Time-Harmonic Electromagnetic Fields PDF

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An IEEE Press Classic Reissue
TIME-HARMONIC
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
Roger F. Harrington
Professor of Electrical Engi11eeri11g (rerired)
Syracuse University
IEEE Antennas & Propagation Society, Sponsor

IEEE Microwave Theory and Techniques Society, Sponsor
+.IEEE
IEEE Press
ffiWILEY-
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FOREWORD TO THE REISSUED EDITION
The purpose of the IEEE Press Series on Electromagnetic Wave Theory is to pub-
lish books of long-term archiva! significance in electromagnetics. Included are new
titles as well as reprints and revisions of recognized classics. Time-Harmonic Elec-
tromagnelic Fields, by Roger F. Harrington, is one of the most significant works in
electromagnetic theory and applications.
The book has been one of the principal texts in the first graduate course on elec-
tromagnetic theory for the past forty years; many would say the principal text. This
classic volume contains a complete coverage of dynamic fields and is as fresh today
as it was when originally published in 1961.
Time-Harmonic Electromagnetic Fields has proved to be popular over the past
40 years with students, professors, researchers and engineers who require a compre-
in-depth treatment of the subject. lndeed, a colleague of mine, Dr. Kendall
F. Casey of SRI writes, as follows:
"When 1 begin a new research project, 1 clear my desk and put away ali
texts and reference books. lnvariably, Harrington 's book is the first
book to find its way back to my desk. My copy is so worn that it is
falling apart."
Another colleague, Professor Chalmers M. Butler of Clemson University adds the
following:
" In the opinion of our faculty, there is no other book available which
serves as well as Professor Harrington's does as an introduction to ad-
vanced electromagnetic theory and to classical solution methods in
electromagnetics."
Professor Harrington has been an internationally well-known contributor to elec-
tromagnetics for many years. He is universally regarded as the "father" of the
Method of Moments. His book on the subject, Field Computation by Moment
Methods, was added to the series in 1993.
Professor Harrington is a Fellow of the IEEE. Prior to his retirement from active
teaching, he was a Distinguished Professor at Syracuse University. Among his many
awards and honors, he was awarded the IEEE Centennial Medal in 1984, the IEEE
Antennas and Propagation Society Distinguished Achievement Award in 1989, the
URSI Van der Pol Medal in 1996, the Jubilee Tesla Meda! in I 998, the IEEE Elec-
tromagnetics Field Award in 2000, and an IEEE Third Millenium Meda! in 2000.
lt is with pleasure tbat 1 welcome this classic book into the series.
OONALD G. DuoLEY
University ofArizona
Series Editor
IEEE Press Series on Electromagnetic Wave Theory
vii
PREFACE
This book wa.s written primarily as a gra.dua.te-level text, but it should

also be useful as a. reference book. The organization is somewhat dif-
ferent from that norrnally found in engincering books. The material
is arranged according to similarity of mathematical techruques imstead
of aecording to devices (antennas, waveguides, cavities, etc.). This
organizo.tion reflects the main purpose of the book-to present m.athe-
matical teehniques for handling electromagnetic engineering problems.
In the sense that theorems are proved i.md formulas derived, the book is
theoretica.l. However1 numerous practica! examples il1ustrate the theory,
and in this sense the book is practica]. The experimental aspect of the
subject is not considered explicitly.
The term time-harmonic has been used in the title to indicate that only
sinusoidally time-varying fields are considered. To describe such fields,
the adjective a-e (alternating-current) has been borrowed from the corre-
sponding specializatfon of circuit theory. Actually, much of the theory
can easily be e;\iended to arbitrarily ti.me-varying fields by meaos oí the
Fourier or Laplaee transformatioDB.
The nomenclature and symbolism used is essentially the eame as that
of the author's earlier text, "Introduction. to Electromagnetic Engineer-
ing, 11 except f or the following change. Boldface seript letters denote
instantaneous vector quantities and boldface block letters denote com-
plex vectors. This is a departurc from the confusing convention of
using the sa.me symbol far the two different quantities, insta.ntaneous
&nd complex. Also, the complex quantitics are chosen to have rms
(root-mean-square) amplitudes, which corresponds to the usual a-e
circuit theory convention.
The many examples treated in the text are intended to be simple
treatments of practíca.l problema. Most of the complicated formulas
are illustrated by numerical calculations or graphs. To augment the
examples, there is an extensive set o( problema a.t the end of eaoh cha.pter.
Many of these problema are of theoretical or practical significa.nce,
a.nd are therefore listed in the index. An.swers are given for most of
the problema.
Some of the material of the text appears in book form for the first
time. References are given to the original sources when they are known.
ix
X PREFACE
However, it has not been possible to trace each concept back to its
original inventor; hence ma.ny references ha.ve probably been omitted.
For this the author offers his apologies. Credit has also been given
to persons responsible for the original calcula.tions of curves whenever
possible. A bibliography of books for supplementa.l reading is given at
the end of the text.
The book has been used for a course directly following a.n introduotory
course a.nd a.lso for a. course following a.n intermediate one. On the
former level, the progress was slower than on the latter, but the organi-
za.tion of the book seemed satisfactory in both cases. There is more
than enough material for a year's work, and the tea.cher will probably
wa.nt to make his own choice of topics.
The author expresses his sincere appreci&tion to everyone who in a.ny
way contributed to the creation of this book. Tha.nks to W. R. LePa.ge,
whose love for learning and teaching inspired the a.uthor; to V. H.
Rumsey, from whom the a.uthor learned many of his viewpoints; to
H. Gruenberg, who read the galleys; to colleagues and students, for their
ma.ny va.lua.ble comments a.nd criticisms; and, finally, to the several
secreta.ríes who so expertly typed the manuscript.
Roger F. H arTington
CONTENTS
Foreword to the Revised Edition . vii
Pre/a ce ix
Chapter l. Fundamental Concepta
1-1. Introduction . 1
1-2. Basic Equa.tions . 1
1-3. Constitutive Rel:a.tionships . ó
1-4. The Genera.lized Current Concept 7
1'"5. Energy and Power . 9
1-6. Circuit Concepta 12
1-7. Complex Qua.ntities . 13
1-8. Complex Equations. 16
1-9. Complex Constitutive Pa.rameters 18
1-10. Complex Power 19
1-11. A-C Cha.ra.cteristics of Ma.tter 23
1-12. A Discussion of Current . 26
1-13. A-C Beha.vior of' Circuit Elements 29
1-14. Singularities of the Field . 32
Chapter 2. Introduction to Waves
2-1. The Wave Equa.tion 37

2-2. Wa.ves in Perfect Dielectrics 41
2-3. Intrinaic Wa.ve Consta.nts . 48
2-4. Wa.ves in Loasy Ma.tter 51
2-5. Reflection of Wa.ves 54
2-6. Tra.namission-li.ne Concepta 61
2-7. Wa.veguide Concepta 66
2-8. Reson.a tor Concepta 74
2-9. Re.diation 77
2-10. Antenna Concepta . 81
2-11. On Waves in General 85
Chapter S. Some Theorems and Concepta
3-1. The Source Concept 95

3-2. Dua.lity . 98
3-3. Uniqueness . 100
3-4. Ima.ge Theory 103
3-5. The Equiva.lence Principle . 106
3-6. Fields in Half-space 110
xi
xii CONTENTS
3-7. The Induction Theorem 113

3-8. Reciprocity 116
3-9. Green's Functions 120
3-10. Tensor Green's Functions . 123
3-11. Integral Equa.tions . 125'
3-12. Construction of Solutions 1291
3-13. The Radia.tion Field
Chapter 4. Plane Wave Functions
4-1. The Wave Functions 143:

4-2. Pla.ne Wa.ves. 145
4-3. The Rectangular Waveguide 148
4-4. Alternative Mode Sets . 152
4-5. The Rectangular Cavity 155
4-6. Partio.lly Filled Wo.veguide 158
4-7. The Dielectric-slab Guide . 163:
4-8. Surface-guided Waves . 168
4-9. Modal Expansiona of Fields 171
4.-10. Currents in Waveguides 177
4-11. Apertures in Ground Planes 180
4-12. Plane Current Shects 186
Chapter 6. Cylindrical Wave Functions
5-1. The Wa.ve Functions 198

5-2. The Circular Wa veguide 204
5-3. Radial Waveguides. 208
5-4. The Circular Cavity 213
5-5. Otber Guided Waves 216
5-6. Sources of Cylindrical Wa.ves . 223
5-7. Two-dimensional Radia.tion 228
5-8. Wave Transformations . 230
5-9. Scattering by Cylinders 232
5-10. Sca.ttering by Wedges . 238
5-11. Three-dimensiono.l Radiation . 242
5-12. Apertures in Cylinders . 245
5-13. Apertures in Wcdges 250
Chapter 6. Spherical Wave Functions
6-1. The Wa.ve Functions 264

6-2. The Spherical Co.vity 269
6-3. Orthogonality Relationships 273
6-4. Space a.a a. Wa.veguide . 276
6-5. Other Radial Waveguides . 279
6-6. Other Resonators 283
6-7. Sources of Spherical Waves 286
6-8. Wa.ve Tra.nsforma.tions . 289
6-9. Sca.ttering by Spheres . 292
6-10. Dipole a.nd Conducting Sphere 298
CONTENTS x üi
6-11. Apertures in Spheres . 301
6-12. Fields Externa} to Cones 303
6-13. Maximum Antenna. Ga.in 307
Chapter 7. Perturbational and Variational Techniques
7-1. Introduction . 317

7-2. Perturbations of Cavity Walls 317
7-3. Ca.vity-m a.terial Perturbations 321
7-4. Wa.veguide Perturbations . 326
7-5. Sta.tionary Formula.a for Cavities. 331
7-6. The Ritz Proccdure. 338
7-7. The Reaction Concept. 340
7-8. Sta.tionary Formulas for Wa.veguides. 345
7-9. Sta.tionary Formulas for lmpeda.nce . 348
7-10. Stationary Formulas for Scattering 355
7-11. Scattering by Dielectric Obsta.eles 362
7-12. Transmission through Apertures. 365
Chapter 8. Microwave Networks
8-1. Cylindrical Wa.veguides 381

8-2. Modal Expansiona in Waveguidcs 389
8-3. The Network Concept . 391
8-4. One-port Networks. 393
8-5. Two-port Networks . 398
8-6. Obsta.des in Wa.veguides 402
8-7. Posta in Waveguides 406
8-8. Sma.11 Obsta.eles in Wa.veguides 411
8-9. Diaphra.gms in Waveguides 414
8-10. Wa.veguide Junctions . 420
8-11. Wa.veguide Feeds . 425
8-12. Excita.tion of Apertures 428
8-13. Modal Expansiona in Ca.vities . 431
8-14. Probes in Ca.vities . 434
8-15. Aperture Coupling to Cavities 436
Appendix A. Vector Analysis 447

