Introduction

 The photogrammetry has been derived from three Greek words:

o Photos: means light
o Gramma: means something drawn or written
o Metron: means to measure
 This definition, over the years, has been enhanced to include
interpretation as well as measurement with photographs.

Definition
The art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable information about
physical objects and the environment through process of recording,
measuring, and interpreting photographic images and patterns of
recorded radiant electromagnetic energy and phenomenon (American
Society of Photogrammetry, Slama).
 Originally photogrammetry was considered as the science of
analysing only photographs.
 But now it also includes analysis of other records as well, such as
radiated acoustical energy patterns and magnetic phenomenon.

Definition of photogrammetry includes two areas:

(1) Metric:

It involves making precise measurements from photos and other

information source to determine, in general, relative location of points.
Most common application: preparation of plannimetric and topographic
maps.

(2) Interpretative:

It involves recognition and identification of objects and judging their

significance through careful and systematic analysis. It includes
photographic interpretation which is the study of photographic images. It
also includes interpretation of images acquired in Remote Sensing using
photographic images, MSS, Infrared, TIR, SLAR etc.
Definitions
Aerial Photogrammetry
Photographs of terrain in an area are taken by a precision
photogrammetric camera mounted in an aircraft flying over an area.
Terrestrial Photogrammetry
Photographs of terrain in an area are taken from fixed and usually known
position or near the ground and with the camera axis horizontal or nearly
so.
Photo-interpretation
Aerial/terrestrial photographs are used to evaluate, analyse, and classify
and interpret images of objects which can be seen on the photographs.

Applications of photogrammetry
Photogrammetry has been used in several areas. The following description give an
overview of various applications areas of photogrammetry (Rampal, 1982)
(1) Geology:
Structural geology, investigation of water resources, analysis of thermal patterns on
earth's surface, geomorphological studies including investigations of shore features.

 engineering geology
 stratigraphics studies
 general geologic applications
 study of luminescence phenomenon
 recording and analysis of catastrophic events
 earthquakes, floods, and eruption.

(2) Forestry:
Timber inventories, cover maps, acreage studies
(3) Agriculture
Soil type, soil conservation, crop planting, crop disease, crop-acreage.
(4) Design and construction
Data needed for site and route studies specifically for alternate schemes for
photogrammetry. Used in design and construction of dams, bridges, transmission lines.
(5) Planning of cities and highways
New highway locations, detailed design of construction contracts, planning of civic
improvements.
(6) Cadastre
Cadastral problems such as determination of land lines for assessment of taxes. Large
scale cadastral maps are prepared for reapportionment of land.
(7) Environmental Studies
Land-use studies.
(8) Exploration
To identify and zero down to areas for various exploratory jobs such as oil or mineral
exploration.
(9) Military intelligence
Reconnaissance for deployment of forces, planning manoeuvres, assessing effects of
operation, initiating problems related to topography, terrain conditions or works.
(10) Medicine and surgery
Stereoscopic measurements on human body, X-ray photogrammetry in location of
foreign material in body and location and examinations of fractures and grooves,
biostereometrics.
(11) Miscellaneous
Crime detection, traffic studies, oceanography, meteorological observation, Architectural
and archaeological surveys, contouring beef cattle for animal husbandry etc.

Categories of photogrammetry
 Photogrammetry is divided into different categories according to the types of
photographs or sensing system used or the manner of their use as given below:

(1) On the basis of orientation of camera axis:

(i) Terrestrial or ground photogrammetry
When the photographs are obtained from the ground station with camera axis
horizontal or nearly horizontal
(ii) Aerial photogrammetry
If the photographs are obtained from an airborne vehicle. The photographs are
called vertical if the camera axis is truly vertical or if the tilt of the camera axis is less than
3o. If tilt is more than (often given intentionally), the photographs are
called oblique photographs.
(2) On the basis of sensor system used:
Following names are popularly used to indicate type of sensor system used in recording
imagery.
 Radargrammetry: Radar sensor
 X-ray photogrammetry: X-ray sensor
  Hologrammetry: Holographs
 Cine photogrammetry: motion pictures
 Infrared or colour photogrammetry: infrared or colour photographs

