Lab Session 5

5.1 Objective:

To determine the central deflection of a fixed ended beam loaded at mid-span by concentrated
loads and to compare with theoretical value.

5.2 Apparatus:

 Deflection of beam apparatus with clamps

 Hanger
 Weights
 Meter rod
 Dial indicator
 Vernier Caliper.

Figure 5. 1Fixed Ended Beam

Deflection of beam apparatus contains a metal beam and two knife-edge supports upon which
the beam is supported for this experiment. With the help of clamps arrangement at ends it
can be made fixed type of beam.

5.3 Summery of Theory:

A fixed ended beam is supported by fixed supports at both ends as shown in Figure 5.1. The slope of
the beam is thus zero at each end, and a couple will have to be applied at each end and to make the slope
there have this value. The applied couples will be of opposite sign to that of bending moment, due to
loading.

Consider a beam AB of length “L” fixed at A and B and carrying a point load “W” as shown in figure
5.2.
The maximum deflection for this fixed beam will occur at center of the beam (mid-point).
Let,
δ = Actual deflection of beam at any point along the length of beam
δc = Actual central deflection of beam
yc = Theoretical central deflection of beam

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 L L
2 2

Figure 5. 2Fixed Beam loaded at mid span

The maximum theoretical deflection (yc) at x = L/2 is given by:

yc = WL3/ 192EI

Where E = Modulus of elasticity for the material of beam

I = Moment of inertia of the beam

5.4 Procedure:

1. Set the Deflection of Beam apparatus on a horizontal surface.

2. Set the dial indicator at zero.
3. Apply a load of 0.5 N and measure the deflection using dial indicator.
4. Take a set of at least five readings of increasing value of load and then take readings on
unloading.
5. Calculate:
a. The “Theoretical value of deflection (yc)” of beam at mid-span.
b. The %age error between theoretical and experimental values of central deflections.

5.5 Observations and Calculations:

Least Count of the dial indicator = 0.01 mm

Effective length of beam (L) = 800 mm
Breadth of beam (b) = 25.4 mm
Height of beam (h) = 6.4 mm
Modulus of elasticity of material of the beam = 70 G Pa
Moment of inertia of the beam (I=bh3/12) = 554.87 mm 4

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Table 1: Calculation of deflection of fixed beam

Actual Central Deflection-δc Theoretical Percentage

Deflection Error
Load- (mm)
No. of W yc = WL3/192EI
Obs.
(N) Loading Unloading Average (mm) (%)

1. 2 0.169 0.295 0.232 0.137 -69

2. 4 0.329 0.385 0.357 0.274 -30
3. 6 0.495 0.515 0.487 0.412 -18
4. 8 0.679 0.72 0.6995 0.549 -27
5. 10 0.843 0.843 0.843 0.686 -22

5.5.1 Graph:

Draw a graph between load and Deflection (Theoretical &Actual)

LoAD VS DEFLECTION
12

10

8
Load P (N)

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Deflection (mm)

5.5.2 Specimen Calculations:

2×0.83
yc = WL3/ 192EI = 192×70×109 ×554.87×10−12 = 0.137 mm

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5.6 Industrial Applications:

 In most of the applications the fixed ended beams are used .e.g. buildings, sheds etc.
 It is very important to calculate the deflection of the beam of specific material for design
consideration.
 Fixed ended beams are integral part of many structures, so they have prime importance in
almost all structures.

5.7 Standard Deviation:

𝟎.𝟏𝟑𝟕+𝟎.𝟐𝟕𝟒+𝟎.𝟒𝟏𝟐+𝟎.𝟓𝟒𝟗+𝟎.𝟔𝟖𝟔
(yc )av = = 0.117 mm
𝟓

∑∞
𝑛=1{ (𝐲𝐜 )𝐚𝐯−(𝐲𝐜 )𝐧}
2
Standard Deviation = √( ) =0.03774 mm
𝑛−1

5.8 Comments:

 The material of the beam should be uniform throughout

 The ends of the beam should be tightly fixed
 The pointer of the deflection measuring device should be at center
 The load should also be applied at the midpoint of the ends of the beam
 The dial indicator should be set at zero before applying load

5.9 Conclusion:

Deflection increases directly with the applied load.

