ALTERNATE PROTOCOL SUITES

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 The TCP/IP protocol suite (transmission control protocol/Internet protocol) was actually developed
by the Department of Defense before the inception of the seven-layer OSI model.
 hierarchical simply means that the upperlevel protocols are supported by one or more lower-level
protocols.
Three-layer version of TCP/IP
 network, transport, and application
o networklayer is sometimes called the internetwork layer or internet layer.
Transport layer of TCP/IP contains two protocols:
 TCP (transmission control protocol)
 TCP functions go beyond those specified by the transport layer of the OSI model, as they define
several tasks defined for the session layer.
 UDP (user datagram protocol)
Four-layer version of TCP/IP specifies

 Network access layer. Provides a means of physically delivering data packets using
frames or cells
 Internet layer. Contains information that pertains to how data can be routed through the
network
 Host-to-host layer. Services the process and Internet layers to handle the reliability and
session aspects of data transmission
 Process layer. Provides applications support

Cisco Three-Layer Model

 Core layer. The core layer is literally the core of the network, as it resides at the top of the
hierarchy and is responsible for transporting large amounts of data traffic reliably and quickly. The
only purpose of the core layer is to switch traffic as quickly as possible.
 Distribution layer. The distribution layer is sometimes called the workgroup layer.The distribution
layer is the communications point between the access and the core layers that provides routing,
filtering, WAN access, and how many data packets are allowed to access the core layer. The
distribution layer determines the fastest way to handle service requests, for example, the fastest
way to forward a file request to a server.
 Access layer. The access layer controls workgroup and individual user access to internetworking
resources, most of which are available locally. The access layer is sometimes called the desktop
layer.
#2 DATA COMMUNICATIONS CODES

Data communications codes are often used to represent characters and symbols, such as letters,
digits, and punctuation marks.

 Called character codes, character sets, symbol codes, or character languages.

Baudot Code
 sometimes called the Telex code
 first fixed-length character code developed for machines rather than for people
 French postal engineer named Thomas Murray developed the Baudot code in 1875
 pronounced baw-dough is a fixed-length source code (sometimes called a fixed-length block
code).
ASCII Code
 In 1963 standardize data communications codes, adopted the Bell System model 33 teletype code
as the United States of America Standard Code for Information Exchange (USASCII),
 better known as ASCII-63. Since its adoption, ASCII (pronounced as-key) has progressed through
the 1965, 1967, and 1977 versions, with the 1977 version being recommended by the ITU as
International Alphabet No. 5,
EBCDIC Code
 extended binary-coded decimal interchange code (EBCDIC) is an eight-bit fixedlength character
set developed in 1962 by the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM).
 used almost exclusively with IBM mainframe computers and peripheral equipment. With eight
bits, 28, or 256, codes are possible, although only 139 of the 256 codes are actually assigned
characters.
 The name binary coded decimal was selected because the second hex character for all letter and
digit codes contains only the hex values from 0 to 9, which have the same binary sequence as
BCD codes.
#3 BAR CODES
 Bar codes are those omnipresent black-and-white striped stickers that seem to appear on
virtually every consumer item in the United States and most of the rest of the world.
 A bar code is a series of vertical black bars separated by vertical white bars (called spaces). The
widths of the bars and spaces along with their reflective abilities represent binary 1s and 0s,
 Bar codes classification
 Discrete code.
o A discrete bar code has spaces or gaps between characters
o Example is the Code 39
 Continuous code.
o continuous bar code does not include spaces between characters.
o Example is the Universal Product Code (UPC).
 2D code
 o A 2D bar code stores data in two dimensions in contrast with a
conventional linear bar code, which stores data along only one axis.
o have a larger storage capacity than one-dimensional bar codes (typically
1 kilobyte or more per data symbol).

Code 39
 most popular bar codes was developed in 1974 and called Code 39 (also called
Code 3 of 9 and 3 of 9 Code).
 uses an alphanumeric code similar to the ASCII code.
 Each Code 39 character contains nine vertical elements (five bars and four
spaces).
Universal Product Code
 Universal Product Code (UPC) sometime in the early 1970s to identify their products.

#4 ERROR CONTROL
 errors can be generally classified as single bit, multiple bit, or burst.

 Single-bit errors are when only one bit within a given data string is in error. Single-bit errors affect
only one character within a message.
 A multiple-bit error is when two or more nonconsecutive bits within a given data string are in
error. Multiple-bit errors can affect one or more characters within a message.
 A burst error is when two or more consecutive bits within a given data string are in error. Burst
errors can affect one or more characters within a message.
 probability of error (P[e])- rate at which errors
Error control two general categories
 error detection and error correction.

