REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Floodplain Analysis

A floodplain is the normally dry land area adjoining rivers, streams, lakes, bays, or oceans that is
inundated during flood events. Frequently, the overflowing of rivers and the unusual high tides
from severe storms causes flooding. Rivers, which are natural channels and the floodplain,
constitute the natural conveyance of a stream. Surplus water that is in excess of the channel
capacity spreads over the floodplain. The extent of flow over the floodplain depends on the
amount of discharge.

It is important to know the location of floodplain (see Figure 5) as well as areas prone to flood.
One should also have the knowledge of the frequency of flooding in an area by determining the
time of year the expected flood would occur and the length of inundation.

The procedure for analysis of floodplain can generally be stated as follows: Collection of data,
determine flood discharge, determine the water surface profile along the channel and the extent
of the floodplain is determined through a floodplain map.

Figure 5 Example of Floodplain

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2.1.1 Techniques in Floodplain Mapping

The techniques in flood mapping can either be dynamic or static methods. The dynamic methods
are the traditional ones that include continuous monitoring of changes in the river combined with
fieldwork and maintenance of long-term records. Other traditional techniques use the long-term
records in estimating rainfalls and apply regression analysis. One objective of the dynamic
method is to calculate the frequency of certain flood events to determine stream flow
characteristics and compute water surface elevations that are plotted manually to delineate
floodplains. This significant information helps the planner in the risk development of a
floodplain.

Hydrologists in different parts of the world prepare flood inundation and floodplain maps with
the aid of satellite data. This static method, which is computer-assisted analysis, provides the
hydraulic characteristics of an area at a particular point in time and provides information used for
flood hazard assessment. The information from static techniques together with historical flood
observations make it possible to estimate the probability of the occurrence of a flood event. This
automated techniques results in savings of time and resources.

2.1.2 Hydrologic Modeling and Hydraulic Modeling for Floodplain Mapping

The two components of floodplain mapping include hydrologic modeling and hydraulic
modeling. The first component of flood modelling is the watershed hydrology. In this study, the
HEC-HMS software will be used, a product of U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) used to
develop a hydrological model (Figure 8) using the rainfall data to estimate the runoff produced
during a rainfall event. The output of this software is a flow hydrograph (Figure ). Terrain
analysis is essential to hydrological models. Digital elevation models are very useful for
hydrological analysis which involves the calculation of slope (water always flows down a slope)
and aspect which can be pre-processed with the aid of GIS. Variables like slope and aspect are
used to determine flow direction and accumulation showing the areas contributing to the flow in
the watershed.

Figure 8 Example of flow hydrograph

The second component which will be done using HEC-RAS considering unsteady flow
condition is the hydraulic model (Figure 9) which will determine the behavior of water as it
flows through the river and travel downstream. The USACE developed one of the most widely
used software package for floodplain analysis called the Hydraulic Engineering Center River
Analysis System (HEC-RAS). This is designed to aid in computing water surface profiles of a
particular floodplain with inputs like channel shape, flow (results from HEC-HMS) and other
hydraulic parameters. Outputs from HEC-RAS such as water surface profile computations are
processed swiftly and can be visualized in RAS Mapper. The software package of HEC-RAS
which is Windows-based application was first released in 1995 and has gone through so many
improvements that its capabilities have grown significantly. The earliest version of HEC-RAS
only allowed one-dimensional steady flow and to date, its version is capable of producing two-
dimensional unsteady flow calculations, which has outputs that are more realistic.

After calibrating the two models, floodplain map is then prepared for its intended purpose. With
the aid of GIS software, the map can be overlaid and analyzed with other maps of the same area
to analyze the extent of flooding (Example in Figure 6).

Figure 8 Example of flood inundation map (Farid, M et al 2017)

SAR DEM
Basin Model
Soil Shapefiles

Land Use Files Meteorological

Rainfall Data
Model HEC-HMS Model

Set of Control

Specifications Flow Hydrograph

Figure 8 Overview of the HEC-HMS Model

 Manning’s n

Geometric Data
Water Surface
HEC-RAS Model
Profiles
Calibrated Discharge

Unsteady Flow Module

Flood Inundation
Map

Figure 9 Overview of the HEC-RAS Model

2.1.4 Geographic Information System

Geographic information system (GIS) describes any information system which captures, stores,
manipulates, analyzes and presents spatial or geographic data. It refers to technologies,
processes, and methods with many applications to engineering and other location-bases services
that rely on analysis and visualization. The ultimate characteristic of GIS is to relate all Earth-
basses spatial-temporal location and extent references to “real” physical location or extent.
Locations or extents on the Earth space-time maybe recorded as dates/times of occurrence, and x,
y, and z coordinates representing, longitude, latitude, and elevation. GIS uses space-time location
as the key index variable for all other information. Real-world and projected past or future data
can be analyzed, interpreted and represented when related by accurate spatial information.

GIS techniques and technology

Digital information used in GIS are created by digitization. Heads-up digitizing involves tracing
the geographic data directly on top of the imagery. Ortho-rectified imagery (from satellites,
aircrafts, Helikites and UAVs) are widely available for use in digitizing. The sources in
developing a digital topographic database for GIS are topographic maps, aerial photography and
satellite imagery. However, the accuracy of the application of GIS will depend on the source data
and how it is encoded and referenced.

Data representation
Abstractions of real objects in GIS can be divided into discrete objects (e.g., building, roads) and
continuous fields (e.g., elevations). The method in storing these data are raster images and vector
which are digitized using points, lines, and polygons. Another method is by identifying point
clouds which combine three-dimensional points with RGB information at each point, returning a
“3D color image “.

