Flame Arrestor Technology

A Flame Arrestor is a device which allows gas to pass through it but stops a flame in order to prevent a larger fire or
explosion. There is an enormous variety of situations in which flame arrestors are applied. Anyone involved in selecting
flame arrestors needs to understand how these products work and their performance limitations. For that purpose, this
paper provides an introduction to the technology and terminology of flame arrestors and the types of products available.

Blocking Flame With

Narrow Passages
The operating principle of flame arrestors was discovered in
1815 by Sir Humphry Davy, a famous chemist and professor
at the Royal Institution in England. A safety committee of
the English coal mining industry had approached Davy for
technical assistance. They needed a way to prevent miners’
oil lamps from causing explosions when flammable gas
called firedamp seeped into the mine shafts. Sir Humphry
Figure 1. The earliest flame arrestors: Davy safety lamps for coal miners.
studied the gas, which consisted mostly of methane. The
investigation centered on how methane burns under various lower part of the screen. Hot exhaust gas escapes through
conditions and with various proportions of air. Davy’s the upper part. When a combustible mixture of methane
solution was to enclose the lamp flame securely with a tall flows in with the air, a methane flame burns against the
cylinder of finely woven wire screen called metal gauze. Three inside of the screen. However, neither the methane flame nor
of the earliest Davy safety lamps are shown in Figure 1. the lamp flame passes through the narrow openings of the
Enough lamplight passes out through the screen to be useful. screen. The metal wire absorbs heat from the flame and then
Air for the oil flame around the lamp wick enters through the radiates it away at a much lower temperature.

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 Flame Arrestor Technology

Flame Cell Channel

Figure 2. Concept of flame arrestor element, featuring a

Figure 4. Oilfield storage tank vents were an early application
crimped wound metal ribbon element
of industrial flame arrestors.

The classic application is in preventing fire in the atmosphere

Modern Flame Arrestors from entering an enclosure. Around 1920, for instance, flame
Since Sir Humphry’s time, flame arrestors of numerous varieties arrestors began to be installed on vents on oilfield storage
have been applied in many industries. All of them operate tanks. They keep the tanks from exploding when gas flowing
on the same principle: removing heat from the flame as it from the vents is struck by lightning (Figure 4).
attempts to travel through narrow passages with walls of metal
Conversely, some end-of-line flame arrestors prevent fire in
or other heat-conductive material. For instance, flame arrestors
an enclosure from igniting an explosive atmosphere such as
designed and manufactured by Emerson employ layers of
in a refinery. For instance, flame arrestors may be installed in
metal ribbons with crimped corrugations as shown in Figure 2.
furnace air inlets and exhaust stacks. The Davy lamp might be
Flame arrestors are used in approximately 22 industries, considered another example of that sort.
including refining, pharmaceutical, chemical, petrochemical,
pulp and paper, oil exploration and production, sewage In-Line, Deflagration or Detonation Type
treatment, landfills, mining, power generation and bulk The other major category consists of in-line flame arrestors,
liquids transportation. In some cases, the flames involve also known as deflagration and detonation flame arrestors.
exothermic (heat-producing) reactions other than oxidation. (Speaking non-technically, deflagration means rapid burning
Processes which generate the combustible or reactive gases and detonation means explosion.) These units are installed in
include blending, reacting, separation, mixing, drilling and pipes to prevent flames from passing, as shown in Figure 5.
digesting. These processes involve numerous equipment
configurations and gas mixtures.

End-of-Line, Vent-to-Atmosphere Type

Most flame arrestor applications and
designs fall into two major categories.
One group consists of end-of-line
flame arrestors, also known as the
vent-to-atmosphere type (Figure 3).
Figure 5. A typical In-line Flame Arrestor.

Figure 3. End-of-line flame arrestors are used in applications

such as petroleum storage tank vents.

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Flame Arrestor Technology

Most in-line flame arrestor applications are in systems which

Figure 7. An in-line flame
collect gases emitted by liquids and solids. These systems, arrestor used in an end-of-line
application (below a pressure and
commonly used in many industries, may be called vapor vacuum relief valve for a liquid
control systems. The gases which are vented to atmosphere storage tank).

or controlled via vapor control systems are typically

flammable. If the conditions are such that ignition occurs, a higher speeds and pressures
flame inside or outside of the system could result, with the than in the open atmosphere.
potential to do catastrophic damage. Therefore in-line flame
arrestors are now subdivided
One variety of vapor control systems is called vapor
into three categories on that
destruction systems. Included are elevated flare systems
basis. Furthermore, special
(Figure 6), enclosed flare systems, burner and catalytic
provisions are made for each
incineration systems and waste gas boilers.
of the three major groups of
Another type of vapor control system using in-line flame
gases according to degree of
arrestors is vapor recovery systems. Included here are
flame hazard (also explained
vapor balancing, refrigeration, adsorption, absorption and
later)—NEC Groups B, C and D. Thus, there are now as many
compression systems.
as twelve different types of flame arrestors, as follows:

1. End-of-line, Group B
Inerting or
Enriching Gas
2. End-of-line, Group C

O2 3. End-of-line, Group D

4. In-line, low/medium-press. deflagration, Group B

5. In-line, low/medium-press. deflagration, Group C

O2
Liquid
Seal
6. In-line, low/medium-press. deflagration, Group D
Flame

Purge
Arrestor
7. In-line, high-pressure deflagration, Group B
Blower

8. In-line, high-pressure deflagration, Group C

“Active” and “Passive” Safety Devices

9. In-line, high-pressure deflagration, Group D

Figure 6. An in-line flame arrestor in a flare system.
10. In-line, detonation, Group B