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 LAB SESSION 6

Objective:
To determine the deflection at mid span of a propped cantilever beam and compare with
the theoretical values

Apparatus:

 Propped cantilever beam apparatus

 Weights
 Dial gauge
 Vernier Caliper
 Specimen
 Hangers
 Spanner

Figure 6. 1Propped Cantilever Beam

6.3 Summery of Theory:

A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting
bending.

6.3.1 Classification of beams:

The beams may be classified in several ways, but the commonly used classification is based
on support conditions. On this basis the beams can be divided into six types:
(1) Cantilever beams (2) Simply supported beams (3) Overhanging beams
(4) Propped beams (5) Fixed beams (6) Continuous beams

6.3.1.1 Cantilever beam:

A beam having one end fixed and the other end free is known as cantilever beam,
Figure shows a cantilever with end ‘A’ rigidly fixed into its supports, and the other end ‘B’ is
free. The length between A and B is known as the length of cantilever.

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Figure 6. 2Cantilever beam

6.3.1.2 Simply supported beam:
A beam having both the ends freely resting on supports is called a simply supported beam. The
reaction act at the ends of effective span of the beam. Figure show simply supported beams.
For such beams the reactions at the two ends are vertical. Such a beam is free to rotate at the
ends, when it bends.
6.3.1.3 Overhanging beams:
A beam for which the supports are not situated at the ends and one or both ends extend over
the supports, is called an overhanging beam. Figure represents overhanging beams.

Figure 6. 3One end overhanging beam

Figure 6. 4 Both ends overhanging beam

6.3.1.4 Propped cantilever beams:

A cantilever beam for which one end is fixed and other end is provided support, in order to
resist the deflection of the beam, is called a propped cantilever bema. A propped cantilever is
a statically indeterminate beam. Such beams are also called as restrained beams, as an end is
restrained from rotation.

Figure 6. 5 Propped cantilever beam

6.3.1.5 Fixed beams:

A beam having its both the ends rigidly fixed against rotation or built into the supporting walls,
is called a fixed beam. Such a beam has four reaction components for vertical loading (i.e., a
vertical reaction and a fixing moment at both ends) figure shows the fixed beam.

Figure 6. 6 Fixed ended beam

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6.3.1.6 Continuous beam:
A beam having more than two supports, is called as continuous beam. The supports at the ends
are called as the end supports, while all the other supports are called as intermediate support.
It may or may not have overhang. It is statically indeterminate beam. In these beams there may
be several spans of same or different lengths figure shows a continuous beam.

Figure 6. 7 Continuous beam

6.4 Procedure:

i Measure the width and depth of the beam with the help of scale to find the moment of inertia
of the beam.
ii Set the apparatus and put the required hangers at different points.
iii Measure the distances of each hanger from the reference end.
iv Set the deflection dial gauge at zero after putting the hangers.
v Take the reading of deflection after putting the loads in the hangers
vi Repeat the process for different loads
vii Find the theoretical deflection and compare with the experimental values by showing on a
graph

6.5 Observations and Calculations:

Width of Beam = b = 25 mm
Depth of beam = d = 6 mm
Moment of Inertia for rectangular metal bar = I = bd3/12 = 450 mm4
Modulus of Elasticity = E = 70 G Pa

Table 2.1Variation in deflection with loads

Obs.
No
LOADS
(N) δ δ %age
Error
exp th

W1 W2 W3
1 2 2 2 0.57 0.508 -12
2 3 3 4 0.96 0.846 -13
3 5 4 6 1.43 1.269 -13
4 5 9 6 1.97 1.693 -16
5 10 9 6 2.21 2.116 -4

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6.5.1 Graph:
On graph, plot the deflection against load for the theoretical & practical results. Draw the best-fit
straight lines through the points

DEFLECTION VS LOAD
30

25

20
Load P (N)

15

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Deflection (δ)

6.6 Industrial Applications:

 For industrial buildings, where the architectures are not involved much, propped cantilevers
are used for temporary lifting equipment.
 It is used for creating balconies, extension over ground, sidewalks of trusses of bridge.
6.7 Standard Deviation:

δ av =0.508+0.846+1.269+1.693+2.116
5
= 1.2864 mm

Standard Deviation = √(
∑∞
𝑛=1{δ av − δ n} 2) = 0.6257 mm
𝑛−1
6.8 Specimen Calculation:

δthe = WL / 192EI =
3 𝟔×𝟎.𝟖𝟑
𝟏𝟗𝟐×𝟕𝟎×𝟏𝟎𝟗 ×𝟒𝟓𝟎×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐
= 0.508 mm

6.8 Conclusion:

 The graph is almost a straight line between the load and deflection.

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 Lab Session 7

7.1 Objective:
To determine the deflection at three different points of a propped cantilever beam using a brass
beam and compare with the theoretical values also find its comparison with aluminum beam used
in lab session 6.
7.2 Apparatus:
 Propped cantilever beam apparatus
 Weights
 Dial gauge
 Vernier Caliper
 Specimen
 Hangers
 Spanner

Figure 7. 1 Propped Cantilever Beam

7.3 Summery of Theory:

Same as for lab session#6.

7.4 Procedure:
i Measure the width and depth of the beam with the help of scale to find the moment of inertia
of the beam.
ii Set the apparatus and put the required hangers at different points.
iii Measure the distances of each hanger from the reference end.
iv Set the deflection dial gauge at zero after putting the hangers.
v Take the reading of deflection after putting the loads in the hangers.
vi Repeat the process for different loads.
vii Find the theoretical deflection and compare with the experimental values by showing on a
graph.

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7.5 Observations and Calculations:
Width of Beam = b = 11 mm
Depth of beam = d = 20 mm
Moment of Inertia for rectangular metal bar = I = bd3/12= 7333.3𝑚𝑚4
Modulus of Elasticity = E = 97G Pa
Length of beam = 80 cm

Table 3 Variation in deflection with loads

Obs. LOADS Deflection δexp δth=

5357 𝑊 %age
No (N) (mm) 𝐸𝐼 Error
(mm)
Loading Un-loading (Mean)

1. 3 0.014 0.027 0.021 0.02259 7

2. 7 0.074 0.083 0.078 0.05272 -48
3. 12 0.137 0.149 0.143 0.09037 -58
4. 16 0.206 0.204 0.205 0.12049 -70
5. 21 0.259 0.259 0.259 0.15815 -64

7.5.1 Graph:
On graph, plot the deflection against load for the theoretical & practical results. Draw the best-fit
straight lines through the points

DEFLECTION VS LOAD
25

20
Load P (N)

15

10

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Deflection (δ )

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7.7 Industrial Applications:

 In vertical type of propped cantilever beam, it includes chimneys; lamp posts bollards, Electric
poles, flag posts, gateposts and fence posts etc.
 In horizontal type, it include protruding balcony supports, the wings of an aircraft and diving
board of a swimming pool etc.

7.8 Standard Deviation:

δ av =0.0226+0.0527+0.0904+0.1205+0.1582
5
= 0.0888 mm

Standard Deviation = √(
∑∞ δ av − δ n} 2) =
𝑛=1{
0.0028 mm
𝑛−1

7.9 Specimen calculation:

5357 𝑊 5357 ×3
δth= = = 0.02259 mm
𝐸𝐼 97 ×7333.3

7.10 Conclusion:

A straight inclined line is obtained which shows that extension increases directly with the applied
load.

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 Lab Session 8

8.1 Objective:
To measure the stiffness of a compression spring and compare it with theoretical values.

8.2 Apparatus:
• Compression of Spring Apparatus
• Hangers
• Weights

Figure 8. 1 Compression spring apparatus

8.3 Summery of Theory:

8.3.1 Spring:
A spring is an object that can be deformed by a force and then return to its original shape after the
force is removed. Its sole purpose is to store and utilize the energy.
8.3.2 Deformations in springs:
There are broadly two types of deformation:

8.3.2.1 Elastic deformation:

When the stress is removed the material returns to the dimension it had before the load was applied.
The deformation is reversible, non-permanent.