(3) On the basis of principle of recreating geometry

When single photographs are used with the stereoscopic effect, if any, it is
called monoscopic photogrammetry. If two overlapping photographs are used to
generate three dimensional view to create relief model, it is called
stereophotogrammetry. It is the most popular and widely used form of photogrammetry.
(4) On the basis of procedure involved for reducing the data from photographs
Three types of photogrammetry are possible under this classification:
(a) Instrumental or analogue photogrammetry
It involves photogrammetric instruments to carry out tasks.
(b) Semi-analytical or analytical
Analytical photogrammetry solves problems by establishing mathematical relationship
between coordinates on photographic image and real world objects. Semi-analytical
approach is hybrid approach using instrumental as well analytical principles.
(c) Digital Photogrammetry or softcopy photogrammetry
It uses digital image processing principle and analytical photogrammetry tools to carry
out photogrammetric operation on digital imagery.
(5) On the basis of platforms on which the sensor is mounted:
If the sensing system is spaceborne, it is called space photogrammetry, satellite
photogrammetry or extra-terrestrial photogrammetry.
Out of various types of the photogrammetry, the most commonly used forms are
stereophotogrammetry utilizing a pair of vertical aerial photographs (stereopair) or
terrestrial photogrammetry using a terrestrial stereopair.

Classification of Photographs
The following paragraphs give details of classification of photographs used in different
applications
(1) On the basis of the alignment of optical axis
(a) Vertical : If optical axis of the camera is held in a vertical or nearly vertical position.
(b) Tilted : An unintentional and unavoidable inclination of the optical axis from vertical
produces a tilted photograph.
(c) Oblique : Photograph taken with the optical axis intentionally inclined to the vertical.
Following are different types of oblique photographs:
(i) High oblique: Oblique which contains the apparent horizon of the earth.
(ii) Low oblique: Apparent horizon does not appear.
(iii) Trimetrogon: Combination of a vertical and two oblique photographs in which the
central photo is vertical and side ones are oblique. Mainly used for reconnaissance.
(iv) Convergent: A pair of low obliques taken in sequence along a flight line in such a
manner that both the photographs cover essentially the same area with their axes tilted
at a fixed inclination from the vertical in opposite directions in the direction of flight line so
that the forward exposure of the first station forms a stereo-pair with the backward
exposure of the next station.
Comparison of photographs
Type of Vertical Low oblique High oblique
photo
Tilt < 3o Horizon does not Horizon appears
Characteristics appear
Coverage Least Less Greatest
Area Rectangular Trapezoidal Trapezoidal
Scale Uniform if flat Decreases from Decreases from
foreground to foreground to
background background
Difference with Least Less Greatest
map
Advantage Easiest to map - Economical and
illustrative

(2). On the basis of the scale

(a) Small scale - 1 : 30000 to 1 : 250000, used for rigorous mapping of undeveloped
terrain and reconnaissance of vast areas.
(b) Medium scale - 1 : 5000 to 1 : 30000, used for reconnaissance, preliminary survey
and intelligence purpose.
(c) Large scale - 1 : 1000 to 1 : 5000, used for engineering survey, exploring mines.
(3). On the basis of angle of coverage
The angle of coverage is defined as the angle, the diagonal of the negative format
subtends at the real node of the lens of the apex angle of the cone of rays passing
through the front nodal point of the lens.
Name Coverage Format Focal
angle size (cm) length (cm)
Standard or normal angle 60o (i) 18 (i) 21
(ii) 23 (ii) 30
o
Wide angle 90 (i) 18 (i) 11.5
(ii) 23 (ii) 15
o
Super wide or ultra wide 120 (i) 18 (i) 7
angle (ii) 23 (ii) 8.8
o
Narrow angle < 60
Information recorded on photographs
The following information is recorded on a typical aerial photograph
1. Fiducial marks for determination of principal points.
2. Altimeter recording to find flying height at the moment of exposure.
3. Watch recording giving the time of exposure.
4. Level bubble recording indicating tilt of camera axis.
5. Principal distance for determining the scale of photograph.
6. Number of photograph, the strip and specification no. for easy handling and
indexing.
7. Number of camera to obtain camera calibration report.
8. Date of photograph

Figure 1: Typical aerial photograph

Types of projections
1. Parallel : The projecting rays are parallel.
2. Orthogonal : Projecting rays are perpendicular to plane of projection. This is a
special case of parallel projection. Maps are orthogonal projection. The advantage
of this projection is that the distances, angles, and areas in plane are independent
of elevation differences of objects.
3. Central : Central projection is the starting point for all photogrammetry. In this
 projection rays pass through a point called the projection center or perspective
center. The image projected by a lens system is treated as central projection
although in strictest senses it is not so.

