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Electromagnetic Theory

1) Maxwell formulated a unified theory of electromagnetism by synthesizing previous experiments and equations into four consistent equations describing electricity, magnetism, and light. 2) His equations predicted that electromagnetic waves could propagate through empty space at the speed of light, confirming that light is an electromagnetic wave. 3) Maxwell's laws formed the theoretical basis for all electromagnetic waves, including radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays.

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92 views29 pages

Electromagnetic Theory

1) Maxwell formulated a unified theory of electromagnetism by synthesizing previous experiments and equations into four consistent equations describing electricity, magnetism, and light. 2) His equations predicted that electromagnetic waves could propagate through empty space at the speed of light, confirming that light is an electromagnetic wave. 3) Maxwell's laws formed the theoretical basis for all electromagnetic waves, including radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays.

Uploaded by

SABARESHWAR D 19BCI0105
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Electromagnetism

“From a long view of the history of mankind -


seen from, say, ten thousand years from now -
there can be little doubt that the most significant
event of the 19th century will be judged as
Maxwell’s discovery of the laws of
electrodynamics.”

– R. P. Feynman in The Feynman Lectures on


Physics
James Clerk Maxwell(1831-1879),
Scottish theoretical physicist and mathematician.
Amongst many other achievements, he is credited with the formulation of the theory
of electromagnetism, synthesizing all previous unrelated experiments and equations
of electricity, magnetism and optics into a consistent theory. He is also known for
creating the first true color photograph in 1861.
•Mechanical waves require the presence of a medium.
•Electromagnetic waves can propagate through empty space.
•Maxwell’s equations form the theoretical basis of all
electromagnetic waves that propagate through space at the
speed of light.
•Hertz confirmed Maxwell’s prediction when he generated and
detected electromagnetic waves in 1887.
•Electromagnetic waves are generated by oscillating electric
charges.
– The waves radiated from the oscillating charges can be
detected at great distances.
•Electromagnetic waves carry energy and momentum.
•Electromagnetic waves cover many frequencies.
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
• E = Em sin(kx - ω t)
• B = Bm sin(kx - ω t)

2π 2π
k= ω = 2π f =
λ T
ω
wave speed = c = =λf
k
POYNTING VECTOR
1
S= E×B
µ0

•This is a measure of power per area. Units


are watts per meter2.
•Direction is the direction in which the wave
is moving.
POYNTING VECTOR

•However, since E and B are perpendicular,


1
S= EB
µ0
E
and since =c
B
1 2 c 2
S= E = B
cµ 0 µ0
Two Useful Theorems:

Stokes’ theorem

∫ A  d l = ∫ (∇ × A)  d S
C S

Gauss Divergence theorem

∫ S
A  dS = ∫ ( ∇  A ) dv
V

A useful identity

∇ ∇×A ≡ 0
ax ay az
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ ×Α =
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ax Ay Az

∂ ∂ ∂
∇ ∇×A = [ ∇ × A ]x + [ ∇ × A ]y + [ ∇ × A ]z
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂
= = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ax Ay Az
The divergence of the electric field: Gauss law

the divergence of E is defined as


∇.E where ∇ is the gradient or del operator defined by:
∇ = e x (∂/∂x) + e y (∂/∂y) + e z (∂ /∂z)
in Cartesian coordinates.

∇. E is therefore given by:


∇. E = (∂E x/∂x) + (∂E y/∂y) + (∂E z/∂z)

The divergence is a measure of the source strength


of a vector field. In this case the vector field is the electric field due to a
given charge distribution.

By Gauss’ divergence theorem the surface integral giving the flux


of the electric field. E, is equal to the volume integral of the divergence of E over the
volume bounded by the closed surface S
•Ampère’s Law is used to analyze magnetic fields
created by currents:
 
∫ Bdμs =I o

•But, this form is valid only if any electric fields


present are constant in time.
•Maxwell modified the equation to include time-
varying electric fields.
•Maxwell’s modification was to add a term.
The additional term included a factor called the displacement current, Id.
d ΦE
Iεd = o
dt
This term was then added to Ampère’s Law.
This showed that magnetic fields are produced both by conduction currents and
by time-varying electric fields.
The general form of Ampère’s Law is
  d ΦE
∫ B ⋅ d s = µ o (I + I d ) = µ o I + µ ε
o o
dt

Sometimes called Ampère-Maxwell Law


Reasons for the Extra Term
 SYMMETRY

 CONTINUITY
SYMMETRY
A time varying magnetic field produces an
electric field.

A time
varying electric field produces a
magnetic field.
Maxwell’s Equations
In his unified theory of electromagnetism, Maxwell
showed that electromagnetic waves are a natural
consequence of the fundamental laws expressed in these
four equations:

  q  
∫=
E ⋅ dA
εo ∫=
B ⋅ dA 0

  d ΦB   d ΦE
∫ E ⋅ d sμ=−
I με
dt ∫ B ⋅ ds =o + o o
dt
Maxwell’s Equation 1 – Gauss’ Law
•The total electric flux through any closed
surface equals the net charge inside that surface
divided by εo
  q
∫ E ⋅ dA = εo
•This relates an electric field to the charge
distribution that creates it.
Maxwell’s Equation 2 – Gauss’ Law in
Magnetism
•The net magnetic flux through a closed surface
is zero.  
∫ B ⋅ dA =
0
•The number of magnetic field lines that enter a
closed volume must equal the number that
leave that volume.
•If this weren’t true, there would be magnetic
monopoles found in nature.
– There are no magnetic monopoles.
Maxwell’s Equation 3 – Faraday’s Law
of Induction
•Describes the creation of an electric field by a
time-varying magnetic field.
•The emf, which is the line integral of the electric
field around any closed path, equals the rate of
change of the magnetic flux through any surface
bounded by that path.
  d ΦB
∫ E ⋅ ds =
−
dt
•One consequence is the current induced in a
conducting loop placed in a time-varying magnetic
field.
Maxwell’s Equation 4 – Ampère-
Maxwell Law
•Describes the creation of a magnetic field by a
changing electric field and by electric current.
•The line integral of the magnetic field around
any closed path is the sum of µo times the net
current through that path and εοµo times the
rate of change of electric flux through any
surface bounded by that path.
  d ΦE
∫ B ⋅ dμs =I εo μ+ o o
dt
Lorentz Force Law
•Once the electric and magnetic fields are
known at some point in space, the force acting
on a particle of charge q can be found.
   
F = qE + qv × B
•Maxwell’s equations with the Lorentz Force Law
completely describe all classical electromagnetic
interactions.
Speed of Electromagnetic Waves
•In empty space, q = 0 and I = 0
•The last two equations can be solved to show
that the speed at which electromagnetic waves
travel is the speed of light.
•This result led Maxwell to predict that light
waves were a form of electromagnetic radiation.
Properties of em Waves
•The solutions of Maxwell’s third and fourth
equations are wave-like, with both E and B
satisfying a wave equation.
•Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of
light:
1
c=
μoεo

– This comes from the solution of Maxwell’s


equations.

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