8.3.2.2 Plastic deformation:

This occurs when a large stress is applied to a material. The stress is so large that when removed,
the material does not spring back to its previous dimension. There is a permanent, irreversible
deformation. The minimum value of the stress which produces plastic deformation is known as
the elastic limit for the material.
Any spring should be designed so that it only experience upto elastic deformation mostly for
efficient working.

Page | 12
8.3.3 Hooke’s law:
Hooke's law states that the force (F) needed to extend or compress a spring by some
distance x is proportional to that distance. That is,
F = kx
Where F is the force, x is the length of extension/compression and k is a constant of
proportionality known as the spring constant which is usually given in N/m.

Figure 8. 2 Hooke’s law visual representation

8.3.4 Material of spring:

Steel alloys are the most commonly used spring materials. The most popular alloys include high-
carbon (such as the music wire used for guitar strings), oil-tempered low-carbon,
chrome silicon, chrome vanadium, and stainless steel.
Other metals that are sometimes used to make springs are beryllium copper
alloy, phosphor bronze, and titanium. Rubber or urethane may be used for cylindrical, non-coil
springs. Ceramic material has been developed for coiled springs in very high-temperature
environments. One-directional glass fiber composite materials are being tested for possible use in
springs.

8.3.5 Types of springs according to loading conditions:

Springs can be classified depending on how the load force is applied to them:

8.3.5.1 Tension/extension spring

The spring is designed to operate with a tension load, so the spring stretches as the load is applied
to it.

Figure 8. 3 Extension spring

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8.3.5.2 Compression spring
It is designed to operate with a compression load, so the spring gets shorter as the load is applied
to it.

Figure 8. 4 Compression spring

8.3.5.3 Torsion spring

The load applied to a torsion spring is a torque or twisting force, and the end of the spring rotates
through an angle as the load is applied.

Figure 8. 5 Torsion spring

8.3.5.3 Constant spring

In this the supported load will remain constant throughout the deflection of spring.

Page | 14
 Figure 8. 6 Constant spring

8.3.5.4 Variable spring:

In this, the resistance of the coil to load varies during compression.

Figure 8. 7 Variable spring

Types of springs according to shapes

8.3.6.1 Coil spring:

This type is made of a coil or helix of round wire.

Figure 8. 8 Coil Spring

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8.3.6.2 Flat spring:
This type is made of a flat spring steel.

Figure 8. 9 Flat Spring

8.3.6.3 Machined spring:

This type of spring is manufactured by machining bar stock with a lathe and/or milling operation
rather than a coiling operation. Since it is machined, the spring may incorporate features in addition
to the elastic element. Machined springs can be made in the typical load cases of
compression/extension, torsion, etc.

Figure 8. 10 Machined Spring

8.3.6.4 Serpentine spring

A zigzag of thick wire - often used in modern upholstery/furniture.

Page | 16
 Figure 8. 11 Serpentine Spring

8.4 Derivation of stiffness formula:

A spring may be defined as an elastic member whose primary function is to deflect or distort under the
action of applied load; it recovers its original shape when load is released. Springs are energy-
absorbing units whose function is to store energy and to restore it slowly or rapidly depending on the
particular application. In order to derive a necessary formula, which governs the behavior of springs,
consider a closed coiled spring subjected to an axial load W.

Let,
W = axial load D = mean coil diameter

d = diameter of spring wire N = number of active coils

G = modulus of rigidity ∆ = deflection of spring

Φ = Angle of twist l = length of spring wire = πDN ---- (i)

In 1879, Alberto Castiglione’ an Italian railroad engineer, published a book in which he

outlined a method for determining the displacement / deflection & slope at a point in a body. This
method, which referred to Castiglione’s Theorem, is applied to the bodies, having constant
temperature & material (homogeneous) with linear elastic behavior.
It states:
“The derivative of the strain energy with respect to the applied load gives the
deformation corresponding to that load”.
For a helical spring, the partial derivative of the strain energy w.r.t. the applied load gives
the deflection in the spring i.e. ∂U / ∂W = deflection.
Consider a helical compression spring made up of a circular wire and subjected to axial
load W as shown in the figure above.
Strain Energy is given by:
U = ½ T * Φ ----- (ii)
Page | 17
Whereas,
T= ½ W * D ----- (iii)