Appendix B. Complex Permittivities 451
Appendix C. Fourier Series a.nd Integra.Is 456
Appcndix D. Bessel Functions . 460
Appendix E. Legendre Functions 465
Bíl>li-Ography . • 471
Inckz . 473
CHAPTER 1
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
1-1. Introduction. The topic of this book is the theory and analysis
of electromagnetic phenomena that vary sinusoidally in time, henceforth
called a-e (alternating-current) phenomena. The fundamental concepts
which forro the basis of our study are presented in this chapter. It is
assumed that the reader already has some acquaintance with electro-
magnetic field theory and with electric circuit theory. The vector analy-
sis concepts that we shall need are summarized in Appendix A.
We shall view electromagnetic phenomena from the "macroscopic"
standpoint, that is, linear dimensions are large comparad to atomic dimen-
sions and charge magnitudes are large compared to atomic charges. This
allows us to neglect the granular structure of matter and charge. We
assume all matter to be stationary with respect to the observer. No
treatment oí the mechanical forces associated with the electromagnetic
field is given.
The rationalized mksc system of units is used throughout. In this
system the unit of length is the met er, the unit of mass is the kilogram,
the unit of time is the second, and the unit of charge is the coulomb.
We consider these units to be fundamental units. The units of aU other
quantities depend u pon this choice of f undamenta1 units, and are called
secondary units. The mksc system of units is particularly convenient
because the electrical units are identical to those used in practice.
The concepts necessary for our study are but a few of the many electro-
magnetic field concepts. We shall start with the familia.r Maxwell equa-
tions and specialize them. to our needs. New notation and nomenclature,
more convenient for our purposes, will be introduced. For the most part,
these innovations are extensions of a-e circuit concepts.
1-2. Basic Equations. The usual electromagnetic field equations are
expressed in terms of six quantities. These are
8, called the electric intensity (volts per meter)
:re, called the magnetic intensity (amperes per meter)
called the ekctric flux density (coulombs per square meter)
<B, called the magnetic flux densi.ty (webers per square meter)
Jj, called the electric current density (amperes per square meter)
q., called the electric charge density (coulombs per cubic meter)
1
2 TIME-BARMONIC ELECTROhiAGNETlC FlELDS
Fio. 1-1. dl and de on an open surface. Fio. 1-2. ds on a closed surface.
We sha.ll ca.U a quantity well-behaved wherever it is a continuous function

and has continuous derivatives. Wherever the above qua.ntities are well-
behaved, they obey the Maxwell equations
VXt = - -
aas V ·<S=O
at (1-1)
V . :O = q.
at
These equations include the information conta.ined in the equation of
continuity
V·O = -at
-
aq. (1-2)
which expresses the conservation of charge. Note that we ha.ve used

boldface script letters for the various vector quantities, since we wish to
reserve t he usual boldface roma.o letters for complex quantities, intro-
duced in Sec. 1-7.
Corresponding to each of Eqs. (1-1) are the integral forros of Maxwell's
equations
f t · dl = - :, JJ <B • ds 1fa <B • ds = O

(1-3)
f 3C . d1 = JJ .ds + JJ 9 . ds 1fa :0 • dS = fff q. dT
These are actually more general than Eqs. (1-1) beca.use it is no longer
required that the various quantities be well-behaved. In tbe equa.tions
of the first column, we employ the usual convention that dl encircles ds
according to the right-band rule of Fig. 1-1. In the equations of the
last column, we use the convention that ds points outward from a closed
surface, as shown in Fig. 1-2. The circle on a line integral denotes a
closed contour; the circle on a surface integral denotes a closed surface.
The integral form of Eq. (1-2) is
(1-4)
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 3
where the same convention applies. This is the statement oí conserva-
tion oí charge as it applies to a region.
We shall use the na.me fieUl quantity to describe the quantities dis-
cussed above. Aseociated with ea.ch field quantity there is a circuit
guantity, or integral quantity. These circuit quantities are
v, called the voltage (volts)

i, called t he electric current (amperes)
q, called the electric charge (coulombs)
1/1, called the magnetic jf,'IJ.X (webers)
if•, called the electric flux {coulombs)
u, called the magnetomotive force (amperes)
A The explicit relationships oí the field quantities to the circuit quantities

can be summarized as follows:
v= J& ·dl "' =JJ <B · ds

1/1' JJ ds
= 'D • (1-5)
q= JJJq. dr u=J3e ·dl

All the circuit quantities are algebraic quantities and require reference
conditions when designating them. Our convention for a "linc-integral"
quantity, such as voltage, is positive reference at the sta.rt of the path of
integration. This is illustrated by Fig. 1-3. Our convention for a
"surface-integral 11 quantity, such as current, is positive reference in tbe
direction oí ds. This is shown in Fig. 1-4. Charge is a "net-amount"
quantity, being the amount of positive cha.rge minus the amount of nega-
tive charge.
We shall ca.U Eqs. (1-1) to (1-4) fieUl equations, since all quantities
appearing in thcm are field quantities. Corresponding equations written
in terms of circuit quantities we shall describe as circuit equations. Equa-
+
\
I
A,,
1
•
\
Fla. 1--3. Reference convention for Flo. 1-4. Reference convention for
voltag&. current-.
4 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
tions (1-3) are commonly written in mixed field and circuit formas
i.e·dl= _dl/t <ff>cs·ds=O

'f dt
(1-6)
,+. :JC • dl = dl/;· +i cjf :o· ds = g
'f dt
Similarly1 the equation of continuity in mixed field and circuit forra is
,{{., [J • ds = - dq (1-7)
ff dt
Finally1 the various equations can be written entirely in terma of circuit

quantities. For this1 we shall use the notation that denotes summation
overa. closed contour for a. line-integral qua.ntity1 and summation overa
closed surface for a. surface-integral qua.ntity. In this notation, the cir-
cuit forros of Eqs. (1-6) a.re
¿v =
(1-8)
\ ' 'U = dY,· +i
Lt dt
and the circuit forro of Eq. (1-7) is
(1-9)
Note that the first of Eqs. (1-8) is a generalized form of Kirchhojf's volt-
age law 1 and Eq. (1-9) is a generalized forro of Kirchhoff's current law.
I t is apparent from the preceding summary that many mathematical
forros can be used to present a single physical concept. An understand-
ing of the concepta is an invaluable a.id to remembering the equa.tions.
While au extensive exposition of these concepts properly belongs in an
introductory textbook1 let us here summarize them. Consider the sets
of Eqs. (1-1) 1 (1-3), (l-6) 1 a.nd (1-8). The first equa.tion in ea.ch set is
essentially Faraday's law of induction. It states tha.t a. changing mag-
netic flux induces a. voltage in a path surrounding it. The second equa-
tion in each set is essentia.lly Ampere1s circuital law, extended to the
time-varying case. It is a partial definition of magnetic intensity and
magnetomotive force. The third equation of each set states that mag-
netic flux has no "flux source1 " that is, lines of es can ha.ve no beginning
or end. The fourth equation in ea.ch set is Gauss 1 law a.nd states that
lines of :O begin and end on electric charge. It is essentially a partial
definition of electric flux. Finally1 Eqs. (1-2), (l-4) 1 (1-7) 1 and (1-9) are
all forma of the law of conservation of charge. They state that charge
can be neither created nor destroyed, merely transported. Lines of cur-
rent must begin and end at points of increasing or decreasing charge
density.
1-3. Constitutive Relationships. In addition to the equations of
Sec. 1-2 we need equations speciíying the characteristics of the medium
in which the field exists. W e shall consider the doma.in of 8 and :Je as
the electromagnetic field and express n, <B, and in terms of 8 and :Je.
Equa.tions of the general form
:o = :0(8,:Je)
<B = <B(S,:Je) (1-10)
=
are called constitutive relationships. Explicit forms for these can be found
by experimentation or deduced from a.tomic considera.tions.
The termfree space wil1 be used to denote vacuum or any other medium
having essentially the same characteristics as vacuum (such as a.ir). The
constitutive relationships assume the particularly simple forros
D = E@& }
<B = µo:JC in free space (1-11)
where Eo is the capaci.tivity or permittivity of vacuum, and µo is the induc-

tivity or permeability of va-euum. It is a mathematica.l consequence of
the field equa.tions tha.t (Eoµo)-li is the velocity of propa.ga.tion of a.n
electromagnetic disturbance in free space. Light is eleetromagnetic in
na.ture, and this velocity is called the veloci.ty of light c. Measurements
ha.ve established that
1
e= . r-" = 2.99790 X 10 8 3 X 10 8 meters per second (1-12)
v EoJJ.o
The choice of either Eo or µo determines a system of electromagnetic units

according to our equations. By international agreement, the value of µo
has been chosen as
µo = 4?r X 10-7 henry per meter (1-13)
for the mksc system of units. It then follows from Eq. (1-12) that
1
Eo = 8.854 X io- 11 Sfür X 10- 9 farad per meter (1-14)
for the mksc system of units.