Figure 2: Various types of projections

Introductory definitions for photographs

Vertical photograph
A photograph taken with the optical axis coinciding with direction of gravity.
Tilted or near vertical
Photograph taken with optical axis unintentionally tilted from vertical by a small amount
(usually < 3°)
Focal length (f)
Distance from front nodal point to the plane of the photograph (from near nodal point to
image plane).
Exposure station (point L)
Position of frontal nodal point at the instant of exposure (L)
Flying height (H)
Elevation of exposure station above sea level or above selected datum.
 Click on the figure for a larger view
Figure 3: Aerial photographs showing various elements as defined
(a) Elements of vertical photograph (b) Section of imaging geometry showing
various elements

X-axis of photo
Line on photo between opposite collimation marks, which most nearly parallels the flight
direction.
Y-axis
Line normal to x-axis and join opposite collimation marks.
Principal point (o)
The point where the perpendicular dropped from the front nodal point strikes the
photograph or the point in which camera axis pierces the image plane.
Camera axis
It is a ray of light incident at front nodal point in the object space and at right angles to the
image plane.
Fiducial marks or collimation marks
Index marks usually four in number, rigidly connected with the camera lens through the
camera body and forming images on the photographs to which the position on the
photograph can be referred.
Photographs center
The geometrical center of the photograph as defined by the intersection of the lines
joining the fiducial marks.
Format
It is the planar dimension of photograph (9" x 9", 7" x 7", 23 cm x 23 cm, 18 cm x 18 cm,
15 cm x 15 cm).
Photogram
Photograph taken with a photogrammetric camera having fixed distance between
negative plane and lens and equipped with fiducial or collimating marks. For photograms
the bundle of rays on the object side at the moment of exposure can be reproduced. To
achieve this the following data known as the elements of interior orientation must be
known:
 Calibrated focal length
 Lens distortion data
 Location of the principal point with reference to the photograph center (normally
these two coincide)

Hence, a photogram is a photograph with known interior orientation

Difference between near vertical photographs and map
1. Production : Quickest possible and most economical method of obtaining
information about areas of interest. Boon for difficult areas. Enlarging and reducing
easier in case of photographs than maps.
2. Content : Map gives an abstract representation of surface with a selection from
 nearly infinite number of features on ground. Photograph shows images of surface
itself. Maps often represent non-visible phenomenon (like text) This may make
interpretation difficult for photograph. Special films like color and infrared films can
bring about special features of terrain.
3. Metric accuracy: Map is geometrically correct representation, photos are generally
not. Maps are orthogonal projections, photo is central projection. Map has same
scale throughout photo has variable scale. Bearing on photographs may not be
true.
4. Training requirement: A little training and familiarity with the particular legend used
in the map enables proper use of map. Photo-interpretation requires special
training although initially it may appear quite simple as it gives a faithful
representation of ground.

Scale of a vertical photograph

Due to perspective geometry of photographs, the scale of photograph varies as a
function of focal length, flying height, and the reduced level of terrain over a certain
reference datum. In figure 2, for a vertical photograph, L is exposure station, f is its focal
length, H is the flying height above datum, h represents the height of ground point A
above datum. Point A is imaged as a in the photograph. From the construction and using
similar triangles Loa and LOAA, we can write the following relations (Wolf and Dewitt,
2000)
 Figure 2: Scale for vertical photo
havg Average terrain elevation
Savg Best single scale to use for a photo or group of photographs

Determination of Scale of photograph

Scale of photograph can be determined by various methods such as
1. By using known full length and altimeter reading, the datum scale can be found.
2. Any scale can be determined if havg known. havg can be obtained from a
topographic map.
 3. By comparing length of the line on the photo with the corresponding ground length.
To arrive at fairly representative scale for entire photo, get several lines in different
area and the average of various scales can be adopted.
4. Use the formula

Scale along plate parallels

Referring to figure 1, the scale along various plate parallels are as follows:
1. Scale through the plate parallels passing through principal point, P with q as tilt angle

2. Scale along an isometric parallel through nadir point, V

3. Scale along an isometric parallel through isocentre I

This shows that the scale along plate parallel through isocentre of a tilted photo is same
as that over the whole surface of a vertical photo if ground surface is plane. For any other
plate parallel, scale will depend on the tilt angle. Also, the scale along any plate parallel
is constant.

Base lining
 The flight planning is the process of making all relevant preparations and taking
certain decisions for taking photographs to satisfy certain application requirements.
This may include the following:
o deciding about flying height above datum
o spacing between successive exposures
o separation between flight lines
 After careful decision about these elements, the flight lines are carefully laid on the
map of the study area to be photographed. This map is called the flight map.

Computation of flight plan

 The following information is required for effective flight planning (Tiwari and
Badjatia, 1985; Sadasivam, 1988):
o Camera focal length
o Photographic scale
 o Flying height above datum
o Permissible scale variation
o Relief displacement
o Tilt of photographs
o Size of photograph
o Area to be photographed or ground coverage
o Air base
o Base-height ratio
o Flight line spacing
o Number of flight lines
o Forward or longitudinal overlap
o Side or lateral overlap
o Ground speed of the aircraft
o Number of photographs per flight line
o Drift angle
o Exposure interval, maximum exposure time

Focal length (f)

 It is the most important parameter for flight planning and must be determined by
proper calibration.