Φ = T L / JG ----- (iv)
(From Torsion formula) putting the values from eqs. # (i), (iii) & (iv) in eq. # (ii) and simplifying,
we get;
T= 4 W2D 3N / d4G ----- (v)

Now applying the Castiglione’ theorem by taking the partial derivative of the strain energy with
respect to the applied load

∂U / ∂W = ∆ = 8 WD3N / d4G ----- (vi)

W / ∆ = d4G / 8 D3N
Stiffness =K = d4G / 8 D3N

8.5 Experimental Procedure:

i. Measure the diameter of wire and outer diameter of spring with the help of Vernier caliper.
ii. Fit the compression spring in the spring support. To fit compression spring, remove the
load hanger base by unscrewing the grip knob and base from the rod thread.
iii. Loosen or remove the grip knob on the marker and pull the load hanger down until the
top can be swung out from the slop
iv. Withdraw the rod upward, insert the new spring and reverse the above procedure to return
the apparatus to full working condition.
v. Load the spring by 5N increments recording the change in length of the spring up to the
greatest readable deflection or the max load of25N.
vi. Record the spring dimensions
vii. Repeat the same process for other springs and record the readings.

8.6 Observations and Calculations:

Wire diameter (d) = 3.3 (mm)

Spring O/D = 31.4 (mm)

Spring Length (l) = 15.3 (mm)

Number of active turns (N) = 19

Modulus of rigidity (G) = 77k (N/ mm2)

Page | 18
 𝑾 𝒅𝟒 𝑮
𝑺𝒕𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 = =
𝜟 𝟖𝑵 𝑫𝟑

Where d = Wire diameter

N = Number of turns
D = mean diameter of spring coil (O/D – d)
G = Modulus of rigidity (77 KN/ mm2 for spring steels)

8.6.1 Graph:

Deflection vs Load

DEFLECTION VS LOAD
30
25 1, 25
20 0.8, 20
Load P (N)

15 0.6, 15
10 0.4, 10
5 0.2, 5
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Deflection (mm)

8.6.2 Slope from Graph:

𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒1 = 25 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒2 = 25 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒3 = 25 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒4 = 25 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒5 = 25 𝑁/𝑚𝑚

Page | 19
 Table 4 Calculations of stiffness of a compression spring

No. Load Deflection Slope from Theoretical Difference Percentage

of (W) N (∆) mm Graph Value = d4 Error (%)
Obs. G / 8ND3 (Th.-Pr.)
(N/mm) (N/mm)
Loading Unloading Mean |Th.-Pr./Th.
X100|
1. 5 0.2 0.2 0.2 25 2.07 7.6
2. 10 0.4 0.4 0.4 25 2.07 7.6
3. 15 0.6 0.6 0.6 25 27.07 2.07 7.6
4. 20 0.8 0.8 0.8 25 2.07 7.6
5. 25 1.0 1.0 1.0 25 2.07 7.6

Average Percentage Error= ____7.6____ %

8.7 Industrial Applications:

 Compression springs are used in electrical switches to keep switch either off or on.
 Compression springs are used in offshore oil rigs to maintain pressure.
 Compression springs are used in car’s suspension system

8.8 Standard Deviation:

K av =25+25+25+25+25
5
= 25 N/mm

Standard Deviation = √(
∑∞ K av −K n} 2) =
𝑛=1{
0 mm
𝑛−1

8.9 Specimen Calculation:

Theoretical Value = d4 G / 8ND3 (N/mm)

= (3.3)4 (77 x 103) / 8 (19) (31.4 – 3.3)3
= 27.07 N/mm
8.10 Conclusion:

 The graph between load and compression is a straight line.

 The average value of stiffness 25 N/mm.