However, in-line flame arrestors are sometimes used in 11. In-line, detonation, Group C
end-of-line applications. For instance, an in-line unit may be 12. In-line, detonation, Group D
mounted below a tank vent valve on a liquid storage tank
(Figure 7). The valve reduces emissions and product loss, In applying flame arrestors, it should be remembered that

while the flame arrestor protects the tank from flames in the these safety devices are passive ones and they are often used

atmosphere during venting of flammable gases. together with active safety devices. Active devices used in
flame safety include hydraulic (liquid) seals, isolation valves,
As technology throughout the world has become more
blankets of inert gas or enriching (fuel) gas, gas analyzers and
complicated, safety products have also evolved to meet
oxygen analyzers. Unlike active devices, passive devices such
new requirements. Flame arrestors, in particular, changed
as flame arrestors do not depend on a power source, have no
immensely during the last decade of the twentieth century.
moving parts and do not require human attention except to
As will be explained later, flames in pipes can reach much
be cleaned periodically.

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 Flame Arrestor Technology

For example, the primary flame safety devices in a vapor flammable gas when it combines with oxygen. For instance,
control system are usually active ones such as liquid seals and hydrogen burns much faster than propane. Thus, given
oxygen analyzers as shown before in Figure 6. However, active ideal air mixtures at room conditions, an open (unconfined)
devices can be rendered ineffective by loss of power, failure of hydrogen flame propagates at 3 meters per second,
mechanical components, failure of electronic communication compared to only 0.4 meters per second for propane.
or human error. Flame arrestors, in turn, are the system’s However, reaction speed also depends strongly on the
secondary or fail-safe provision. In other words, if the active, temperature and pressure: the hotter a flame and the higher
primary method malfunctions, the passive, secondary method its pressure, the faster the reaction that sustains it.
will be the last defense against an explosion.
Air-to-Gas Mixture Ratio
Another determinant of flame propagation speed and
Flame Propagation pressure generation is the air-to-gas mixture ratio. A given
The differences between the various types of flame arrestors flammable gas will sustain a flame only within a certain
are based mainly on the nature of the flame which is mixture range at a given pressure and temperature.
expected (especially how fast it moves) and on the expected
If there is too little gas for a lasting flame at that condition,
intensity of the pressure pulse created by the flame. A flame
the mixture is said to be too “lean” to burn. In that case, the
is a volume of gas in which a self-sustaining exothermic (heat-
concentration (volumetric percentage) of gas in the air is
producing) chemical reaction is occurring. The reaction is
below the lower explosion limit (LEL) for that particular gas.
presumed to be oxidation, also known as combustion.
This is the concentration below which a flame will not last at
To have a flame, three things must be present; oxygen that pressure and temperature. For example, the LEL at room
(supplied by air), very high temperature (initially supplied by conditions is 2.1% for propane and 4.0% for hydrogen.
an ignition source) and a flammable gas mixed with the air in
Conversely, if there is too little air, the mixture is too “rich”
suitable proportions called a combustible mixture. So long
to burn. The upper explosion limit (UEL) for a particular gas
as these requirements remain available, a flame can burn
is the concentration of gas above which a flame will die out
indefinitely. Flame arrestors operate by removing one of
at a given pressure and temperature. At room conditions,
these requirements: high temperature.
propane’s UEL is 9.5% and hydrogen’s is 75.0%.
In a stationary flammable mixture, a flame seems to move
The flammable range of a gas is the difference between its
toward the unburned gas, leaving combustion products behind.
lower and upper explosion limits. Hydrogen has a much wider
That apparent motion is called flame propagation. The flame
flammable range than propane.
exists only within a relatively narrow volume at the boundary
between the unburned gas and the combustion products. A mixture with exactly the right amount of oxygen for
complete combustion—no more, no less, producing the
The speed at which the flame propagates is measured at the
maximum energy per volume of gas—is called stoichiometric.
front edge of the flame. This speed depends on several variables,
Air-to-gas ratios at or near stoichiometric provide the highest
including the speed of the chemical reaction, the air-to-gas
flame propagation velocities and thus the most intense
mixture ratio and whether the flame is confined or unconfined.
pressure impulse waves. However, as long as the mixture is
Chemical Reaction Kinetics well within the flammable range, the flame velocity ordinarily
does not vary a great deal.
The speed of a chemical reaction, such as that between
fuel gas and oxygen, is called its kinetics. This is determined
mainly by the amount of energy released by each molecule of

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Flame Arrestor Technology

Unconfined Propagation of Flame atmospheric explosion and percussion wave. The pulse of
elevated temperature and pressure quickly spreads out and
Flames generally propagate much faster in pipes than in
dissipates into the atmosphere in a relatively simple manner.
the open atmosphere. Flames which are not restricted
by physical barriers such as pipes are called unconfined. Confined Propagation of Flame
An unconfined flame is free to expand by consumption of
The most common example of confined flame is propagation
unburned gas into an ever-widening volume. This expansion
inside a pipe or explosion inside a process vessel or liquid
provides quick dissipation of the heat and pressure energy
storage tank. The flame is usually a flashback, meaning that
generated by the flame.
it propagates upstream, against the flow of gas and towards
The most common example of unconfined propagation its source. The heat and pressure energy of a confined flame
occurs when gas venting from a process system or liquid is not relieved as readily as that of an unconfined flame.
storage tank contacts an ignition source (Figure 8). From that This restriction of energy dissipation makes a tremendous
point, flame propagates outward and towards the unburned difference in how the flame propagates and thus what kind of
gas until it comes to the gas source. flame arrestor is required to stop it.