#5 ERROR DETECTION
 Error detection is the process of monitoring data transmission and determining when errors have
occurred.

common error-detection techniques

Redundancy Checking
 Duplicating each data unit for the purpose of detecting errors is a form of error detection called
redundancy. Redundancy is an effective but rather costly means of detecting errors,especially
with long messages.
 Vertical redundancy checking
Vertical redundancy checking (VRC) is probably the simplest error-detection scheme and
is generally referred to as character parity or simply parity.
  Checksum
Checksum is another relatively simple form of redundancy error checking where each
character has a numerical value assigned to it.
 Longitudinal redundancy checking.
Longitudinal redundancy checking (LRC) is a redundancy error detection scheme that
uses parity to determine if a transmission error has occurred within a message and is
therefore sometimes called message parity. With LRC, each bit position has a parity bit.
 Cyclic redundancy checking
Probably the most reliable redundancy checking technique for error detection is a
convolutional coding scheme called cyclic redundancy checking (CRC).

#6 ERROR CORRECTION
Two basic strategies for handlingtransmission errors:
error-detecting codes and error-correcting codes.

The disadvantage of bursts of errors is they are more difficult to detect and even more difficult to correct
than isolated single-bit errors.In the modern world of data communications, there are two primary
methods used for error
correction: retransmission and forward error correction.

 Retransmission
Retransmission, as the name implies, is when a receive station requests the transmit
station to resend a message (or a portion of a message) when the message is received in
error.
 automatic repeat request or automatic retransmission request (ARQ)is probably the most reliable
method of error correction, although it is not necessarily the most efficient.
 short messages require more acknowledgments and line turnarounds
 Forward Error Correction
Forward error correction (FEC) is the only error-correction scheme that actually detects
and corrects transmission errors when they are received without requiring a
retransmission.
o Hamming code.
A mathematician named Richard W. Hamming, who was an early pioneer in the
development of error-detection and -correction procedures, developed the
Hamming code while working at Bell Telephone Laboratories.
 The Hamming code is an error-correcting code used for correcting
transmission errors in synchronous data streams.
  Hamming bits (sometimes called error bits) are inserted into a character
at random locations.

#7 CHARACTER SYNCHRONIZATION
 synchronize means to harmonize, coincide, or agree in time.
 Character synchronization involves identifying the beginning and end of a character within a
message.
 Asynchronous Serial Data
o The term asynchronous literally means “without synchronism,” which in data
communications terminology means “without a specific time reference.”
Asynchronous data transmis sion is sometimes called start-stop transmission
because each data character is framed between start and stop bits.
o For asynchronously transmitted serial data, framing characters individually with
start and stop bits is sometimes said to occur on a character-by-character basis.
 Synchronous Serial Data
o Synchronous data generally involves transporting serial data at relatively high
speeds in groups of characters called blocks or frames.
o For synchronously transmitted serial data, framing characters in blocks is
sometimes said to occur on a block-by-block basis.

#8 DATA COMMUNICATIONS HARDWARE

three basic elements:

o a transmitter (source), a transmission path (data channel), and a receiver
(destination).
two-way communications
o transmission path would be bidirectional and the source and destination
interchangeable.
System as connecting two endpoints (sometimes called nodes) through a common communications
channel.

three fundamental components:

o data terminal equipment, data communications equipment, and a serial interface.
 Data Terminal Equipment
Data terminal equipment (DTE) can be virtually any binary digital device that generates,
transmits, receives, or interprets data messages.
o Data terminal equipment includes the conceptof terminals, clients, hosts, and
servers.
 o Terminals are devices used to input, output, and display information, such as
keyboards, printers, and monitors.
o A client is basically a modern-day terminal with enhanced computing capabilities.
o Hosts are high-powered, highcapacity mainframe computers that support
terminals.
o Servers function as modern-day hosts except with lower storage capacity and less
computing capability. Servers and hosts maintain local databases and programs
and distribute information to clients and terminals.
 Data Communications Equipment

Define data communication code

 Data communications codes are often used to represent characters and symbols, such as
letters,digits, and punctuation marks.

1. Define the following terms: data, information, and data communications network.
2. What was the first data communications system that used binary-coded electrical signals?
3. Discuss the relationship between network architecture and protocol.
4. Briefly describe broadcast and point-to-point computer networks.
5. Define the following terms: protocol, connection-oriented protocols, connectionless protocols,
and protocol stacks.
6. What is the difference between syntax and semantics?
7. What are data communications standards, and why are they needed?
8. Name and briefly describe the differences between the two kinds of data communications standards.
9. List and describe the eight primary standards organizations for data communications.
10. Define the open systems interconnection.
11. Briefly describe the seven layers of the OSI protocol hierarchy.
12. List and briefly describe the basic functions of the five components of a data communications circuit.
13. Briefly describe the differences between serial and parallel data transmission.
14. What are the two basic kinds of data communications circuit configurations?
15. List and briefly describe the four transmission modes.
16. List and describe the functions of the most common components of a computer network.
17. What are the differences between servers and clients on a data communications network?
18. Describe a peer-to-peer data communications network.
19. What are the differences between peer-to-peer client/server networks and dedicated client/server
networks?
20. What is a data communications network topology?
21. List and briefly describe the five basic data communications network topologies.
22. List and briefly describe the major network classifications.
23. Briefly describe the TCP/IP protocol model.
24. Briefly describe the Cisco three-layer protocol model.