Under certain conditions, the constitutive relationships become simple
proportionalities for many materials. We se.y that such matter is linear
6 TIM:E-HARMONIC FIELDS
in tbe simple sense, and call it si.mple matter for short. Thus
in simple matter (1-15;
where1 as in t he free-space case, E is called the capacitivity of the medium

and µ.is called the inductivity of the medium. The para.meter <T is called
the conductivity of t he medium. We originally made the qualifying sta.te-
ment that Eqs. (1-15) hold "under certain conditions. 11 They may not
hold if 8 or :re are very large, or if time derivatives of 8 or :re are very large.
Matter is often classified according to its values of <11 E, and µ.. Mate-
ria.Is having large values of u are called conductors and those having small
values of <T are called insulators or dielectrics. For analyses1 it is often
convenient to approximate good conductors by perfect conductors, charac-
terized by <T = ao, and to approximate good dielectrics by perfect dielec-
tric.s1 characterized by u = O. The capacitivity E of any material is never
less than that of vacuum Eo. The ratio Er = E/ Eo is called the dielectric
constant or relative capacitivity. The dielectric constant of a good con-
ductor is hard to measure but appears to be unity. For most linear
matter1 the inductivity µ. is approximately that of free space µ. 0• There
is a class of materia.Is, called diamagnetic1 for which µ. is slightly less than
µo (of the order of 0.01 per cent). There is a class of materia.Is, called
paramagnetic1 for which µ is slightly gres.ter than JJ.o (again of the order of
0.01 per cent). A third class of materia.Is, ca.Uedferromagnetic, has values
of µ much larger than "'º' but these materia.Is are often nonlinear. For
our purposes1 we shall call all materia.Is except the ferromagnetic ones
nonmagnetic and takc µ. = µ.o for them. The ratio P.r = µ./ µ. 0 is called the
relative inductivity or relative permeability and is1 of course1 essentially
unity for nonmagnetic matter.
Quite often t he restriction on the time rate of change of the field1
made on the validity of Eqs. (1-15) 1 can be overcome by extending the
definit ion of linea.rity. We say that matter is linear in the general sense1
and call it linear matter, when the constitutive rela.tionships are the
following linear differential equations:
a& a'&
= lt + E1 at + Et at' + . .
a:re 2 a2:re in linear matter (1-16)
<B = ,.,.:re + "' Tt + "' at2 +
1
= <1& + <11 as-

at + a2s
at2 + . . .
<T2 -
Even more complica.ted formulas for the constitutive relationships roa.y

be necessary in sorne cases, but Eqs. (1-16) are the most general that we
shall consider. Note that Eqs. (1-16) reduce to Eqs. (1-15) when the time
derivatives oí 8 and :re become sufficiently small.
The physical significance of the extended definition of linearity is as
follows. The atomic particles of matter have mass as well as charge,
so when the field changes rapidly the particles cannot "follow 11 the field.
For example, suppose an electron has been accelerated by the field, and
then the direction oí t cha.nges. There will be a time lag before the
electron can change direction, beca.use of its momentum. Such a picture
holds for if the electron is a free electron. It holds for 'J) if the electron
is a bound electron. A similar picture holds for <B except that the mag-
netic moment of the electron is t he contributing quantity. We shall not
attempt to give significance to ea.ch term of Eqs. (1-16). It will be shown
in Sec. 1-9 that ali terms of Eqs. (1-16) contribute to an "admittivity "
andan "impedivity" of a material in the time-harmonic case.
1-4. The Generalized Current Concept. It was Maxwell who fust
noted tba.t la.w for statics, V X !JC = fj, was incomplete for
time-varying fields. He amended the law to include an electric displace-
ment current fJ'J>/ fJt in addition to the conduction current. He visualized
this displacement current in free space as a motion of bound charge in
an "ether, 11 an ideal weightless fluid permeating ali space. We ha.ve
since disca.rded the concept of an ether, for it has proved undetectable
and even somewhat illogica.l in view of the tbeory of relativity. In
dielectrics, part of the term fJ'J>/ fJt is a. motion of the bound particles
and is thus a current in the true sense of the word. However, it is con-
venient to consider the entire o'J>/ ot term as a current. In view of the
symmetry of Ma.xwell's equa.tions, it a.lso is convenient to consider the
term fJ<B/at as a magnetic displacement current. Fina.lly, to represent
sources, we amend the field equa.tions to include impressed currents, elec-
tric and magnetic. These are the currents we view as the cause of the
field. We shall see in the next section t hat the impressed currents repre,
sent energy sources.
The symbols n a.nd mi will be used to denote electric a.nd magnetic
currents in general, with superscripts indicating the type of current. As
discussed above, we define total currents
fl' =
at + a· + a•
a 'J)
(1-17)
mi' = o<B
at
+ mi•
where the superscripts t, e, a.nd i denote total, conduction, and impressed
currents. The symbols i and k will be used to denote net electric a.nd
ma.gnetic currents, and the sa.me superscripts will indica.te the type.
8 TIME--HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
Thus, the circuit form corresponding to Eqs. (1-17) is
i
., = dt
di/!• + i + i 't
'o
(1-18)
k' =di/!+ k'
dt
The i and k are, of course, related to the Jj and mt by
i= JJ JJ·ds k = JJ (1-19)
where these apply to any of the various types of current.

In terma of the generalized current concept, the basic equations of
electromagnetism become, in the differential form,
V X S = -mt' V X 3C = JJ' (1-20)
and in the integral form,
f S · d1 = - JJ mt' · ds f :JC • d1 = JJ JJ' · ds (1-21)
Also, the mixed field-circuit form is

f s. dl = -k' f :re. dl = i' (1-22)
a.nd the circuit form is
:2;v = -k' 2/tt = i' (1-23)
Note that these look simpler than the equations of Sec. 1-2. Actually,
we ha.ve merely included many concepts in the functions mt' and JJ'; so
tome of the information contained in the original Maxwell equations has
become hidden. However, our study comprises only a small portion of
the general theory of electromagnetism, a.nd the forms of Eqs. (1-20) to
(1-23) a.re well suited to our purposes.
Note tha.t we ha.ve omitted the "divergence equations" of Maxwell
fropi our a.hove sets of equations. We ha.ve done so to emphasize that
this information is included in the a.hove sets. For example, ta.king the
divergence of ea.ch of Eqs. (1-20), we obta.in
V· mt' = 0 V • JJ' = O (1-24)
for V • V X a = O is an identity. Similarly, Eqs. (1-21) applied to
closed surfaces became
1f mt' · ds =O 1f JJ' · ds = O (1-25)
Thus, the total currents a.re solenoidal. Lines of total current have no
beginning or end but must be continuous.
As an illustration of the general- 9c
ized --éurrent concept, consider the
circuits of Figs. 1-5 and 1-6. In .----VVv---
.Fig. 1-5, the "current source" lJ' 1
produces a conduction current lJº
through the resistor and a displace- Source ¡p
ment current a" = <J'D/ at through
t 1
t t t t 8"
the capacitor. In Fig. 1-6, the

"voltage source" mi' produces an
t 1
Fxo. 1-5. 'I'ypes of elect.ric current.
electric current in the wire which in
turn causes the magnetic displace-
ment current mt4 = iJ<B/iJt in the magnetic core. In these pictures we
have used the convention that a single-headed arrow representa an elec-
tric current, a double-headed arrow representa a magnetic current.
,,. large
- --
::
i
-- --
11
• 11
Source <; ' '"
j
--
F10. 1.6. 'I'ypes oí magnetic current.
It is not possible at this time to give the reader a complete picture of

the usefulness of impressed currents. Figures 1-5 and 1-6 anticípate one
a.pplication, namely, that of representing sources. More generally, the
impressed currents are those currents we view as sources. In a sense,
the impressed currents are those currents in terms of which the field is
expressed. In one problem, a conduction
current might be considered as the source,
or impressed, current. In another prolr
lem, a. polariza.tion or ma.gnetization current
might be considerad as the source current.
Our understanding 9f the concept will grow
as we learn to use it.
1-6. Energy and Power. Considera re-
gion of electromagnetic field, as suggested
Fio. 1-7. A region containing by Fig. 1-7. The field obeys the Maxwell
sourcea. equations, which in generalized current
10 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGN:ETIC FIELDS
notation a.re Eqs. (1-20). As an extension of circuit concepts, it can

be shown that a. product 8 · JJ is a power density. This suggests a sea.lar
multiplication of the second of Eqs. (1-20) by 8. Also, in view of the
vector identity
V • (8 X :Je) = :Je • V X t - 8 • V X :Je
a sea.lar multiplication of the first of Eqs. (1-20) by :re is suggested. The
difference of the resulting two equa.tions is
V . (8 X :re) + 8 • + :re . mt' = o (1-26)
If this equa.tion is integrated throughout a region, and the divergence
theorem applied to the first term, there results
1P 8 X :JC • ds + fff (8 • c(J' + :Je • mt') d.,. = O (1-27)
We shall interpret these as equations for the comervation of energy, Eq.

(1-26) being the differential form and Eq. (1-27) being the integral fo rm.
The generally accepted interprcta.tion of Eqs. (1-26) and (1-27) is as
follows. The Poynting vector
S = SX:JC (1-28)
is postulated to be a density-of-power flux. The point relationship
p¡ = V • i = V • (8 X :JC) (1-29)
is then a volume density of power leaving the point, and tbe integral
@1 = <ffi S · ds = <ffi 8 X :re · ds (1-30)
is the total power lea.ving the region bounded by the surface of inte-
gration. The other terms of Eq. (1-26) can then be interpreted as the
ra.te of increase in cnergy density a.ta point. Simila.rly, the other terms
of Eq. (1-27) can be interpreted as the rate of increase in energy within
the region. Further identification of this energy can be made in particu-
lar cases.
For media linear in the simple sense, as defined by Eqs. (1-15), the
last two terms of Eq. (1-26) become
at (.2!:. E8 ) + u8 + 8 • a'
2 2
8 • =
{1-31)
:re . mt' at (.2!:. µX. + :re . mi•
2
= )
where and mt' represent possible source currents. The terms

(1-32)
FUNDA.MENTAL CONCEPTS 11
are identified as the electric and magnetic energy densities of static fields,
and this interpretation is retained for dyna.mic fields. The term
(1-33)
is identified as the density of power converted to heat energy, called
dissipated power. Fina.lly, the density of power supplied by the source
currents is defined as
p. = - (& • + :Je • mt') (1-34)
The reference direction for source power is opposite to tbat for dissipated
power, as evidenced by the minus sign of Eq. (1-34). In terms of the
above-defined quantities, we can rewrite Eq. (1-26) as
p, = P1 + Pd + ota (w. + w.,.) (1-35)
A word sta.tement of this equation is: At any point, the density of power
· supplied by the sources must equal that leaving the point plus that clissi-
pated plus the rate of increase in stored electric and magnetic energy
densities.
A more common statement of the conservation of energy is that which
refers toan entire region. Corresponding to thc densities of Eqs. (1-32),
we define the net electric and magnetic energies within a region as
(1-36)
Corrcsponding to Eq. (1-33), wc define the net power converted to heat

energy as
(1-37)
Finally, corresponding to Eq. (1-34), we define the net power supplied

by sources within the region as
<P, = - JJJ(& • '9' + :Je • mt') dr (1-38)
In terma of these definitions, Eq. (1-27) can be written a.s
<P. = <P¡ + <Pd + dtd ('W. + 'W,,.) (1-39)
Thus, the power supplied by the sources within a region must equal that
leaving the region plus that dissipated within the region plus the rate of
increase in electric and magnetic cnergies stored within the region.
If we proceed to the general definition of linearity, Eqs. (1-16), the
separation of power into a reversible energy change and a.n
12 TlME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
irreversible energy change is no longer easy. Contributions