Page | 20
 Lab Session 9

9.1 Objective:
To measure the stiffness of an Extension spring and compare it with theoretical values.

9.2 Apparatus:

• Extension of spring apparatus

• Hangers
• Weights

Figure 9. 1 Extension Spring Apparatus

9.3 Summary of Theory:

• Refer to Lab Session 1

9.4 Procedure:

i Measure the diameter of wire and outer diameter of spring with the help of Vernier caliper.
ii Fit the extension spring in the spring support.
iii To fit compression spring, remove the load hanger base by unscrewing the grip knob and base
from the rod thread.
iv Loosen or remove the grip knob on the marker and pull the load hanger down until the top can
be swung out from the slope.
v Withdraw the rod upward, insert the new spring and reverse the above procedure to return the
apparatus to full working condition.
vi Load the spring by 10N increments recording the change in length of the spring up to the
greatest readable deflection or the max load of 50N.
vii Record the spring dimensions Repeat the same process for other springs and record the
readings.
Page | 21
9.5 Observations & Calculations:

Wire diameter (d) = 2.4 (mm)

Spring O/D = 22.30 (mm)

Spring Length (l) = 114.5 (mm)

Number of active turns (N) = 47

Modulus of rigidity (G) = 77 (KN/ mm2)

𝑊 𝑑4 𝐺
𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = =
𝛥 8𝑁 𝐷3

Where d = Wire diameter

N = Number of turns
D = mean diameter of spring coil (O/D – d)
G = Modulus of rigidity (77 KN/ mm2 for spring steels)

𝑊 𝑑4 𝐺
𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = =
𝛥 8𝑁 𝐷3

9.5.1 Graph:

DEFLECTION VS LOAD
60

50 3.7, 50

40 2.4, 40
Load P (N)

30 1.2, 30

20 0.15, 20

10 0.1, 10

0
0 1 2 3 4
Deflection (mm)

Page | 22
 9.5.2 Slope from Graph:

𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒1 = _______100____ 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒2 = _______200_____ 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒3 = _______9.5_____𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒4 = _______8.3_____ 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒5 = ________7.7_____ 𝑁/𝑚𝑚

Table 5 Calculations of stiffness of an extension spring

No. Load Deflection Slope from Theoretical Difference Percentage

of (W) (∆) mm Graph Stiffness = Error (%)
Obs. N d4G / 8N (Th.-Pr.)
(N/mm) D3 (N/mm)
Loading Unloading Mean (A) (B) Th.-Pr./Th.
X100
1. 10 0.1 0.1 0.1 100 -90.4 -94
2. 20 0.15 0.15 0.15 200 -190.4 -20
3. 30 1.2 1.2 1.2 9.5 9.6 0.1 01
4. 40 2.4 2.4 2.4 8.3 1.3 14
5. 50 3.7 3.7 3.7 7.7 1.9 20

Average Percentage Error= _________-15.8______%

9.6 Specimen Calculation:

Theoretical Stiffness = d4G / 8N D3 (N/mm)

= (2.4)4 (77 x 103) / 8 (47) (22.3-2.4)3

= 9.6 N/mm

9.7 Standard Deviation:

K av =100+200+9.5+8.3+7.7
5
= 65.1 N/mm

Standard Deviation = √(
∑∞ K av − K n} 2) =
𝑛=1{
7.3 N/mm
𝑛−1

Page | 23
9.8 Industrial Applications:
 Extension spring can be used in number of places in vehicles. On one of most common use is
in carburetors
 Extension springs are used in garage doors
 Extension springs are used in trampolines

9.9 Conclusion:
 The graph between deflection and load is almost a straight line.
 The theoretical value of stiffness of extension spring is 9.6 N/mm.

Page | 24
 Lab Session No. 10

10.1 Objective:
To verify the relationship among load on spiral spring, number of turns and degree of
rotation of a coil spring
10.2 Apparatus:
 Coil Spring Apparatus
 Hanger
 Weights
 Two masses on the arm unit

Figure 10. 1 Coil Spring Apparatus

10.3 Summary of Theory:

10.3.1 Spring:
Springs are elastic bodies, also termed as a resilient member (generally metal), that
can be twisted, pulled or stretched by some force. They can return to their original shape when
the force is released.
10.3.2 Helical spring
Helical spring is made of a wire coiled in the form of helix. Its cross sectional area is
circular, square or rectangular. As shown above, helical spring are further classified on the basis
of force that they experience.
Helical Tension Springs
10.3.3.1 Characteristics:
a) It stretches apart to create load.
b) The gap between the successive coils is small.
c) The wire is coiled in a sequence that the turn is at right angles to the axis of the spring.
d) The spring is loaded along the axis.
e) By applying load, the spring elongates in action as it mainly depends upon the end hooks
as shown in figure below.

