1.

Group of Permutations-I

Example 1.1. Let X be a non empty set and A(X) = {f : X → X | f is one one and onto }.
Then (A(X), ◦) is a group under composition of functions. The identity element is IX -the identity
function on X, i.e. (f (x) = x).

Definition 1.1. Let S = {a1 , a2 , . . . , an } be a finite set. Then a one-one function f : S → S is

called a permutation of degree n. Let

Sn := {f | f : S → S is a one one function. }

= the set of all permutations defined on a finite set having n distinct objects.

Theorem 1.1. The following are true.

(1) The Sn forms a group under composition of functions.

(2) |sn | = n!.

S3 =
1 2 3
1 2 3
How to (find product
)
,
M
(3) (Sn , ◦) is abelian for n ≤ 2 and non-abelian for n > 2.

The Sn is called the symmetric group of order n.

Example 1.2. Consider S3 , then all the elements of S3 can be list as follows:
{( ) (
1 2 3
1 3 2
and (
) (
,
1 2 3
2 1 3
inverse of
) (
,
1 2 3
2 3 1

) permutations ?
) (
,
1 2 3
3 1 2
) (
,
1 2 3
3 2 1
)}
AI
1 2 3 1 2 3
Let f = and g = then
1 3 2 2 3 1
( )( ) ( )
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
fg = =
1 3 2 2 3 1 2 1 3
( )( ) ( )
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
gf = =
2 3 1 1 3 2 3 2 1
( )
1 2 3
Notice that f g ̸= gf . It is easy to check that I = is the identity element of S3 .
1 2 3
( ) ( )
1 2 3 −1 1 2 3
f= ⇒f =
1 3 2 1 3 2

Notation 1.1 (Cycle Notation.). Suppose f is a permutation of degree n on a set S having n

distinct elements. Let it be possible to arrange m elements of the set S in a row in such a way
that the f -image of each element in the row is the element which follows it, the f -image of the last
element is the first element and the remaining (n − m) elements of the set S are left unchanged by
f . Then f is called a cyclic permutation or a cycle of length m or an m-cycle.

By the length of a cycle we mean the number of objects permuted by the cycle.
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Modern Algebra

We write ( )
1 2 3 4 5 6
f= = (1 2 4)
2 4 3 1 5 6
( )
1 2 3 4 5 6
This means f is a cycle of length 3. However f = is not a cycle. If f =
2 1 4 3 6 5
( )
1 2 3 4 5 6
(1 3 4 2 6) ∈ S6 , then f = (1 3 4 2 6) =
3 6 4 2 5 1

Definition 1.2. A cycle of length two is called a transposition.

Remark 1.1. A cycle does not change by changing the places of its elements provided their cyclic
order is not changed.

Theorem 1.2.

M
(1) If f and g are two disjoint cycles, then f g = gf .
(2) Every permutation can be expressed as product of disjoint cycles.
(3) Every cycle can be expressed as product of transposition in infinitely many ways.

Definition 1.3. (Even and Odd permutation) A permutation is said to be an even permutation if
it can be expressed as a product of an even number of permutations, otherwise it is called an odd
permutation.

Theorem 1.3. A permutation can not be both even and odd.

AI
Corollary 1.4. A cycle of length n can be expressed as the product of (n − 1) transpositions.
Therefore a cycle of length n will be an even permutation if n is odd and odd permutation if n is
even.

Corollary 1.5.

(1) Identity permutation s an even permutation.

(2) The product of two even permutation is an even permutation.
(3) The product of two odd permutation is an even permutation.
(4) The product of an even and an odd permutation is an odd permutation.
(5) The product of an odd and an even permutation is an odd permutation.
(6) The inverse of an odd ( even ) permutation is an odd ( even ) permutation.

Definition 1.4. Let σ ∈ Sn is expressed as product of r transpositions. Then the signature of σ

is denoted by sgn(σ) and defined as sgn(σ) = (−1)r .

Result 1.1.

(1) σ ∈ Sn is an even permutation iff sgn(σ) = 1.

(2) σ ∈ Sn is an odd permutation iff sgn(σ) = −1.
n! n!
(3) Of the n! permutations on n symbols, are even permutations and are odd permutations.
2 2
2 Aerrow Institute of Mathematics
 Modern Algebra

n!
(4) The set An of all even permutations of degree n forms a finite group of order with respect
2
to permutation multiplication.
(5) Let H be a subgroup of Sn . Then either all permutations in H are even or exactly half are
even.
(6) Every odd ordered subgroup of Sn is also a subgroup of An .

Theorem 1.6. The order of a permutation of a finite set written in disjoint cycle form is the least
common multiple of the lengths of the cycles. i.e. If f = α1 · α2 · · · αk , where αi′ s are disjoint cycles.
Then |f | = lcm(|α1 |, |α2 |, . . . , |αk |).

Result 1.2.

(1) (Cayley’s Theorem) Every group is isomorphic to a group of permutation.

(2) Sn is isomorphic to a subgroup of An+2 .
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7) M
( Gailo’s Theorem )An is simple for n ≥ 5.
A4 has no subgroup of order 6.
For n ≥ 3, every element of An can be expressed as a product of 3-cycle.
If a normal subgroup of H of An contains a cycle of length 3, then H = An .
If a normal subgroup of H of An contains a product of two disjoint transpositions, then
H = An .
(8) Z(S1 ) = S1 , Z(S2 ) = S2 , for n ≥ 3, Z(Sn ) = {I}
(9) Z(A2 ) = A2 , Z(A3 ) = A3 , for n ≥ 4, Z(An ) = {I}

Definition 1.5. Let n ∈ N. A sequence of positive integers n1 , n2 , . . . , nk is called partition of n if

AI
(1) n1 ≤ n2 ≤ n3 ≤ . . . ≤ nk .
(2) n = n1 + n2 + . . . + nk .

and it is denoted by {n1 , n2 , . . . , nk }. Let p(n) denotes the number of partition of n.

Remark 1.2. p(1) = 1, p(2) = 2, p(3) = 3, p(4) = 5, p(5) = 7, p(6) = 11, p(7) = 15, p(8) = 22.

Question 1.1. Find number of elements in S3 , S4 , S5 , S6 of all possible order of elements.

3 Aerrow Institute of Mathematics