to energy atora.ge a.nd to energy dissipation ma.y origina.te írom both
conduction and displacement ourrents. However, Eqs. (1-35) a.nd (1-39)
still a.pply to media linear in the general sense. We merely oannot
identiíy the va.rious terms. In Sec. 1-10 we shall see that for a-e fields
the division of energy into stored and dissipa.ted components again
assumes a simple forro.
1-6. Circuit Concepts. The usual equa.tions of circuit theory are
specia.liza.tions of the field equations. Our knowledge of circuit concepts
can tberefore be of help to us in understa.nding :field concepts. In thls
section we sb.all quickly review tbis relationsbip of circuits to fields.
Kirchhoff's current la.w for circuits is a.n application of the equation of
conservation of charge to surfaces enclosing wire junctions. To demon-
strate, consider the para.lle! RLC circuit of Fig. 1-8. Let the letter o
denote the junction, a.nd the letters a, b, e, d denote the upper terminals
of the elements. We apply Eq. (1-7) to a surface enclosing the junction,
as represented by the dotted line in Fig. 1-8. The result is
. + iob
t 04
. + ioo
. + iod
. + ii. + dq
dt = o
where the ion are the currents in the wires, i, is the lea.ka.ge current cross-
ing the surface outside of the wires, and q is the charge on the junction.
The term áq/dt can be thought of as the current through the stray capaci-
tance between the top and bottom junctions. In most circuit applica-
tions both iz and dq/dt are negligible, and the a.hove equation reduces to
ioa+i°"+ioo+iod=O
Tbis is the usual expression of the Kirchhoff current law for the circuit of
Fig. 1-8.
Kirchhoff's volts.ge law for circuits is a.o application of the first Max-
well equa.tion to closed contours following the connecting wires of the
circuit a.nd closing across tbe termina.Is of tbe elements. To demonstrate,
consider the series RLC circuit of Fig. 1-9. Let the letters a to h denote
- ------- ...... --
o .... , s
'
d)
F10. 1-8. A parallel RLO
cirouit.
e
FUNDAKENTAL CONCEPTS 13
Fio. 1-9. A series RLC

circuit.
the terminals of the elements as shown. We apply the first of Eqs. (1-6)
to the contour abcdefgha, following tbe dotted lines between terminals.
T1:lls gives
where the Vmn a.re the voltage drops a.long the contour and t/¡ is the mag-
netic flux enclosed. The voltages vo111 v.d, "•h and Vg11 are dueto the resist-
a.nce of the wire. The term dt/¡/dt is the voltage of the stra.y inductance
of the loop. When the wire resistance and the stray inductance can be
neglected, the a.hove equation reduces to
This is tbe usual forro of KirchhofI's voltage law for the circuit of Fig. 1-9.
In addition to Kirchhoff's laws, circuit tbeory uses a number of
"element la.ws. 11 Ohm's law for resistors, v = Ri, is a specia.lization of
the constitutive relationship = uS. The law for capacitors, q ::: Cv,
expresses the same concept as :O = ES. We have from the equation
of continuity i = dq/dt, so the capacitor law can a.lso be written as
i = C dv/ dt. The law for inductora, Y, = Li, expresses tbe same con-
oept as <B = µ3C. From the first Maxwell equation we ha.ve v = dY,/dt,
so the inductor law can also be written as v = L di/ dt. Finally, the vari-
ous energy rela.tionships for circuit theory can be considered as specia.1-
izations of those for field theory. Detailed expositions of the various
specializations mentioned above can be found in elementary textbooks.
Table 1-1 summarizes the various correspondences between field concepts
and circuit concepts.
1-7. Complex Quantities. When the fields are a.-c, that is, when the
time variation is ha.rmonic, the mathematical analysis can be simplified
14 TIM.E-RARMONIC E LECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
T ABLE 1-1. CoIUtESPON DEN CES BETWEEN Cmcu 1T C o NCEPTS AN D FlELt> CoN c El'TS
Circuit concepts Field concep ts
Voltage v Electric intcnsity 8
Current i E lectric current density a

or magnetic intensity :Je
Magnet ic Bux Y, Ma.gnet ic Bux density <B
Cha.rge q Chargo density q.,

or elect ric flux density :D
Kirchhotr's voltage la.w (genera.lized) Maxwell-Fa.rada.y equa.tion

¿ v.,._ di/I
" dt
v xs - - a<B
-at
Kirchhoff's curren t la.w (genera.lized) Equa.tion of continuity

aq..
v ·a· = - -
at
Element la.ws (linear) Constitutivo rela.tionships (Jinea.r in the simple
1 sense)
Resistors i =- v Conductors JJ• ""' <T8
R
Cape.citors q "" Cv Dielectrics :o - E8
dv éJ&
or i-= C- or n d"" e -
dt éJt
Inductors
"' =
Lidi Magnetic proper ties <B - µ:JC
a:re
or V "" L - or :Jttd - µ -
dt at
Power ftow p ¡ = vi Power flow S = 8 X 3C
Power dissipa.tion in resistors Power dissipation

. 1 t Pd = 8 · a• = <1&1
<Pd - vi - -v
R
Energy in ce.pacitors Electric energy

w. - Hqv ... HCv1 w, = H!D · 8 - H eS1
Energy in inductora Ma.gnetic energy

w,,. -= Hi/ti "" HLi' w .,. .. H íµ:rei
by using complex quantities. The basis for this is Euler 's identity
eiQ = cos a + j sin a
where j = v=T. This gives usa relationship between real sinusoidal
functions and tbe complex exponential function.
Any a-e qua.ntity can be represented by a complex quantity. A sea.lar
qua.ntity is interpreted according to 1
v= v'2 IVI cos (wt +a) = v'2 Re (Vei"' 1
) {l-40)
where v is called the instantaneous quantity and V = 1V lelª is called the
complex quantity. The notation Re ( ) stands for "the real part of,"
that is, the pa.rt not associated with j . Other names for V are " phasor
quant.ity" and "vector quantity," the last name causing confusion with.
space vectors. In our notation v representa a voltage, hence V is a complex
voltage. Equation (1-40) with v replaced by i and V repla.ced by 1 would
define a complex current, and so on. Note that the complex quantity is
not a function of time but it may be a function oí position. Note also
that t he magrútude of the complex quantity is the effective (root-mean-
square) value of t he instantaneous quantity. We ha.ve chosen it so
beca.use {1) a-e quantities are usually specified or measured in effective
values in practice, and (2) equations for complex power and energy reta.in.
the sa.me proportionality foctors as do their instantaneous counterparts.
For example, in circuit theory t he instantaneous power is p - vi, and
complex power is P = V 1*. A factor of appears in tbe equation for
complex power if peak values of v and i are used for !VI and 111.
Complex nota.tion can readily be extended to vectors ha.ving sinusoidal
time va.riation. A complex E is defined as related to a.n instantaneous' S
a.ccording to
s = y'2 Re (Eei..') (1-41)
This means that the spatial components of E are rela.ted to tbe spatia.l
components of & by Eq. (1-40). For cxample, the x components of E
and & are related by
8;r = v'2 Re (E;rd., 1
) = v'2 IE;rl cos (wt + ar.)
where Er. = IE:slei"•. Similar equations relate t he y and z components of
E and 8. The phase of ea.ch component may be different from the pha.ses
of the other two components, that is, ar., ali, and ª• are not necessarily
equal. In our notation & is an electric intensity, hence E is called the com-
plex electric intensity. Equation (1-41) with E repla,c ed by H and S by lC
1
T he convcntion v = 0 Jrn (Ve1"' 1) can also be used, where Im ( ) stands for
"the imaginary pa.rt of.11 Tbe factor '\r"2 can be omittcd if it is desired that 1VI be the
peak value of v.
16 TIME-H.ARMONIO ELECTROMAGNETIO J'IELDS
defines a. complex magnetic intensity H , representing the instanta.neous

magnetic intensity 3C, and so on. Note that the magnitude of a com-
ponent of the complex vector is the efl'ective va.lue of the corresponding
component of the insta.ntaneous vector. This choice corresponda to that
ta.ken for complex scalars and has essentially the sa.me advanta.ges.
A real vector, such as 8 or can be thought of as a. triplet of real
sea.lar functions, na.mely, the x, y, and z components. At any instant of
time, the vector has a definite magnitude a.nd direction at every point in
space and can be represented in three dimensions by a.rrows. A complex
vector, such as E or H, is a group of six real scalar functions, namely,
the real and ima.ginary parts of the x, 111 and z componente. It cannot be
represented by a.rrows in three-dimensional space except in special cases.
One such special case is that for which et: = etv == a., so that the vector
has a real direction in space. In this case the insta.nta.neous vector always
points in the same direction (or opposite direction), ata point in spa.ce,
cha.nging only in amplitude. We could define a "complex magnitude"
and a "complex direction" for a complex vector as extensions of t he
corresponding definitions for real veotors, but these would have little use.
Throughout this book we shall use the following notation. Instan-
taneous qua.ntities are denoted by script letters or lower-case letters.
Complex quantities which represent the instantaneous quantities are
denoted by the corresponding capital letter. Vectors a.re denoted by
boldface type.
1-8. Complex Equations. The symbol Re ) can be considered as a
mathematica.l operator which selecta the real part of a complex quantity.
A set oí rules for ma.nipula.ting the operator Re ) can be formulated
from the properties of complex f unctions. The following are the rules
we shall need. Let a capital letter denote a complex quantity a.nd a
lower-case letter denote a real quantity. Then
Re (A)+ Re (B) =Re (A+ B)
Re (aA) = a Re (A)
i_ Re (A)
ax = Re (ºA
ax )
{l-42)
JRe (A) dx = Re ( JA dx)

The proof of these is left to the reader.
In addition to the a.hove equations we sha.11 need the following lemma..
lf A and B are complex quantities, and Re (A e'"') = Re (Bei"'') for all t,
then A =B. We can readily show this by first ta.king t = O, obta.ining
Re (A) = Re (B), and then ta.king wt = ...¡ 2, obta.ining Im (.A) = Im (B).
Thus, A = B, for the above two equalities are the definition of this.
To illustrate the deriva.tion of an equation for complex quantities from
one for instantaneous quantities, consider
v=Jt·dl
Expressing v and 8 in terms of their complex counterparts, we have
.y2 Re (Vef" 1) = f y'2 Re (Eei"') • d1

By steps justifiable by Eqs. (1-42) 1 this reduces to
.y2 Re (Vei'"') = y'2 Re ( ei..1 f E· d1)