In a readily combustible mixture, the velocity of an unconfined

flame depends primarily on the kinetics of the combustion
reaction. Most of the combustion heat and resulting pressure
are dissipated in the surrounding atmosphere, without
influencing propagation speed very much.

Confined flames also rely on the kinetics of burning for flame

propagation velocity. However, since the flame is confined,
the heat energy and pressure remain concentrated, causing a
much stronger effect on the kinetics of burning and therefore
the flame propagation velocity.

More particularly, imagine a very long, straight pipe about

Figure 8. Concept of an unconfined deflagration
six inches in diameter, closed by a cap at one end and

When the unconfined flame first begins to consume the filled with combustible mixture at room temperature and

unburned gas, the flame front travels below sonic velocity pressure. Suppose the gas is ignited by a spark plug at the

(the speed of sound in the atmosphere). If the velocity closed end as suggested in Figure 9. A flame propagates in

remains subsonic, the event is called a deflagration; the the unburned gas along the pipe. As described before for

gas is said to deflagrate, meaning burn rapidly. By contrast, an unconfined flame, the heat of the flame expands the gas

flame propagation at or above the speed of sound is called boundary layer directly in front, causing a pulse of pressure.

a detonation, which is an explosion strong enough to cause However, the energy is not allowed to dissipate by spreading

shock waves in the gas. Some gases can detonate without into an ever-widening region of atmosphere. Instead, as

being confined, but it is not a common occurrence. Heated Unburned

Ignition Force Compressed Gas Gas
As the subsonic flame moves in the direction of the
unburned gas, it produces heat. The heat, in turn, expands
the unburned gas in a layer in front of the flame, called the
boundary layer. The rapid expansion of the boundary layer
Flame Front Pressure Waves
along with the fast-moving flame is commonly called an
Figure 9. Elements of flame propagation from the closed end of
a pipe of indefinite length.

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 Flame Arrestor Technology

the flame propagates down the pipe, it encounters gas with =5,000 mph
(2,300(+) M/S) E (Overdriven Detonation)

higher temperature and pressure, speeding the combustion

reaction. This process feeds on itself, producing flame =4,150 mph Detonation D
(1,900 M/S)

FLAME VELOCITY
velocities, temperatures and pressures much higher than =670 mph
(300 M/S)
C (High Pressure
F (Stable
Deflagration)
Detonation)
those seen in unconfined conditions.
=450 mph
B (Medium Pressure Deflagration)
To be more precise, suppose a pressure gauge capable of (200 M/S)

=225 mph
extremely quick response is placed 10 meters away from (100 M/S) A (Low Pressure Deflagration)

the ignited end. As the flame moves towards the gage, the
PIPE LENGTH
reading increases. When the flame reaches the gage, it
causes a pressure spike as high as 100 psig / 7 bar or higher.
=3,000 psig E (Overdriven Detonation)
(20,000 kPa)
While propagating down a pipe, the flame functions not only
F (Stable

PRESSURE POINT
as a chemical reaction, but also as a mechanical reaction— =500 psig Detonation D
Detonation)

(3,500 kPa)
C (High Pressure
like a piston in a cylinder—compressing the gas before =300 psig Deflagration)
(2,100 kPa)
consuming it and im-parting more energy and velocity. If =50 psig
(345 kPa)
B (Medium Pressure Deflagration)

the pipe is long enough, in some cases the flame can reach =10 psig
(70 kPa) A (Low Pressure Deflagration)
hyper-sonic (much faster than sound) velocities as high as
PIPE LENGTH
6500 miles per hour / 2900 meters per second. The pressure
Figure 10. Conceptual graphs showing velocity and pressure
may approach 4900 psig / 34,000 kPa. of a flame front at points along a long pipe, beginning with ignition
at a closed end. All scales are logarithmic.

Development Stages
and relative increases of absolute pressure (DP/ Po) up to 1.
of Confined Flame (Assuming initial atmospheric pressure, the gauge pressure

Selection of an appropriate in-line flame arrestor depends is less than about 100 kPa(g)). This initial flame propagation

on how intense any flame in the pipe is expected to be, in state develops in a short length of pipe—for example,

terms of velocity and pressure. Studies of flame propagation approximately 3 meters for a propane-air mixture. Hydrogen

in pipes reveal seven distinct stages or phases which a flame is in its low-pressure deflagration state only to about

may reach if the pipe is long enough and the combustion is 1.0 meter from the point of ignition.

fast enough and energetic enough. (DP/Po is the dimensionless ratio for deflagration and

These stages are illustrated in Figure 10 by imaginary graphs detonation testing as measured in the piping system on the

of the speed and pressure of a flame at each point as it travels side of the arrestor where ignition begins. Po is the system

along a pipe of indefinite length. Note that the pressure is initial absolute pressure. DP is the measured absolute

the transient peak that would be indicated by a very quick- pressure, minus Po.)

response gauge at each point along the pipe. The flame

reaches stages labeled A through F, one after another, at
increasing distances from the ignition point.

