temperature

4.7 Comparison of wear rate with and without heat treatment for air 143
cooling and water quenching

4.8 Comparison of specific wear rate and without heat treatment 144
for different loads

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4.9 Micrographs showing wear surface of heat treated samples for 146
air cooling

4.10 Micrographs showing wear surface of heat treated samples for 147
water quenching

5.1 A biological neuron & An artificial neuron 148

5.2 A feed forward network 150

5.3 Structure of four layered Neural Network 154

5.4 Comparison between experimental and predicted values of 157

wear rate with different load

5.5 Comparison between experimental and predicted values of 159

volumetric wear rate with different load for different heat
treated temperature

5.6 Comparison between experimental and predicted values of 161

specific wear rate with different load for different heat treated
temperature

*****

190
 LIST OF TABLES

Table No Title Page No

1.1 Classification of Composites 6

1.2 Advantages and limitations of polymeric matrix materials 10

1.3 Application temperatures of some matrix material 11

1.4 Trends for temperature application of heat resistant 12

composites

1.5 Research and development work on red mud utilization in 19

India

3.1 Priority in wears research 47

3.2 Type of wear in industry 48

3.3 Symptoms and appearance of different types of wear 56

3.4 Compositional analysis of aluminium 58

3.5 Density, Hardness & Tensile Strength of aluminium 58

3.6 Chemical analysis of red mud 68

191
3.7 Mechanical properties of specimens 68

3.8 - Experimental results of wear rate of different test pieces 69

3.52 at different test conditions

4.1 Hardness of heat treated composite samples 113

4.2 - Experimental results of air cooled heat treated samples at 114

4.13 different temperatures and loads

4.14 - Experimental results of the normal water (250C) 120

4.25 quenched heat treated samples at different temperatures
and loads

4.26 - Experimental results of the water (150C) quenched heat 126

4.31 treated samples at different temperatures and loads

4.32 - Experimental results of the water (50C) quenched heat 129

4.37 treated samples at different temperatures and loads

5.1 Training parameters used in Prediction Neural Network-I 156

5.2 Training parameters used in Prediction Neural Network-II 156

*****

192
 CURRICULUM VITAE

Name NARESH PRASAD

E-mail [email protected]
Date of birth 10th January 1964
Present Address Department of Mechanical Engineering
NIT, Jamshedpur-831014, Jharkhand (India)
Qualification
B.Sc. Engg. (Mech.) 1987, Bihar University, Muzaffarpur
M.Tech. (Mech.) 1999, Bihar University, Muzaffarpur
Experience 15 years, Teaching

Publications

1. Prasad Naresh & Acharya S.K; “Development of Metal Matrix Composite Using
Red mud an Industrial Waste for Wear Resistant Applications.” Proceedings of the
International Conference on Industrial Tribology, Mumbai, Dec.15-18, 2004,
pp.164-170.
2. Prasad Naresh & Acharya S.K: “Sliding Wear Behaviour of Aluminium Red
mud Composite.” Proceedings of the 49th Congress of Indian Society of
Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Dec.27-30, 2004, pp. 51.
3. Prasad Naresh & Acharya S.K; “Tribological Behaviour of Aluminium Red Mud
Composite.” Presented at the 12th International Conference on Solid Waste
Technology and Management, Philadelphia, USA, April 3-6, 2005.
4. Prasad Naresh, & Acharya S.K; “Wear Behaviour of Aluminium Red Mud
Composite.” Accepted for publication in The Journal of Institution of Engineers
(India), Metallurgical and Material Science Division.
5. Prasad Naresh, & Acharya S.K; “Evaluation of Tribological Properties of
Aluminium Red Mud Composite Using Artificial Neural Networks.” Accepted for
publication in The Journal of Institution of Engineers (India).
6. Prasad Naresh & Acharya S.K; “Dry Sliding Wear Behaviour of Aluminium Red
Mud Composite for Wear Resistant Applications.” Proceeding of the 43rd National
Metallurgists’ Day, ATM 14-16 Nov. 2005, WT-15, pp. 201.

*****

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