Data capture
Data collection for use in GIS can be done in different ways. Survey data using a technique
called coordinate geometry (COGO) can be directly entered into a GIS. Collection of positions
from a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) can also be done through GPS (global
positioning system). The use of filed computers with the ability of editing live data using
wireless connections is another trend. This allows the creation of maps and analyze them in the
field providing accurate maps. Remote sensing is another important method of data collection
which consists of sensors like cameras, digital scanners, and lidar attached to a platform.

Projections, coordinate systems, and registration

Various models can represent the Earth that provide different sets of coordinates like latitude,
longitude, and elevation at any point on the Earth’s surface. The simplest model representing the
Earth is a perfect sphere. Models called datums applied to different areas of the Earth provide
increased accuracy in the accumulation of measurements. For worldwide measurements, the
World Geodetic System (WGS) is applied.

Figure 6 Example of GIS Data Layers

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2.2 Frequency Analysis of Hydrologic Data

Hydrologic systems are sometimes impacted by extreme events, such as severe storms, floods,
and droughts. The magnitude of an extreme event is inversely related to its frequency of
occurrence, very severe events occurring less frequently than more moderate events. The
objective of frequency analysis is to relate the magnitude of extreme events to their frequency of
occurrence through the use of probability distributions (Chow, 1988).

The results of flood flow frequency analysis can be used for many engineering purposes: for the
design of dams, bridges, culverts, and flood control structures; to determine the economic value
of flood control projects; and to delineate flood plains and determine the encroachments on the
floodplain (Chow, 1988)..

2.2 1 Return Period

The return period of an event of a given magnitude is defined as the average recurrence interval
between events equaling or exceeding a specified magnitude (Chow, 1988). The choice of return
period depends on various factors, including the size of the drainage area, the risk of failure, and
the importance of a structure. Typically, the design return periods used in hydrology vary from
10 years to 100 years.

2.2.2 Hydrologic Data Series

A complete duration series consists of all the data available. A partial duration series is a series
of data which are selected so that their magnitude is greater than a predefined base value. If the
base value is selected so that the number of values in the series is equal to the number of years of
the record, the series is called an annual exceedance series. An extreme value series includes the
largest or smallest values occurring in each of the equally long-time intervals of the record. The
time interval length is usually taken as one year, and a series so selected is called an annual
series. Using largest annual values, it is an annual maximum series. Selecting the smallest annual
values produces an annual minimum series (Chow, 1988).

Figure 6 Example of Maximum Daily Rainfall Data (Farid, M. et al 2017)

2.3 Related Studies

The table below is the overview of some studies performed for flood modeling, mapping and
flow modeling using the software programs of HEC integrated with some other methods. The
authors, the year of publication, study objectives, methods used, and results are shown.

Author/s/Year Study Objective/s Methods Results

The results obtained
correlated with the actual
The study analyzes the situation in a very high
flood prone areas in the proportion, i.e., for a 1%
Iosub, M., et al HEC-RAS (1D
middle and lower sectors of flood occurrence, almost
(2015) modeling), HEC-
Pluton River (Romania) by 123 households were
GeoRAS
drawing the flood risk damaged, and the
maps simulation showed 147
buildings which have been
damaged.
The results indicated that
The study developed
HEC-RAS (1D for 100-year flood
floodplain maps for
Romali, N.S., et al modeling), HEC-HMS, simulation, the inundated
different return periods for
(2018) frequency analysis of area was almost 5 times
an urban area in Segamat
flood flows larger than the simulated
Malaysia
10-year flood.
The result of simulated
flow showed an acceptable
model efficiency of 0.90
The study obtained the
Romali, N.S., et al and 0.76 for the calibrated
peak flow hydrograph of HEC-HMS
(2018) and validated HEC-HMS
Segamat River (Malaysia)
model for recommended
future use in flood risk
assessment of the area.
The analyses indicated that
although engineering
practices for ungauged
The study developed a
HEC-RAS (2D basins are subject to major
Papaioannou, G., flood inundation map in
modeling), unit uncertainties, the
et al (2018) ungauged urban areas
hydrograph theory hydrological results may
(Greece)
counterbalance missing
information ensuring
realistic outcomes.
The study compared the 1D The 2D flow area in HEC-
HEC-RAS (1D and 2D
Alzahrani, A.S. and 2D flood inundation RAS provided accurate
unsteady flow
(2017) maps of Great Miami River floodplain mapping than
modeling)
and Bear Creek (Ohio) the 1D model.
The study generated flood
susceptibility maps for
Juqueriquere River Basin The SCS-CN method
Boulomytis,
(Brazil) due to LU/LC HEC-RAS (2D seemed to be suitable for
V.T.G.
changes using traditional Modeling), HEC-HMS the simulation of LU/LC
(2017)
hydrologic models and changes
alternative multicriteria
evaluation techniques
Farid, M., et al The study developed a HEC-RAS (2D The result for the 25-yr
(2017) flood hazard map of Modeling), HEC-HMS flood showed an inundation
 Palembang City area of 112.47 km2, 14 sub-
(Indonesia) catchments being in high
hazard level.
The study compared the
efficiency and accuracy of ModClark Model, Soil ModClark Model was
Gharib, M., et al
rainfall-runoff simulations Conservation Service considered to have high
(2017)
in Tangrah Watershed Model accuracy
(Iran) using two methods