Low-Pressure Deflagration V=100 m/s

3 meters P=1 barg
So long as the flame front travels well below the speed
of sound with minimal pressure increase caused by the Figure 11. Concept of low-pressure deflagration confined in a pipe,
showing typical distance from ignition point.
expanding boundary layer, its condition is considered to be
low-pressure deflagration (Figure 11). That stage is generally
associated with velocities up to about 112 meters per second

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Flame Arrestor Technology

Medium-Pressure Deflagration
As the flame propagates farther down the pipe, its intensity
increases to the dynamic state of medium-pressure
deflagration. Flame speed is higher but still subsonic—up to V=200 m/s
10 meters P=4 barg
200 m/s. The pressure impulse at the flame reaches levels
considered to be medium, with DP/Po up to 10. For a propane/ Figure 12. Concept of medium-pressure deflagration confined in a pipe,
showing typical distance from ignition point.
air mixture beginning at room conditions, the flame is in this
state when passing from about 3 to about 10 meters from
the ignition point. Hydrogen, by comparison, is in its medium
pressure deflagration state between 1.0 and 2.5 meters from
ignition (Figure 12).
V=300 m/s
25 meters P=20 barg
High-Pressure Deflagration
Figure 13. Concept of high-pressure deflagration confined in a pipe,
Beyond the limit of medium-pressure deflagration, the showing typical distance from ignition point.
propagating flame reaches the condition of high-pressure
Flame and Gas Touch
deflagration. The flame front velocity—still subsonic—is up to
300 m/s and the pressure increase caused by the expanding
boundary layer reaches a DP/DPo as high as 20. The distance
from the ignition point is between 20 and 30 meters for
a propane/air mixture and between 2.5 and 6 meters for
hydrogen and air (Figure 13). Figure 14. Concept of deflagration-to-detonation transformation in a pipe.

Deflagration-to-Detonation Transformation
When the propagating flame front passes sonic velocity,
what occurs is called transformation from deflagration to
detonation, abbreviated DDT. The pressure impulse in front V=1,900 m/s
35 meters P=35 barg
of the flame becomes a shock wave. The compressed gas
Figure 15. Concept of detonation confined in a pipe,
immediately in front of the expanding boundary layer of gas showing typical distance from ignition point.
just in front of the flame, which can reach pressures around
700 kPa(g), comes in contact with the flame. The result is from slightly beyond the high-pressure deflagration up
an explosion. The energy of that explosion, which includes to approximately 30 meters beyond the ignition point for
heat, velocity and pressure, has nowhere to go but down a propane/air mixture and approximately 10 meters for
the pipe. The explosion generates tremendous shock-wave hydrogen in air (Figure 15).
compression of the gases both upstream and downstream of
Overdriven (Unstable) Detonation
the initial point of transformation (Figure 14).
As the flame propagates even farther down the pipe, it goes
Detonation into the dynamic state of overdriven or unstable detonation.
A detonation is defined as a flame front moving at or above This is defined as a flame front moving at supersonic velocity
the speed of sound. It entails increased compression of the and in some instances at hypersonic velocity, attended by
gases by shock waves in front of the flame. A detonation tremendous compression of gas by multiple shock waves.
may have a velocity in the range of 300 m/s and a maximum It is an unstable and transient condition. As the flame goes
impulse pressure of 3500 kPa(g), with DP/Po as high as 20. through DDT, it continues to pile shock waves into a dense
This flame propagation state develops in a pipe length concentration. Gas in front of the flame is compressed and

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 Flame Arrestor Technology

heated above the ignition point like the fuel mixture in a

diesel engine cylinder. When the compressed gas self ignites,
the explosion releases an extremely large amount of energy,
much like the earlier DDT. Again, the energy is restrained by
V=2,300 m/s
the piping and only allowed to move straight ahead. Since the 60 meters P=210 barg

flame velocity is already supersonic, the flame accelerates to

Figure 16. Concept of overdriven detonation confined in a pipe,
hypersonic velocities (Figure 16). showing typical distance from ignition point.

The reason this condition is temporary is that the flame

velocity and pressure are dependent on numerous shock
waves providing gas compression in front of the flame.
These shock waves dissipate soon after the initial explosion
V=300 m/s
and the velocity and pressure of the flame stabilize. An 80 meters P=35 barg
overdriven detonation has a typical peak velocity in the Figure 17. Concept of stable detonation confined in a pipe,
range of 2300 m/s and a maximum impulse pressure of showing typical distance from ignition point.

about 20,995 kPa(g)—equivalent to a DP/Po of 130. This flame

propagation state develops in a pipe length beginning just
beyond the DDT and ending approximately 60 meters from
Selection Considerations for
the ignition source for a propane/air mixture and 20 meters In-Line Flame Arrestors
for hydrogen and air. Selecting an appropriate in-line flame arrestor for a given
application requires understanding several considerations.
Stable Detonation
These considerations are based on the foregoing general
Beyond the transient overdriven detonation, the understanding of how an accidental gas flame behaves
propagating flame finally reaches the dynamic state of in pipes.
stable detonation. The flame front moves at or above the
speed of sound with shock-wave compression in front. Burn-Back Gas Velocity
The flame will not go through any more transitions but will When a flammable mixture is flowing in a pipe, one especially
remain in this stable condition to the other end of the pipe. important condition is the burn-back gas velocity. It is the
A stable detonation has a velocity in the range of 300 m/s gas velocity at which a flame is stationary when propagating
and a peak impulse pressure of 3,500 kPa(g), equivalent to a upstream in a condition of low-pressure deflagration. This
DP/Po of 20 (Figure 17). refers to the “superficial” average gas velocity across the
pipe—the volumetric flow rate divided by the crosssectional
Galloping Detonation
flow area. If the gas flows slower than the burn-back velocity,
A detonation that periodically fails and reinitiates during a flame can propagate upstream. The burn-back velocity
propagation is known as a galloping detonation. depends on the type of gas and its air-to-gas mixture ratio
“This type of detonation is typically observed in near-limit as well as the temperature and pressure. At stoichiometric
mixtures (they have been observed near the lean and possibly mixture and standard room conditions, propane’s burn-back
near the rich limit). Since it reinitiates via DDT, a galloping velocity is approximately 3.2 m/s, whereas hydrogen’s is
detonation is periodically overdriven and results in large approximately 20 m/s.
overpressures at periodic distances along a pipe. Over these
If the gas feeding a flare or waste gas burner slows down
periodic cycles the wave oscillates between a fast deflagration
below the burn-back velocity at the flare tip or burner, then
and a leading shock, transition to an overdriven detonation and a
the flame moves upstream toward the process source. If the
short lived apparently steady detonation phase.”1
gas velocity is only slightly lower than the burn-back velocity,
1. Grossel, Stanley, Deflagration and Detonation Flame Arresters (AIChe, 2002), 66.