Cancella.tion of the V2's and application of the a.hove lemma then gives
Note tha.t this is of the same form as the original instantaneous equation.
We have illustrated the procedure with a scalar equation, but the same
steps apply to the components of a vector equation.
From our rules for manipulation of the Re ( ) operator, it should be
apparent that any equation linearly relating instantaneous quantities
and not involring time differentiation takes the same forro for complex
quantities. Thus, the complex circuit quantities V, 1, U, and K are
related to the complex field quantities E, H , J, and M according to
V= f E·dl U= fH·dl
(1-43)
l=f/J·ds K = ff M ·ds
There is no time diflerentiation explicit in the field equations written in
generalized current nota.tion. The complex forms of these must therefore
also be the same as the instantaneous forros. For example, the complex
forro of Eqs. (1-20) is
V X E = -M' V X H = J' (1-44)
Even thóugh these complex equations look the same as the corresponding
instantaneous equations, we should always keep in mind the difference in
meaning.
As an illustration of the procedure when the instantaneous equation
exhibits a t ime differentiation, consider the equation
VX8=-ét<B
at
Again we expresa the instantaneous quantities in terms of the complex
18 TIME-HARMONIC E LECTROMAGNETlC FlELDS
quantities, and obtain
[.y2 Re (E&..1} ]
V X = -
at [.y2 Re
The time va.riation is explicit, and the differentiation can be performed.
By steps justifiable by Eqs. (1-42), the a.hove equation becomes
y'2 Re (V X Eei°'') = - y'2 Re (jwBeiw')
By the foregoing lemma, this reduces to
V X E= -jwB
lt should now be apparent that ea.ch time derivative in a linear instan-
taneous equation is replaced by a jw multiplier in the corresponding com-
plex equation. For example, the Maxwell equations in complex form
corresponding to Eqs. (1-1) are
V X E = -jwB V·B = O
(1-45)
V X H = jwD +J V·D = Q..
The other forma of these can be obtained in a similar fashion.
1-9. Complex Constitutive Parameters. The constitutive relation-
ships for matter linear in the general sense can be specia.lized to the a-e
case by the procedure of the preceding section. To illustra.te, consider
the first of Eqs. (1-16), which is
The complex form of this equation is rea.dily found as

D = (E + jWE 1 - w 2E2 + · · ')E
The quantity (E + jwE1 - w 2E2 + · · ·) is just a compler.: function of w,
which we shall denote by l(w). Thus, the complex equation
D = l(w)E
wbich looks like the form for simple media, is actually va.lid for media
linear in the general sense.
The other two of Eqs. (1-16) simplüy in a similar manner; so we ha.ve
the a..c constitutive relationshi ps
D = t(w)E
B = ,Q(w)H (1-46)
J• = <T(w)E
for linear media.. We call l the complex permittivity of the medium, ,n
the comptex permeahility of the medium, and <T the complex conductivity
of the medium. Remember that these pa.rameters are not necessarily
the d-c parameters, but
e((l)) 1 ,íl((I)), 8'((1)) --+ E1 µ 1 <T
.......o
The d-c parameters may apply over a wide range of frequencies for sorne
materia.is but never over all frequencies (vacuum excepted).
In terma of t he generalized current concept, the induced currents
(caused by the field) are
J= (it + jwe)E = y("')E
(1-47)
M = jwp.H =
The para.meter y(w) has the dimensions of admittance per length and will
be called the admittiv-ity of tbe medium. The para.meter has the
dimensions of impedance per length and will be called the impooivity
of the medium. Note t hat y is a combination of the uand e parameters.
A measurement of '{) is relatively simple, but it is difficult to separa.te it
from !. The distinction is primarily philosophical. If the current is due
to free charge, we include its effect in u. If the current is dueto bound
charge, we include its effect in e. Thus, when talking of conductors, t he
usual convention is to let y = 6' + j"'eo. When discussing dielectrics,
it is common to let y = j"'e.
To represent sources, impressed currents are added to t he induced
currents of Eqs. (1-47). Thus, t he general forro of the a-e field equations
is
- V X E = + M' (1-48)
V X H = y(w)E + J'
The and y("') specify the characteristics of the media. The J' and
Mi represent the sources. Equations (1-48) are therefore two equations
for determining the coroplex field E, H. Solutions to these equa.tions are
the principal topic of this book.
1-10. Complex Power. In Sec. 1-5 we considerad expressions for
instantaneous power and energy in terms of th e instantaneous field
vectors. We shall show now that similar expressions in terms of the
complex field vectors represent time-average power and energy in a-e
fields. For this, we shall need t he concept of complex conj ugate quan-
tities, denoted by *, a.nd defined as follows. If A = a' + ja" = 1A le'...,
the conjuga.te of A is A* = a' - ja" = !A le-;ª· It follows from this
that AA* = IAl2•
Let us first consider any two a-e quantities <1 a.nd m, which may be
scala.rs or components of vectors. These are in general of t he forro
<1 =V2 IAI cos ("'t +a) = V2 Re (Aé• 1
)
m = V2 IBI cos ("'t + P) = V2 Re (B e;"')

20 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC F1ELDS
where A = 1Alef0 and B = IBlei". The product of two such quantities is

am = V2 IAI cos (wt + a) V2 IBI cos (wt + fJ)
= IAI IBl[cos (a - fJ) + cos (2wt +a + P)} (1-49)
We shall denote the time average of a quantity by a bar over that quan-
tity. The time average of t he above expression is
a<B = IAI IBI cos (a - fJ)
We al.so note that
AB• = IAI IBl[cos (a - fJ) + ósin - fJ))
so it is evident tha.t
aCB = Re (AB*) (1-50)
This identity forms the basis of definitions of complex power.
The instantaneous Poynting vector [Eq. (1-28)} can be expanded in
rectangular coordina.tes as
S = u.(s11:re. - + uv(8.:re. - s.:re,) + u,(8,.:re
11 - 811:re,,)
This is a sum of terms, each of which is the form of Eq. (1-49). It there-
fore follows that
1 = 8 X :Je = Re (E X H *)
In view of this we define a complez Poynting vector
S= E X H* (1-51)
whose real part is the time a vera.ge of the insta.ntaneous Poynting vector,
or
1 =Re (S) (1-52)
We sha.11 interpret the imaginary part of S later.
We can obta.in an equation in which S appears by operating on the
complex field equations in a manner similar to that used in the instanta-
neous case. Starting from Eqs. (1-44), we scalarly multiply the first by
H * and the conjuga.te of tbe second by E. The difference of the resulting
two equations is
E • V X H * - H * · V X E = E • ] 1* + H * • M 1
The left-hand term is - V · (E X H *) by a mathematical identity; so
we have
V • (E X H *) + E • J'* + H * • M' = O (1-53)
The integral form of this is obtained by integrating throughout a region
and applying the divergence theorem. This results in
1fo E X H "' · ds + fff (E · J '* + H* •M 1

) dr = O (1-54)
Compare these with Eqs. (1-26) and (1-27). We sha.11 call Eqs. (1-53)
a.nd (1-54) for the wnservation of complex power, the former
applying at a point and the latter applying to an entire region.
The various terms of the a.hove equations are interpreted as follows.
As suggested by Eqs. (1-29) and (1-52), we define a complex volu.me density
of power leaving a point as
P1 = V· S = V · (E X H *) (1-55)
The real part of this is a time-average volume density of power lea.ving a
point, or
Re ('ft1) =PI (1-56)
where p1 is defined by Eq. (1-29). Simila.rly, we define the complex
power leaving a region as
(1-57)
It is evident from Eqs. (1-30) and (1-52) that the real part of this is the
time-average power flow, or
Re (P1 ) = (1-58)
Note tha.t these relationships a.re quite different from those used to inter-
pret most complex quantities [Eqs. (1-40) and (1-41)]. This is beca.use
s, p, and <P are not sinusoidal quantities but a.re formed of products of
sinusoidal quantities.
To interpret the other terma of Eq. (1-53), let us first specialize to the
case of a source-free field in media linear in the simple sense. We then
ha.ve
J' = gE = (u +
M1 = = jwµ.H
so E · J '* = ulEl 2 - jwEIEl 2
H * · M 1 ""jwµ.jHj 2
whero IEl 2 mea.ns E • E* a.nd IHI' mea.ns H • H*. In terms of t he insta.n-
taneous energy and power definitions of Eqs. (1-32) a.nd (1-33), we ha.ve
Pt1 ulEl 2 }
=
w. = %EIEl 2 in simple media (1-59)
w,,. = %µ.IHl 2
We can now write Eq. (1-53) as
V •S + P11 + j2w(w,,. - w.) = O (1-60)
22 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FI ELDS
Thus, the imaginary part of p1 as defi.ned by Eq. (1-55) is 2w times t he

difference between the time-average electric and magnetic energy den-
sities. The integral relationships corresponding to Eqs. (1-59) are
in simple media (1-61)
where <P&, W., and 'Wm are defined by Eqs. (1-36) and (1-37). The
specialization of Eq. (1-54) to source-free simple media is therefore
(1-62)
corresponding to the point relationship of Eq. (1-60). Note that this

interpretation of complex power is precisely that chosen in circuit theory.
lf sources are present, a complex power densily supplied by the sources
can be defined as
p. = - (E · J ' * + H * · M') (1-63)
The real part of this is the time-average power density supplied by the
sources, or
Re (p.) =p. (1-64)
where p. is defi.ned by Eq. (1-34). We can write Eq. (1-53) in general a.s
p. = PI + Pd + j2w(Wm - w,) (1-65)
where a.U terms ha.ve been identified for simple media. Similarly, the
total complex power supplied by sources within a region can be defined as
P.= - fff (E · J '* + H* ·M')dT (1-66)

where, from Eq. (1-38), it is evident t hat
Re (P.) = (1-67)
Then t he form of Eq. (1-65) applicable toan entire region is
P. = P1 + @d + j2w('Wm - 'W.) (1-68)
The real part of this represents a t ime-average power balance. The
imaginary pa.rt is related to time-average energies, and, in confotmity with
circuit theory nomenclature, is called reactive power.
Note that we ha.ve never defined <P&, Wm, or w. for media linear in the
general sense. We can, however, continue to use Eq. (1-68) for the
general case of linear media by extcnding our definitions. This is done
as follows. The time-average power dissipation is defined in general as
<f>d = Re [fff (gjEj +
2
dT] (1-69)
which reduces to t he first of Eqs. (1-61) in simple media. The first

term of the integrand represents both conduction and dielectric losscs, and
the second term represents magnetic losses. The time-average electric
and magnetic energies are defined in general as
(1-70)
which reduce to the two of Eqs. ( 1-61) in simple media. The first of
Eqs. (1-70) includes kinetic energy stored by free charges as well as tbe
usual field and polarization energies. More discussion of this concept
·is given in the next section.
1-11. A-C Characteristics of Matter. In source-free regions, the com-
plex field equations read
-V X E = 2(w)H V X H = g(w)E
:
In free space, 2 and y assume their simplest forros, being
} in free space ( 1-71)
These hold for all frequencies and all field intensities. In metals, the
conductivity remains very close to the d-c value for all radio frequencies,
that is, up to the infrared frequency spectrum. The permittivity of
metals is hard to roeasure but appears to be approximately that of
vacuum. Thus,
'O(w) = <r + jwEo } in nonmagnetic meta.Is (1-72)
= jwµo
In ferromagnetic meta.Is, p.0 would be replaced by p.. We shall consider
this case la ter.
In good d ielectrics, it is common practice to neglect 8 and express y
entirely in terms of t T hus,
fi(w) =
= jwµo
} in nonmagnetic dielectrics (1-73)
Let us now consider t (w) in more deta.il. 1 We can express i in both rec-
1 A. Von Hipplc, "Dielectric Materials and Applications," John Wiley & Sons,
Ir.e., New York, 1954.
24 TIME-HA.RMONlC ELECTROMAGNETlC FIELDS
tangular and polar form as