Photographic scale (S)

 It is specified to ensure that the user can resolve the smallest objects to be
identified. Choice of scale is a function of project at hand and the experience. This
is a function of the focal length (f) and altitude of aircraft (H) at the exposure time.
Scales vary from large to small. Very large scales are used for cadastral surveys
and small scale for topographic mapping. The larger the scale, the better and more
accurate the interpretation and plotting. But this will result in too many photographs
and hence more time and money for covering the same area.
 It is often more convenient to use an average scale corresponding to the average
elevation in the study area
o (Sa = f / ( H - ha ).

Flying height (H)

 This is the height of the camera exposure station and recorded by altimeter
(aneroid barometer) and sometimes with a statoscope. It is recorded on the picture
itself for easy reference.
 For a given focal length, average scale, and focal length, the flying height H is
fixed. Several interrelated factors affect choice of flying height. For example, scale,
relief displacement, and tilt.

Permissible scale variation

 Scale variation is caused by combination of change in ground elevation or flying
 height. Scale variation affect ground coverage. Large scale variation also affect the
capability to view images in stereo mode.

Relief displacement
 Large relief displacement create difficulty in forming continuous interrupted picture.
Relief displacement decrease with height although increase in height reduces
scale. Hence, these two effects have to be balanced.

Tilt of photograph
 The tilt in a photograph can be resolved into two components: x-tilt and y-tilt, along
x and y directions respectively. In a photo with y-tilt, the forward overlap will be
higher on one side and lower on opposite side. The x-tilt causes the side lap to
decrease on one side and to increase on another. Large x-tilt affects flight line
spacing.

Crab and Drift

 Crab is the angle formed between flight line and the edges of the photographs in
the direction of flight. It reduces the effective width of photographic coverage. This
can be rectified by rotating the camera about the vertical axis of camera mount.
 Drift is caused by failure of the aircraft to stay on predetermined flight line. It leads
to serious gaps between adjacent flight lines.

Ground coverage
 After choosing scale and camera format, the ground coverage with a single
photograph can be calculated. If the longitudinal and lateral overlaps are known,
the ground coverage by a stereomodel can be calculated. This coverage is
important since it provides approximate mapping area.

Airbase (B)
 This is the distance between two adjacent exposure stations. On photographs, it is
the distance between successive principal points which is also called
the 'advance'.

Base-height ratio (B/H ratio)

 The ratio of airbase (B) and flying height (H) is called B/H ratio. Normally the
vertical scale of stereo model than the horizontal scale. This scale disparity, which
helps determination of heights and identification of objects better is calledvertical
exaggeration.
 The average adult eye base (b) is about 6.5 cm, the corresponding variable h is
difficult to measure. Experiments have provided an approximate value of 42.5 cm.
This gives approximate b/h value as 0.15. The vertical exaggeration V is defined
as V = (B/H) x (h/b)
Spacing of flight line spacing
 It is defined as the distance between two adjacent flight lines or strips, at the
photographic scale or ground scale. The direction of flight lines is also important. If
there are number of ridges and valleys, it is better to fly parallel to the ridges. The
strips are arranged in N-S or E-W direction keeping in mind the movement of sun
throughout the day and effects of shadows.
 It is better to run the strips in E-W course, as the dip of the magnetic north towards
north (or south) makes accurate course of flight difficult if navigation is with
compass only.

Number of flight lines

 It depends on total width of area to be photographed. To avoid any possible gap in
the flight line spacing and extra line can be added at ends

Number of photographs per flight line

 It depends upon the total length of flight line and is given by the length of the line
divided by airbase. Generally, additional two additional photographs are taken at
the end of line for factor of safety.

Exposure interval
 This is the time interval between two successive exposures and is a function of
longitudinal overlap and aircraft velocity. It is equal to the time taken by aircraft to
cover airbase. This can be done with a device known as intervalometer, which
automatically make an exposures at fixed interval of time.

Maximum exposure time

 Larger diaphragm opening (f - stop setting) allows more light to enter the camera,
giving better image. A low shutter speed allows light for long time. The time interval
which is small fraction of a second, during which the diaphragm is kept open is
called exposure time. A small value of exposure time results in poor illumination
and darker image. But a higher value is also problematic since it gives streak in an
image instead of a point while imaging. So one needs just sufficient exposure time
(shorter) without any appreciable image movement.
 Assuming a permissible image movement of about 0.02 mm, the maximum
exposure time can be calculated. The image movement allowed on the
photograph, when converted to ground scale and divided by the aircraft speed
gives exposure time, and is normally expressed as 1/t seconds.