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Flame Arrestor Technology

the flame will creep slowly upstream. However, at zero gas

velocity in a long pipe, the flame will accelerate as explained
before and flash back at high speed. Zero flow allows the
most severe flame propagation conditions. All flame arrestor
products should be tested by the manufacturer at static
(zero) flow so that they will work in the most severe flame
propagation conditions (flashback).

Initial Operating Pressure (IOP)

The initial operating pressure (IOP) is the absolute pressure of
a flammable gas mixture in a given piping system when the
velocity falls below the burn-back velocity. The IOP is usually
less than the normal operating pressure of that system. For
example, when a vapor control system is operating properly,
so that the flow stream velocity is above the burn-back
velocity of the process gas, then the system pressure is in this example, increasing the static pressure 50% causes
within some normal operating range above atmospheric an increase of 50% in the velocity of the flame front and 50%
pressure. But when the system is shut down during normal or in its pressure. This consideration can affect how close to
emergency conditions and the process stream slows down, the ignition source the arrestor must be placed. It can also
the pressure also falls. At some point before the velocity require the use of one arrestor device rather than another.
reaches zero, a flashback can occur. The pressure in the The second selection consideration affected by IOP pertains
system in this shutdown situation or static flow condition is to the energy which an arrestor must absorb per unit volume
the IOP for that particular system. of gas in order to quench a flame. When pressure increases
Remember that pressure affects flame: the higher the in a process system, the energy released by flame per unit
pressure, the more energy the flame releases per unit volume also increases. Thus the arrestor must absorb more
volume. That equates to higher flame intensity and energy heat to lower the flame’s temperature sufficiently. However,
exchange per unit volume and faster flame acceleration. that task can be difficult for the arrestor, since it was designed
The explosive pressure of a given gas is roughly proportional with a certain heat transfer capacity. If an arrestor is placed
to the initial absolute pressure. For instance, doubling in an application for which the IOP is higher than it has been
the absolute pressure approximately doubles the tested or designed for, the arrestor could fail to stop the
explosive pressure. flame. Therefore, to enable proper selection and system
design, manufacturers must indicate the maximum IOP
Therefore, the IOP in a given system determines two things
which their flame arrestors can handle for various flammable
pertaining to selection of a flame arrestor product. The first
gas mixtures. Every flame arrestor product should be tested
is flame velocity and pressure relative to the distance the
at a series of increasing pressures to determine its IOP
flame has traveled down the pipe. For example, when a flame
performance threshold for commonly encountered gas
has propagated 10 meters in a stoichiometric propane-to-air
mixtures. For example, a standard low-pressure deflagration
mixture at atmospheric pressure (101.3 kPa absolute), the
arrestor typically has a maximum allowed IOP of around
flame velocity is approximately 200 m/s and the pressure
5% above atmospheric condition or 106.0 kPa / 15.4 psia,
front is at about 800 kPa absolute. If instead the IOP is
while that for detonation flame arrestors ranges up to
increased to 150.0 kPa, the flame velocity and pressure at 10
160 kPa / 23 psia.
meters will be approximately 300 m/s and 1200 kPa. Thus,

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 Flame Arrestor Technology

Transient Momentum Pressure stabilize at the arrestor device or somewhere else down
the pipe. This condition is referred to as confined flame
Piping can withstand a propagating flame driving a pressure
stabilization (see Figure 18). If the process stream velocity
pulse which may be thousands of times greater than the
were to go to zero, the flame would not creep down the flare
maximum pressure for which the pipe is rated. This pressure
but would accelerate in a flashback and possibly detonate.
caused by flame propagation is not a static pressure, because
The possibility for a stabilized flame in the system during
the pressure wave is moving so fast it exerts its force on the
flashback is very slight, but it sometimes happens.
piping walls for only a fraction of a second. Instead, flame
pressure is considered a dynamic impulse pressure, called Each flame arrestor design performs differently when
transient momentum pressure or TMP. Because the transient exposed to flame stabilization, depending on the mass
motion of gas in the forward direction is so rapid when a and type of material of the flame-arrestor element. Users
pressure wave passes, the wave carries a tremendous amount should contact the manufacturer of a given arrestor for
of momentum (mass multiplied by velocity) and resulting information on how its products perform when exposed
energy (one-half of mass multiplied by the square of velocity). to flame stabilization. A good way to safeguard against
Anything which changes the direction of that momentum, flashback due to flame stabilization is to install a temperature
such as pipe bends, shut-off valves, blower housings or sensing device on the exposed side of the arrestor. The heat
an arrestor device, experiences transfer of energy via of a stabilized flame triggers automatic controls designed to
momentum. This momentum energy can have a catastrophic extinguish the flame.
effect on equipment.
Air-to-Fuel Mixture Ratios
Standard flame arrestors are designed for low transient
The ratio of combustible gas to air, described earlier, has a
momentum pressures (TMPs) and can fail mechanically when
profound effect on how a flame burns. It influences not only
exposed to very high TMPs. Enardo™ DFA Series are designed
flame speed as mentioned before, but also heat intensity,
to withstand TMPs of any magnitude.
ignition energy, auto-ignition temperature, pressure piling
Flame Stabilization and others.