= E' - je" = (1-74)
wbere l, l', and ó are real quantities. We call E' tbe a-e capacitivity,
E'' the dielectric loss facwr, and ó the dielectric loss angle. In Sec. 1-13 we
shall see that they are related to the capacitance, resistance, and loss
angle, respectively, of an ideal circuit capacitor. In terms of power and
energy, we have from Eqs. (1-69) and (1-70) tbat
\\\ = J!! l lEl 2

dr
<Pd = fff wl'IEl 2

dr
(1-75)
Thus, E' contributes to stored energy (acts like E in simple matter), and
wl' contributes to power dissipation (acts like u in simple matter).
Measured values of E(w) are usually expressed in terms of l and tan ó, or
in terms of E' and E''. We sball use tbe latter representation.
A "perfect dielectric" would be one for which E'' = O. The only
perfect dielectric is vacu um. A "good dielectric 11 is defined to be one
for which E' remains almost constant at all radio frequencies and for
which (:11 is very small. Examples of good dielectrics are polystyrene,
paraffin, and Teflon. Figure 1-10 shows E' and E'' versus frequency for
polystyrene to illustrate the cha.racteristics of a good dielectric. There
is also a group of "lossy dielectrics," characterized by a varying E' and
a large E" in the radio-frequency range. Examples of lossy dielectrics
are Plexiglas, porcelain, and Bakelite. Figure 1-11 shows E' and E''
versus frequency for Plexiglas to illustrate the characteristics of a lossy
dielectric. There is a group of dielectrics which have unusually high
dielectric consta.nts. The titanate and ferrite cera.mies fall into this
3
2
$
;:.... 0.0012
... ;:....
... ,/
0.0008 1 /
,.....v
,,..'
0.0004
o o4 10 lQZ
.... -- .-
1Q3 104 105 106 101 1()8 109 1010
Frequency, cycles per sec
F1G. 1-10. Uw} =f 1

- jl' versus frequency for polystyrene at 25º0,
0.20 4 '\
\
'!'\
--
,...__
0.15 3 r-- <'/ <o
\
\
!-" 0.10
\
'
'. t"/to
"
"\.'
0.05 l ........
o oy 1Q 102 1Q3 1Q4 1Q5 106

'" --- -- --
1Q7 1Q8 109 1010
F1G. 1-11. t(w) = e' - je" versus frequency for Plexigla.s at 25°0.
class (the latter also being ferromagnetic). Such dielectrics are usually
lossy. A qualitative explanation of the behavior of l can be made in
terms of atomic concepts, but we shall view l as simply a measured
parameter. A table of e for some common clielectrics is given in
Appendix B.
In ferromagnetic matter, when it can be considered linear, both con-
duction and dielectric losses may be significant. In adclition to these,
magnetic losses become important. Thus,
fj = u
= jwf).
+ jwt } in ferromagnetic matter (1-76)
The parameter P.(w) can be t reated in a manner analogous to the treat-

ment of e(w) . Thus, we express p. in both rectangular and polar form as
P.(w) = µ.' - jµ." = IJ.lie-iª.. (1-77)
where µ.', µ.", and o.,. are real quantities. We call µ.' the a-e inductivity,
µ" the magnetic loss factor, and om the magnetic loss angle. In Sec. 1-13
we shall see that they are related to the inductance, resistance, and loss
angle, respectively, of an ideal circuit inductor. In terms of power and
energy, we have from Eqs. (1-69) and (1-70) that
Wm = fff µ.'IHl 2
dT
(1-78)
(5>4 = fff wµ."IHl 2
dT
28
24
20
µ.'/p.o /
:t. 16
"O
e
«I
12
L
8 .!\. \
µ."/ P.o I
I
4 I
I
o ·t
,
102 }03 104 105 106 107 1Q8 }09 lOIO
F10. 1-12. f¡(c.1) = µ' - ;µ." versus frequency for Ferramic A at 25ºC.
where the a.hove d>d is only the time-average ma.gnetic power loss, to
which must be added the conduction and dielectric losses for the total
power Thus, µ' contributes to stored energy a.nd µ." to
power dissipation. Measured values of P.(w) are usually exprossed in
terms of µ.' and tan o,,., or in terms of µ' and µ.11 • We shall use the latter
representation.
Ferroma.gnetic metals are extremely lossy materials (prima.rily due to
u), and a.lso quite nonlinear with respcct to p.. They are seldom inten-
tionally used at radio frequencies. However, the ferromagnetic cera.mies
can be profitably used at radio frequencies to obtain high va.lues of µ.'.
They are lossy in the magnetic sense, in that they also ha.ve appreciable
µ". Figure 1-12 shows µ' and µ" versus frequency for Ferra.mic A, to
illustrate tbe characteristics of ferrita cera.mies. These materia.la beoomo
even more useful when magnetized by a d-c magnetic field, in which case
p. assumes the forro of an a.symmetrical tensor. Magnetized f errites can
be used to build "nonreciproca.l" devices, such as "isolators 11 and
"circula.tors." 1
1-12. A Discussion of Cu.rrent. The concept of current has broadened
considerably since its inception. Originally, the term current meant the
fl.ow of free charges in conductors. This concept was extended to include
displacement current, which was visualized as the displacement of bound
charge in matter and in an "ether. 11 The existence of an ether has been
disproved, but the concept of displacement current has been retained,
1
C. L. Hogan , The Ferromagnetio Effeot a.t Miorowave Frequencies, Bell
Tech. J., vol. 31, no. 1, Janua.ry, 1952.
even though it is not entirely a mot ion of charge. A further generaliza-
tion was made to include magnetic displacement current as a 11 dual 11
concept of the electric displacement current. Finally, impressed cur-
rents, both electric and magnetic, have been introduced to represent
sources. Beca.use of the bread t h of t he concept of current, many dif-
ferent phenomena are included, and t he nomenclature used is somewhat
lengt hy. We shall summarize the notation and concepts in complex
form in this section.
Consider the complex electric current density. Interna! to conductora,
the current is, for all practical purposes, due entirely to the motion of
free electrons. Such current is called the conduction current and is
expressed mathematically by J = crE. (We shall consider ú = cr, a real
quantity, for this discussion. This is usually true at radio frequencies.)
Even in dielectrics there is sorne conduction current, but it is usually
small. In free space there is no motion of charges at all, and we have
only a free-space displacement current, given by J = jWEoE. In matter,
in addition to the conduction current and the free-space displacement
current, we have a current due to the motion of bound charges. This
is called the polarization current and is expressed mathematically by
J = jw(E - Eo)E. Beca.use t he term J = jwEE is of the same mathe-
matical form as the free-space displacement current, it is called the
displacement current. For our purposes, still another division of t he
electric current is convenient. This involves viewing the current in
term.s of a component in phase with E , called the dissipative current,
+
J = (cr wE'') E, and a component out of phase with E, called the
reactive current, J = jwlE. This is essentia.lly a generalization of the
circuit concept of current, where t he dissipative current produces the
power loss and the reactive current gives rise to the stored energy. A11
the currents mentioned are classified as induced currents, that is, are
caused by the field. l mpressed currents are used to represent sources or
known quantities. In this sense, they are independent of the field and
are said to cause the field. The total electric current is the sum of the
induced currents plus t he impressed currents. The nomenclature used
far electric currents is summarized in the first column of Table 1-2.
Both the nomenclature and the concepts of complex magnetic currents
are similar to those for electric currents. The one essential difference
in t he two concepta is the nonexistence of magnetic "charges" in nature.
Thus, there is no free magnetic charge and no magnetic conduct.ion cur-
rent. In absence of matter, we have a magnetic f ree-space displacement
current, M = jwµoH, ana.logous to the electric case. When matter is
present, we ha.ve magnetic effects due to t he rootion of the atom.ic
particles, giving rise t o a.n induced magnetic current in addition t o the
free-spa.ce displacement current. We call t his the magnetic polarization
28 T IM.E--H.ARMONI O E LE CTROMAGNETI C FIELDS
TABLE 1-2. CLASSD'ICATION OF ELECTIUC AN1> MAONETIC Curuu:NTS
Complex electric Complex magnetic

Type
current density current deosity
Conduction O'E
Free-space displacement jc.iEoE jc.iµoH
Pola.rization jc.i{é - to)E i'-"(fJ. - µo)H
Displacemeot jc.ifE ;,,,µH
Dissipa.tive (O' + ,_.,fi'')E ,,,µ"H
Reactive jc.iE'E jwµ'H
Induced gE • (O' + jco¡)E !H = j,,,¡,.H