10.3.3.2 Applications:
a) Garage door assemblies
b) Vise-grip piles
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 c) Carburetors

10.3.4 Helical Compression Springs

10.3.4.1 Characteristics:
a) The gap between the successive coils is larger.
b) It is made of round wire and wrapped in cylindrical shape with a constant pitch between the
coils.
c) By applying the load, the spring contracts in action.
There are mainly four forms of compression springs as shown in figure. They are as
follows:
i. Plain end
ii. Plain and ground end
iii. Squared end
iv. Squared and ground end
Among the four types, the plain end type is less expensive to manufacture. It tends to bow
sideways when applying a compressive load.

10.3.4.2 Applications:
a) Ball point pens
b) Pogo sticks
c) Valve assemblies in engines
10.3.5 Torsion Springs:

10.3.5.1 Characteristics:
a) It is also a form of helical spring, but it rotates about an axis to create load.
b) It releases the load in an arc around the axis as shown in figure.
c) Mainly used for torque transmission
d) The ends of the spring are attached to other application objects, so that if the object rotates
around the center of the spring, it tends to push the spring to retrieve its normal position.

10.3.5.2 Applications:
a) Mouse tracks
b) Rocker switches
c) Door hinges
d) Clipboards
e) Automobile starters

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10.3.6 Spiral Springs

Figure 10. 2 Spiral Spring Configuration

It is made of a band of steel wrapped around itself a number of times to create a geometric shape
as shown in figure.

10.3.6.1 Applications
a) Alarm Time-Piece
b) Watch
c) Automotive Seat Recliners

10.4 Procedure:
i. Clamp the spring to give a number of active turns from 3 to 8 inclusive.
ii. Note the initial scale reading with the load hanger on the cord.
iii. Then add a weight and note the scale reading.
iv. Tabulate your results.

10.5 Observations & Calculations:

Radius of the pulley = 40 mm

Width of the spring = 19 mm

Spring Thickness = 0.96 mm

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Table 6 Deflection variation on different number of active turns

Sr. NO.OF LOAD DEFLECTION

No ACTIVE P Өº
COILS
(N) (N) Lading Unloading Mean
1 2 40 85 62.5
2 4 45 122 83.5
3 7 6 94 127 110.5
4 8 190 223 206.5
5 10 230 230 230
1 2 20 24 22
2 4 44 50 47
3 4 6 70 75 72.5
4 8 97 100 98.5
5 10 126 126 126
1 2 42 45 43.5
2 4 72 71 71.5
3 6 6 109 110 109.5
4 8 150 154 152
5 10 199 199 199

10.6 Statistical Analysis:

𝟔𝟐.𝟓+𝟖𝟑.𝟓+𝟏𝟏𝟎.𝟓+𝟐𝟎𝟔.𝟓+𝟐𝟑𝟎
Deflection = = 138.6 mm (Where’s N = 7)
𝟓
𝟐𝟐+𝟒𝟕+𝟕𝟐.𝟓+𝟗𝟖.𝟓+𝟏𝟐𝟔
Deflection = = 73.2 mm (Where’s N = 4)
𝟓
𝟒𝟑.𝟓+𝟕𝟏.𝟓+𝟏𝟎𝟗.𝟓+𝟏𝟓𝟐+𝟏𝟗𝟗
Deflection = = 115.1 mm (Where’s N = 6)
𝟓

10.7 Industrial Applications:

 Spiral springs are used to make windows, regulators locks, DC motors.
 They are widely used in the automotive, medical and office equipment industries.
 The spiral spring stores the energy and discharge the energy in the variety of torque
10.8 Conclusions:
 The mean value of deflection for 4, 6 and 7 active number of coils should be same for different
number of loads but here may be difference due to some errors.
 With increase number of active coils, the mean deflection also increases.
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