There are two types of flame stabilization: open and Grouping of Gases
confined. An open stabilized flame occurs when a flammable
Hundreds of different flammable gases are generated as
mixture emerges from confinement at a velocity such that an
products or by-products of industrial processes. One gas
open flame fed by the gas is stationary. For example, when
may vary widely from another in its characteristics pertaining
a flare is burning, the stationary flame at the tip experiences
to flame propagation. It is necessary to have means for
open flame stabilization. If for some reason the process
describing those characteristics in order to design safety
stream slows down below the burn-back velocity of the gas,
equipment, instrumentation, etc. Several testing and
the flame begins moving down the flare stack. It may then
regulatory bodies, including the NEC, IEC, NFPA and NTIS,

FLAME STABILIZED FLAME ELEMENT ABSORBS

classify flammable gases based on the following criteria,
PIPING IN ARRESTOR ELEMENT AND QUENCHES FLAME FRONT some of which are explained later:

• MESG (maximum experimental safe gap)

• Flame temperature

• Flame velocity

• AIT (auto-ignition temperature)

EXPOSED SIDE PROTECTED SIDE
• LEL-to-UEL range
Figure 18. Concept of flame stabilization at aflame arrestor.
Flow is from right to left. • Ignition energy

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Flame Arrestor Technology

Each testing or regulatory authority has its own system for each having its own set of hazard characteristics. Some gases
classifying gases according to combustion hazard groups. consume air more efficiently than others in a mixture, thus
Classifications are based on severity of explosion hazard as making the mixture behave much like a single constituent
indicated by low AIT, broad LEL-to-UEL range, higher flame gas. One gas component may act as a catalyst to another,
temperature, faster flame velocity or a combination of any making the mixture more dangerous than the single most
of these characteristics. Most of them relate directly to the hazardous gas by itself. Not much experimental data is
MESG of the combustible gas. (See Table 1.) available on the hazardous characteristics of combustible
NEC IEC MESG Test Gas List gas mixtures.
Group A ---- 0.25 Acetylene
The MESG of mixed gases is not normally known and it
Group IIC 0.28 Hydrogen
Group B
Group IIB 0.50 Enriched H2 is impractical to test all gas mixtures for their MESG. The
Group C Group IIB3 0.65 Ethylene industry standard has been to select an arrestor design
Group D Grop IIA 0.90 Propane
based on the worst case gas component in the mixture.
G.M ---- 1.15 Methane
This method is in most cases, overly conservative. NFPA 497
Table 1. Hazardous gas groups according to NEC and IEC provides a new method to estimate the group classification
based on knowing the MESG of each flammable gas
Maximum Experimental Safe Gap (MESG) component and calculating the effective MESG by applying
Maximum experimental safe gap is a standard measurement a form of Le Chatelier’s relationship. Emerson can assist you
of how easily a gas flame will pass through a narrow gap with this calculation if provided the gas mixture composition.
bordered by heat-absorbing metal. MESG was developed
Auto-Ignition Temperature (AIT)
to classify gases for design and selection of electrical
instrumentation, electrical enclosures and flame arrestor AIT is the temperature at which a stoichiometric mixture of a

devices. The measurement is conducted with a standard combustible gas at standard atmospheric pressure will ignite.

apparatus consisting of a small, hollow metal sphere of a Propane’s AIT is 493°C, Hydrogen’s is 560°C and ethylene’s

certain diameter which is split into two halves. The circular is 425°C. An arrestor works by cooling the gas below its AIT.

edge of each hemisphere is provided with a smooth metal Therefore, if the process is operating close to the AIT of

flange of a certain width. The hemispheres are held close the gas, this initial heat may affect the performance of the

together in the apparatus with the flanges parallel and arrestor. It is very important that the process temperature be

separated by a narrow gap. This apparatus is immersed in stated to the manufacturer when selecting an arrestor.

a stoichiometric mixture of the test gas and air at standard

Length to Diameter (L over D) Ratio
room conditions and the mixture inside the sphere is
In explaining the various stages of flame propagation
ignited with an electric spark. The experiment is repeated
earlier, each stage was said to occur within a certain range
with a wider and wider gap between the two flanges, until
of distances from the ignition source. Those distances
the mixture outside the sphere is ignited. The MESG is the
were specified for a certain inside pipe diameter of 12 in. It
greatest distance between flanges at which the flame fails to
turns out that the distances are directly proportional to the
pass through. The more hazardous the gas, the narrower the
diameter. What matters is not the actual distance from the
MESG. An arrestor must be designed for the MESG value of
ignition point, but the distance relative to the diameter—the
the process gas.
distance divided by the diameter. That relative distance is
Multiple Gas Mixtures called the length-to-diameter ratio or the L/D ratio (L over D

Some vapor collection systems deal with a single, relatively ratio). For example, for a stoichiometric air-propane mixture

pure combustible gas—for instance methane or acetylene— at room conditions, a low-pressure deflagration will occur

mixed with air. However, most processes requiring flame within an L/D ratio less than 10 and a stable detonation

arrestors involve mixtures of several combustible gases, will usually occur at L/D ratios greater than 60. All arrestors