• (O' + '-"E" + jc.it')E - ('-"µ" + jc.iµ')H
lmpressed J' M'
Total ]' = gE + J' M1 = !H + M'
current1 expressed by M = jw(p. - µo)H . The term M = jwp.H is called

the magnetic displa.cement current, being the sum of the free-spaco dis-
placement current and tbe polarization current. We find it convenient
to divide the magnetic current into a component in phase with H, called
the magnetic d.ú8ipative éUtrent1 M = CiJµ''H, and a component out of
phase with H, called the magnetic reactive cu.rrent, M = jwµ' H. The
dissipative magnetic current contributes to the power loss, and the
reactive magnetic current contributes to the stored energy. All the
aforementioned magnetic currents are induced currents1 that is, caused by
the :field. In nonmagnetic matter, the induced magnetic current is
simply the displacement current, M = jwµoH , a reactive cur-
rent. To represent sources or known quantities, we use impressed cur-
rents. The nomencla.ture for ma.gnetic currents is summarized in the
second column of Table 1-2.
A convenient classifi.cation of matter from the electric current stand-
point can be made in terms oí a qu.ality factor Q. This is defined as
Q= magnitude oí reactive current density
magnitude of dissipative current density
(1-79)
= <T + WE''
In nonmagnetic ma.tter, this involves a ratio of stored electric energy to
FUNDA.MENTAL CONCEPTS 29
power dissipated. In terms of the energy and power densities, Eq. (1-79)
can be written as
Q_ wllEl 2
- (u + wE")IEl 2
_ peak density of electric energy
- w average density of power dissipated
= 211' peak density of electtlc energy
(1-80)
density of energy dissipated in one cycle
Thus1 the concept of Q in nonmagnetic matter can be considered as an
extension of the conccpt of Q for capacitors in circuit theory. A good
dielectric is a high-Q material, while conductora have an extremely
low Q.
When magnetic matter is considered, there is an additional power
dissipation dueto magnetic hysteresis loss. The interpretation given to
Eq. (1-80) must be modified, since it includes only the power loss dueto
effects. In this case, the Q defined above would be called the
electric Q, andan analogous magnetic quality factor Q"' could be defined.
Since we deal principally with nonmagnetic materials, we shall not expand
this concept further.
1-13. A-C Behavior of Circuit Elements. The complex notation used
for a-e fields is the extension of the complex notation used for a.-c circuits.
The complex field equations bear a relationship to the complex circuit
equations which is similar to that for the time-varying case, given in
Sec. 1-6. Circuit elements (resistors, capacitors, and inductors) are
merely configurations of matter and thus ha.ve characteristics which
depend upon the properties of matter. Insight into the interpretation of
the impedivity and admittivity functions of field theory can be gained by
considering their relationship to the more familiar characteristics of
impedance and admittance of circuit elements.
The basic elements of circuit theory are small 1 two-terminal structures
whose fields are largely confined interna! to the elements. According to
the concepts of Sec. 1-10, the complex power supplied to a circuit element
is
P = C)>d + j2w('Wm - 'W,) (1-81)
In terms of circuit concepts, the power supplied to an element also can
be written as
(1-82)
where Z and Y are the impedance and admittance of the element. In
general, an element is called an impedor. When Pis primarily real, the
1 The smallness of an element dependa upon the frequency, or wavelength, as we
shall see in Cha.p. 2.

30 TIME-BARMONlC ELECTROMAGNETIC FlELDS
+i
Ic
V e
V
(a) (b) (e)
FIG. 1-13. A capacitor according to circuit concepta. (a) Physical ca.pacitor; (b)
equivalont circuit; (e) complex diagram.
element is called a resistor, and when P is primarily imaginary, the

element is called a reactor. A reactor is ca.lled an inductor or capacitor
according as Im (Z) is positive or nega.tive, respectively. It should be
noted tha.t P, and hence Z, is a function of frequency. Thus, t he designa-
tion of an element as a resistor, inductor, or capadtor is, to sorne degree,
dependent upon frequency. We usually classify elements according to
their low-frequency behavior.
For an explicit discussion, consider the parallel-plate capacitor of Fig.
1-13a. The low-frequency equivalent circuit of this elemcnt is shown in
Fig. 1-13b, where the conducta.nce G accounts for energy dissipation and
the capacitance C accounts for energy storage. The relationship of
complex terminal current I to complex terminal voltage V is
I = l g+ = YV = (G + jwC)V (1-83)
Figure 1-13c shows the complex diagram representing this equation. The
complex power to the element is 1
P = 1Vl2 (G - jwC)
For a "good 11 capacitor (wC » G) the current leads the voltage by almost
90°, and the power is principa.lly reactivo. For a "poor 11 capacitor
(G » wC) the current and voltage are almost in phase, and the power is
principally dissipa.tive. The element in this case could be classified
as a resistor. The angle between I, and I is called thc loss angle 81 as
shown in Fig. 1-13c.
Let us idealize the problem to a capacitor with perfectly conducting
plates. Furthermore, we shall approxima.te the field by
V I
E=([ J = A
1 We are using the convention P - VP. Some authors define P ... IV*, in which
case the sign of reactive power is opposite to that which we get.
where A is the area of the platea and d is their separation. The a-e
constitutive relationship for the ficld bctween the capacitor platcs is
J = yE = (cr + wE'' + jwf:')E
where we havc taken tt = O". Substituting for E and J from the preceding
equations, we have
l = U V= (cr + wl' + jwt') V
A comparison of this with Eqs. (1-83) shows that

A A
Y = gd G = (u + wE'') d C =E' A
d
Thus, for our idealized circuit element, the admittance is proportional to
the admittivity of the matter between the plates. T he cquivalency of
"field power 1 11 Eq. (1-81), to "circuit power1 11 Eq. (1-82) 1 also can be
demonstrated. For our idealized element
P = JJJ 'O*IEl 2
dr = 1/*IEl 2 Ad = IVl 2 Y*
We can use this result to define t he admittance of a cube and then view
a.dmittivity f) as the admittance of a unit cube.
The magnetic properties of mattcr are similarly related to the circuit
behavior of an inductor. To demonstrate this, consider the toroidal
inductor of Fig. l-14a. The low-frcqucncy equivalent circuit of this
element is shown in Fig. 1-14b1 where the resistance R accounts for energy
dissipation and the inductance L accounts for energy storage. The
relationship of complex terminal voltage V to complex terminal current
I is
V = Vr + Vi = ZI = (R + jwL) l (1-84)
The complex diagram representing t his. equation is shown in Fig. 1-14c.
+i
+ + il V,
V
{ v,{ R
V L
1
(a) (b) (e)
FtG. 1-14. An inductor s.ccording to circuit concepta. (a) Toroidal inductor; (b)
equivalent circuit; (e) complex dis.grs.m.
32 ELECTRO)!!GNETIC FIELDS
The complex power to the element is

P = IIl 2 (R + jwL)
For a good inductor (wL » R) the current lags the votiage by almost
90º, and the power is principally reactive. For a poor inductor (R »
wL) the current and voltage are almost in phase, and the power is princi-
dissipative. The element in this case could be classified as a
resistor. The angle between Vi and V is called the magnetic loss angle
8,,., as shown on Fig. l-14c.
We now idealize the problero to an inductor of perfectly conducting
wire and approximate the field by
H =NI V
l M= NA
where Nis t he number of turns, l is the average circumference, and A is
the cross-sectional area. The magnetic constitutive relationship for the
field in the core is
M = zH = (wµ" + jwµ')H
A substitution for H and M from the preceding equations gives
V = N2 A I = (wµ" + JWµ
. ') -N2z-A 1
Comparing this with Eq. (1-84), we see that
z = z N2l A R
= wµ.
" N2 A
- z- L = µ.' N2A
l
Thus, for the idealized inductor, t he impedance is proportional to the

impedivity of the matter. From Eq. (1-82), the power supplied to the
inductor is
which is consistent with Eq. {l-82). Using this result to define the
impeda.nce of a cube, we can think of impedivity as the impedance of a
unit cube.
This development serves to illustrate the close correspondences between
a-e circuit concepts and a-c field concepts. A suroroary of the va.rious
concepts is given in Table 1-3.
1-14. Singularities of the Field. A field is said to be singular a.t a
point for which the function or its derivatives are discontinuous. Most
of our discussion so far has been a.bout well-behaved fields, but we bave
meant to include by implication certain types of allowable singularities.
TABLE 1-3. CoRRESPONDENCES BETWEEN A-C Cracu1T CoNCEPTS
AND A-C FIELD CONCEPTS
A-C circuit concepts A-C field conccpts
Complcx volts.ge V Complex electric intensity E

Complex magnetic current density M
Complex current I Complcx electric currcnt density J

Complex magnetic intensity H
Complex power flow y¡• Density of complex power flow E X H*
lmpeda.nce Z(w) Impcdivity !(w)
Admittance Y(w) Admit.tivity fj(w)
Resistors: Conductora (u » weo):

Admittancc, Y(w) .. Admittivity, fj{w)=u
1
Ourrent, I - RV Ourrent density, J = uE
Powcr dissipation VV* Dcnsity of power dissipation, uE ·E*
Capaeitors: Dielcctrics (wE'' »u):

Admittancc, Y(w) - + jwC Admittivity, fj(w) = wt" + jwt'
Current, l - + jwC) V Current density, J = (wl' + j wt')E
Stored encrgy Density of stored energy, ·E•
Power d issipation ¡ VV* Densit.y of power dissipation, we"E ·E*
Inductora: Magnetic properties:

Impedance, Z(w) = R + jwL Impedivity, !(w) = wµ. 11 + jwµ.1
Voltage, V - (R + jwL)I Magnctic current, M (wµ. 11 + jwµ.')H
Stored cncrgy, M.LII* Density of stored energy, 'M.µ.' H • H •
Power dissipation, RIJ• Density of power dissipation, wµ" H • H•
These can occur at material boundaries (discontinuous z and y) and at

singular source distributions, such as sheets and filaments of currents.
AI3 evidenced by Eqs. (1-44), the total electric and magnetic currents
are vortices of H and -E, respectively. Suppose we ha.ve a surface dis-
tribution of currents J, and M ,, as represented by Fig. 1-15. By a.pplying
H · dl = 1' ·dl = -K' (1-85)

34 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FlELDB
Region ( 1) n
s F10. 1-15. Surfaeo ourrent:s.

Region (2)
to rectangular paths enclosing a. portion of the surface currents, we obtain t