20
 Flame Arrestor Technology

except the unstable detonation types have L/D performance

4
limitations. Information on these limitations must be Limits of Flammability
LEL UEL
obtained from the manufacturer.
3

Pipe Configuration and Restrictions

Ignitability
2 Limits
How a flame burns and propagates is affected not only by
the length of a pipe, but also by bends, instrumentation
1
(metering runs, restrictive orifices, thermowells, etc.), pipe
contractions and expansions, valves, etc. Anything which
0
increases turbulence of the gas gives the flame a more
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
uniform air-to-gas mixture, thus enhancing combustion.
Figure 19. Energy required for Methane ignition
In addition, as mentioned before, transient momentum acts
on piping irregularities. Gas expansion caused by burning
The ignition source is the starting point for measuring the
acts as thrust propulsion when given a surface on which to
most important variable for flame arrestor selection, which
apply the force of expansion. The flame cannot exert a thrust
is the distance to the arrestor. Therefore the user must know
force on smooth, straight pipe. However, when it travels past
the locations of all potential ignition sources relative to
a bend or restriction, it can exert a force on this surface area,
the arrestor.
giving it a forward velocity and pressure boost.
High-Energy Ignition
Each arrestor design has been tested to protocols which may
or may not include bends and restrictions. The manufacturer Typical ignition sources have energy levels which are
should be consulted before installing any arrestor in a system considered to be low, meaning just enough energy to ignite
with bends or restrictions. the combustible gas mixture. A high-energy ignition source,
on the other hand, can cause the flame to be in a more
Ignition Source and Energy severe state of propagation within a given length or L/D
Accidental gas ignition can be caused by such things as static ratio than a low-energy source. The flame can actually skip
discharge, sparks from a blower impeller hitting the blower the low, medium and high-pressure deflagration states and
housing, instrumentation, pilot flame for a flare or burner, jump directly into detonation. Such behavior represents an
main flame on the flare tip or in the burner chamber, hot exception to the conventional theory of flame propagation
work within a plant, external fire and many other origins. which was outlined earlier here. There are no established
These ignition sources can cause a flame inside or outside a standards to differentiate between normal ignition energy
process system. and high-energy ignition. However, lightning strike, vessel

The ignition energy is defined as the amount of energy explosion and burner chamber explosion are all considered to

required to ignite a flammable gas mixture. That amount be high-energy ignitions.

depends on the type of gas and the air-to-gas mixture ratio. Since a high-energy ignition changes the way a flame
The closer the air-to-gas ratio is to stoichiometric, the lower propagates, the rules for selecting a flame arrestor
the ignition energy. This is illustrated in Figure 19. In that product also change. For example, consider a deflagration
diagram, note that the energy required to ignite methane at flame arrestor in a typical flare application for which it is
stoichiometric is 0.2 joules, compared to the energy required designed—a 20-foot stack for a group “D” gas with flame
at its UEL, which is 3.5 joules. Different gases require different arrestor near the base of the flare. If the process stream
amounts of energy to ignite them; some require little, while velocity falls below the burn-back velocity of the gas at the
others are almost impossible to ignite. The lower the ignition
energy, the more dangerous the gas is to the system and
its surroundings.

21
Flame Arrestor Technology

tip, a flashback could occur. Since the length of pipe from the The main points of concern when selecting an arrestor for
tip of the flare (ignition source) to the arrestor is relatively end-of-line applications are as follows:
short, the flame dynamics will probably be no more 1. Hazardous group designation or MESG value of the gas
severe than a medium-pressure deflagration and thus the
2. Flame stabilization performance characteristics of the
deflagration flame arrestor will quench the flame. However, arrestor compared to the system potential for flame
if the flare is struck by lightning (high energy ignition) while stabilization for sustained periods of time
the flow is below burn-back velocity, the flame could be in a 3. Process gas temperature
more severe state when it reaches the flame arrestor, such
4. Pressure drop across the arrestor during venting flow
as high-pressure deflagration or overdriven detonation. In conditions, relative to the system’s maximum allowable
that case, the flame arrestor will probably fail, because it is pressure and vacuum
not designed for a high-pressure deflagration or detonation. 5. Materials of construction that meet the ambient and
If there is a chance for high-energy ignition, an unstable process conditions – for example, extremely cold
detonation flame arrestor should be used instead of a climate, salt spray, chemically aggressive gas, etc.
standard deflagration flame arrestor. 6. Connection type and size

Enriched Oxygen 7. Instrumentation requirements

In most vapor control systems, the source of oxygen in

the combustible mixture is ambient air. However, some
Selecting In-Line
processes have a larger content of oxygen than standard Flame Arrestors
air-gas mixture. Passive flame arrestor products discussed The various dynamic states explained earlier for confined
here are not designed for the more dangerous and severe flames can be very dangerous for a process system due
condition of enriched oxygen. to the tremendous energies associated with detonation
pressure and flame velocity. Things happen fast and can turn
Dust Versus Gas
catastrophic. These multiple dynamic states increase the
When pulverized into dust suspended in air, combustible challenge of providing a flame arrestor product or products
solids burn, propagate in piping and explode much like which stop the flame and withstand the enormous pressures
combustible gases. Passive flame arrestor products caused by explosions within the confined piping.
discussed here are not designed for use with flammable dust
The very wide range of possible behavior for a confined flame
suspensions because of special concerns such as plugging.
causes two particular problems for flame arrestor products.
First, the high-pressure deflagration and stable detonation
Selecting End-Of-Line states have very stable kinetics of burning and the flame
Flame Arrestors is moving very fast. Therefore the arrestor must be able

As explained before, end-of-line deflagration flame arrestors to absorb the flame’s heat much faster than is required by

are designed for unconfined flame propagation, also referred standard low-to-medium-pressure deflagration conditions.

to as atmospheric explosion or unconfined deflagration. They Second, the instantaneous impulse pressures caused by the

simply bolt or screw onto the process or tank connection. shock waves of overdriven detonation subject the arrestor to

These designs incorporate well-established but simple forces of up to 20,995 kPa(g) / 3000 psig. Thus, the arrestor

technology. Most use a single element of crimped wound must be structurally superior to standard low-pressure

metal ribbon that provides the heat transfer needed to deflagration arrestors.

quench the flame before it gets through the arrestor element.

22
 Flame Arrestor Technology

Confined Deflagration Flame Arrestors

In-line deflagration flame arrestors are designed for confined
flame propagation, also referred to as flashback or confined
deflagrations. Like the end-of-line variety, flame arrestors of
this type have been used in numerous applications for many
decades. They resemble end-of-line flame arrestors in many
ways. However, things are much different for these arrestors,
because they are subject to more severe flame states. For
almost every state of flame, there is a special type of arrestor.
For example, a standard in-line deflagration flame arrestor is
designed to stop flame propagation in short lengths of pipe,
involving low-pressure and medium-pressure deflagrations.
The high-pressure deflagration flame arrestor is an enhanced
version of the standard deflagration flame arrestor, designed
to stop flames in the low, medium and high pressure
deflagration states.
Figure 20. Enardo™ DFA detonation flame arrestor
Detonation Flame Arrestors
Since the early 1990s, detonation arrestors were developed Our belief is that the state of a detonation is unpredictable
and tested in accordance with the requirements of and therefore only those DFA’s approved for unstable
Appendix-A to Part 154 of 33 CFR, commonly called the “U.S. detonations should be specified.
Coast Guard Standard” (USCG). These arrestors received
None of the deflagration arrestor designs can withstand a
USCG approval in 2 to 20 in. sizes, concentric and eccentric
detonation. Therefore the detonation flame arrestor was
designs, with models for Group-D (IIA) and models for
designed (see Figure 20). It has the heat transfer capacity and
Group-C (IIB3) flammable vapors. Detonation arrestors
structural design to withstand all the dynamic conditions of
approved to this standard must pass both stable and unstable
flame propagation and still stop the flame. The detonation
detonations in addition to meeting other requirements,
flame arrestor is the ultimate flame-stopping product and is
in other words, the most severe flame stage. There is no
used when the flame can be in any of the detonation states.
provision in this standard for detonation arrestors that are
approved for stable detonations only. These capabilities do not come without some trade-offs.
Detonation flame arrestors impose higher pressure drops
The “U.S. Coast Guard Standard” was used as a guideline
than deflagration flame arrestors due to heat-transfer
when developing a detonation flame arrestor for the
requirements, they are heavier because of structural
European market. EN 12874 does allow detonation arrestors
requirements and they are typically more expensive.
to be classified for stable detonations only, however,
Therefore in-line deflagration flame arrestors will always have
Emerson believes that determining the location where
a place in industry.
the flame propagation transitions to a stable detonation
is unpredictable. During testing in a controlled system all The main points of concern when selecting an arrestor device

phases of flame propagation can be mapped. But in real for in-line applications are the same as listed before for end-

life there are many variables, (fuel mixtures, temperature, of-line applications, except for one additional consideration:

pressure, pipe layout etc) which may lead to a situation where the L/D ratio and piping configuration between the arrestor

a galloping detonation may occur. and the potential ignition source.

23
Flame Arrestor Technology

Gas Group Chart

(As defined by NFPA 321, NEC and IEC)

Group A Group D (IIA) (continued)

Acetylene Isobutyl acetate
Ethane
Ethanol (ethyl alcohol)
Group B Ethyl acetate
Butadiene Ethyl acrylate
Ethylene oxide Ethylene dichloride
Formaldehyde Gasoline
Hydrogen Heptanes
Manufactured glasses containing more than Hexanes
30% Hydrogen (by volume) Isoprene
Propylene oxide Methane (natural gas)
Propyl nitrate Methyl acrylate
Methylamine
Methyl Ethyl Ketone
Group C (IIB3) 3-Methyl - 1-Butanol (isoamyl alcohol)
Acetaldehyde Methyl Isobutyl Ketone
Cyclopropane 2-Methyl - 1-Propanol (isobutyl alcohol)
Diethyl ether 2-Methyl - 2-Propanol (tertiary isobutyl alcohol)
Dimethyl hydrazine Naphtha (petroleum)
Ethylene N-Propyl acetate
Hydrogen sulfide Octanes
Methanol (methyl alcohol)(1) Pentanes
Methyl mercaptan 1-Pentanol (amyl alcohol)
Tetrahydrofuran Propane
Unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) 1-Propanol (propyl alcohol)
2-Propanol (isopropyl alcohol)
Propylene
Group D (IIA) Styrene
Acetone Toluene
Acrylonitrile Turpentine
Ammonia Vinyl acetate
Benzene Vinyl chloride
Butane Xylenes
Butylene
1-Butanol (butyl alcohol)
2-Butanol (secondary butyl alcohol)
Cyclohexane
N-Butyl acetate

1. Emerson recommendation

24