n X [H<O - H <2>] = J, [E(I) - E<2>] X n = M, (1-86)
where n is the unit vector normal to the surface and pointing into rcgion
(1). Tbe superscripts (1) and (2) denote thc side of Son which E or H
is evaluated. Equations (1-86) are essentia.lly the field equations at
sheets of currents. They express at current sheets the same concept as
Eqs. (1-44) expresa a.t volume distributions of currents. If J, and M, are
imprcssed currents, Eqs. (1-86) are the "boundary conditions" to be
satisfied a.t the source.
Equations (1-86) apply regardless of whether or not a discontinuity
in media exists on S. Whenever J, and M, aro zero, Eqs. (1-86) statc that
the tangential components of E and H are continuous across the surface.
If and g are .finite in both regions 1 and 2, no induced surfa.ce current
can result. Thus, tangential components of E and H are continuou.s across
any material boundary, perfect conductors excepted. If one side of S is a
perfoct electric conductor, say region 2, a surface conduction current J,
can ex:ist even though E is zero, since y = u is infinite. In this case,
Eqs. (1-86) reduce to
nn X
X H
E == ] , } at a perf ect cond uctor (1-87)
0
where n points in to the region of field. Thus, the "boundary condition"
at a perfect electric conductor is vanishing tangential components of E.
The perfect magnetic conductor is defined to be a material for which the
tangential components of H a.re zero at its surface. This is, however,
purely a mathematica.l concept. The necessary 11 magnetic conduction
current" on its surf ace has no physical significance.
Fina.By, at a filament of current, t he field roust be singular such tba.t
Eqs. (1-85) yield the current enclosed, no matter how small the con tour.
For exa.mple, at a filament of electric current I, the boundary condition
for H is
J. H · dl I (1-88)
'f C radius of C-'O
A similar limit of the second of Eqs. (1-85) must be sa.tisfied a.ta filament
of roagnetic current.
1 R. F. Harrington, "Introduction to Electromagnetic Enginccring," McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., p. 74, 1958.
FUNDAM.E NTAL CONCEPTS 35
It is often convenient for mathematical and discussional purposes to
consider the va.rious singular quantities as limits of nonsingular quantities.
For example, we can think of an abrupt material boundary as the limit
of a continuous, but rapid, change in f) and Similarly, a sheet of
current can be thought of as a volume distribution of current having a
large magnitude and confined to a thin shell. By such expediencies we
can avoid much tedium in the exposition of the theory.
PROBLEMS
1-1. Using Stokes' t heorem a.nd the divergence theorem, show that Eqs. (1-1) are
equiva.lent to Eqs. (1-3).
1-2. The conduction current in conductors is affected by the ma.gnetic field as well
as by the clectric field (Hall effect). Using a.n atomic model, justify tha.t
a "" 0'8 + 11
2
h8 X <B
where h is the Hall consta.nt. For copper (h = -5.5 X 10- 11), determine the <B for
which the second term of the a.bove equation is 1 per cent of the first term.
1-3. Given & = Uzy1 sin wt and 3C = u.,x cos wt, determine n1 and mt1• Determine
i' and k' through the disk z - O, :x;t + ys = l.
1-4. For the field of Prob. 1-3, determine the Poynting vector. Show that Eq.
{1-26) is satisfied for this tield.
1-5. Starting from Maxwell's equations, derive the circuit law for capacitora,
i ... e d1J/dt, a.nd the circuit law for inductors, V - L di/dt.
1-6. Determine the instanta.neous quantities corresponding to (a) 1 ... 10 + j5,
(b) E = + j3) + u 11 (2 + j3), (e) H - (u . + u .)eHs+11>.
1-7. Prove Eqs. (1-42).
1-8. Given H = u,. sin y in a source-free region of Plexiglas, determine E and 8 a.t
a frequency of (a) 1 megacycle, (b) 100 mega.cycles.
1-9. Show that Q. = O (complex charge density vanishes) in a source-free region
of homogeneous matter, linear in the general sense.
1-10. Show tha.t the instantaneous Poynting vector is given by
S ... Re (S +E X Hef""1)
Why is S not related to S by Eq. (1-41)?
1-11. Consider the unit cube shown in Fig. 1-16 which has all sides except the
face x = Ocovered by perfect conductors. If E. = 100 sin (...y) a.nd H » "" ei"1• sin (?111)
l y
X
F10. 1-16. Unit cube for Prob. 1-11.
36 TlME-HA.RMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
over the open fa.ce and no sources cxist witbin the cube, determine (a) the time-
average power dissipated wíthin the cu be, (b) the dífference betwccn the time-average
electric and magnetic energies within thc cubo.
1-12. Suppose a filament of z...d irected electric current I' = 10 is impresscd along
the z axis from z = O to z = l. lf E ,,. u,(l +
j), determine the complex power and
the time-average power supplied by this source.
1-13. Suppose we have a 10-megacycle field E "" u,,5, H = u 112, at some point in a
material having = 10- 4, = (8 - 310-1),0, and jl = {14 - j}µ. 0 at the operating
frequency. Determine each type of current (e:xcept impressed) listed in Table 1-2.
1-14. A small capacitor has a d-c capacitance of 300 micromicrofa.rads when air-
tilled. When it is oil-filled, it is found to be.ve an impedance of (500 - 3) X 10ª at
"' = 108• Determine f/, e', and I' of the oil, ncglecting conductor losses.
1-16. For a practical toroidal inductor of the type shown in Fig. l-14a, show tbat
t he power loss in the wire will usua.Uy be much largcr than that in a core of low-loss
ferrom agnetic material.
1-16. Assume that = I - ji' is an analytic function of"' and show tbat
I("') _ eo +! ( ro wl'(w) dw
ir Jo w1 - "''
E''(6') = _ ! ( ro tD(/(w) - Eo) dW
ir Jo w
1
- "''
(Equations of this type are valid for any analytic function regular in the lower half
ple.ne.)
1-17. Derive Eqs. (1-86).
CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION TO WAVES
2-1. The Wave Equation. A field t hat is a function of both time and
space coordinates can be called a wave. We shall, however, be a bit
more restrictive in our definition and use t he term wa.ve to denote a. solu-
tion to a. particular type of equation, ca.lled a wave equation. Electro-
magnetic fields obey wave equations, so the terms wave and fi.eld are
synonymous for time-varying electromagnetism. In this chapter we
shall consider a number of simple wave solutions t o introduce and illus-
trate various a-c electromagnetic phenomena.
For the present, let us consider fields in regions which are source-free
U' = M i = 0), linear (z and y independent of IEI and JHI), homogeneous
(z and '[) independent of position), and isotropic (z and y are sea.lar).
The complex field equations a.re then
V X E= -zH
(2-1)
V X H = yE
The curl of the first equation is
V X V X E = - zV X H
which, upon substitution for V X H from the second equation, becomes
V X V X E = -z'f)E .
The frequently encountered para.meter
k = v - zD (2-2)
is called the wave number of t he medium. In terms of k, the preceding
equation becomes
V X V X E - k 2E = O (2-3)
which we shall call the complex vector wave equation. If we return to
Eqs. (2-1), take the curl of the second equation, and substitute from the
first equation, we obtain
V X V X H - k2H = O (2-4)
Thus, H is a solution to the sa.me complex wa.ve equation as is E.
37
The wave equation is often written in a nother forro by defining an

operation
V2A = V (V ·A) - V X V X A
In rectangular components, this reduces to
V2A = u,.V 2 A,. + u11v 2A11 + u.v 2A.
where u ,., u 11, and u., are t he rectangular-coordinate unit vectors and V 2
is the Laplacian operator. It is implicit in the wave equations that
V • E =O V·H =O (2-5)
shown by taking t he divergence of Eqs. (2-3) and (2-4). Using Eqs. (2-5)
and t he operation defined above, we can write Eqs. (2-3) and (2-4) as
V2E + k2E =O
(2-6)
V2H + k2 H = O
These we shall also call vector wave equations. They a re not, however,
so general as the previous forms, for they do not imply Eqs. (2-5). In
other words, Eqs. (2-6) and Eqs. (2-5) are equivalent to Eqs. (2-3) and
(2-4). Thus, the rectangular components of E and H satisfy the complex
scalar wave equation or Helmholtz equation 1
\72if¡ + k2i¡t = o (2-7)
We can construct electr omagnetic fie lds by choosing solutions to Eq. (2-7)
for E,., E 11, and E. or H,,,, H 11 , and H., such that E qs. (2-5) are also satisfied.
T o illustrate the wave behavior of electromagnetic fields, let us con-
struct a simple solution. Take the medium to be a perfect dielectric,
in which case 'O = jwt, = jwµ, and
k = ww (2-8)
Also, take E t o ha.ve only an x component independent of x and y . The
first of Eqs. (2-6) then reduces to
d2E:
2
+ k2E = O
dz "'
which is the one-dimensional Helmholtz equation. Solutions to this are

linear combinations of eih and e-ik<. In particular, let us consider a
solution
(2-9)
This satisfies V· E = O and is therefore a possible electromagnetic field.
We shall use the symbol .¡, to denote " wa.ve functions," that is, solutions to
1
Eq. (2-7). Do not confuse these .¡,'s with magnetic flux.

INTRODUCTION TO WAVES 39
The associated magnetic field is found according to
jwµH = - V X E = U 11 jkEs
which, using Eq. (2-8), can be writtcn as
Es= (2-10)
Ratios oí components oí E to components of H have the dimensions of

impedance and are called wave impedances. T he wave impedance associ-
ated with our present solution,
11 = Es = (2-11)
Hv '\ff:
is called the intrinsic impedance of the medium. In vacuum,
flo /µo
= '\j;; s:::: 12Chr s:::: 377 ohms (2-12)
We shall see la.ter that the intrinsic impedance of a medium enters into
wave transmission and reflection problcms in t he same manner as t he
characteristic impedance of transmission lines.
To interpret this solution, let Eo be real and determine 8 and 3C accord-
ing to Eq. (1-41). The instantaneous fie lds are found a.s
Ss = V2 Eo COS (wt - kz)
(2-13)
:JCv = V2 Eo cos (wt - kz)
TI
This is called aplane wave beca.use the phase (kz) of 6 and X is constant
over a set of planes (defined by z = constant) called equiphase surfaces.
It is called a uniform plane wave beca.use the amplitudes (Eo and Eo/11) of
6 and :JC are constant over the equiphase planes. & and X are said to be
in phase beca.use they have the same phase a.t any point. At some spccific
time, 8 and X are sinusoidal functions oí z. T he vector picturc of Fig. 2-1
illustrates t and :re a.long the z axis at t = O. T he direction of an arrow
represents the direction of a vector, and thc length of an arrow represents
the magnitude of a vector. If we take a slightly la.ter instant oí time,
the picture of Fig. 2-1 will be shifted in the +z direction. We say
that the wave is traveling in the +z direction and call ita traveling wave.
The term polarization is used to specify the bebavior of 8 lines. In t his
wave, the 8 lincs are always parallcl to t he x axis, and the wa.ve is said to
be linearly polarized in t he x direction.
The velocity a.t which an equiphase surface travels is called the phase
40 TIME-BARMONIC ELECTROMA.GNETlC FlELDS
velocity of the wa.ve. An equiphase plane z = z,, is defined by

wt - kzp = constant
that is, the a.rgument of the cosine functions of Eq. (2-13) is constant.
As t increases, tbe va.lue of z,, must also increase to maintain this con-
stancy, a.nd the plane z = z,, will move in the +z direction. This is illus-
t rated by Fig. 2-2, whlch is a. plot of 8 for severa! instants of time. To
obta.in the phase velocity dz,,/dt, differentiate the a.hove equa.tion. This
gives
The phase velocity of this wave is called the intrinsic phase velocity v,, of
the dielectric and is, according to the a.hove equation,
dz,, w 1
= - = - = -- (2-14)
Vp
dl k y;µ
In vacuum, this is the velocity of light: 3 X 108 meters per second.
Tho wavelength of a wave is defined as t be distance in whlch t he pbase
increases by 2ir at any instant . Thls distance is shown on Fig. 2-2. The
wavelength of the particular wa.ve of Eqs. (2-13) is called the intrinsic
wavelength >.. of the medium. It is given by k>.. = 2ir, or
2r 2irv,, v,,
(2-15)
k w f
where f is the frequency in cycles per second. The wavelength is often
used as a measure of whether a distance is long or short. The rango of
wa.velengths encountered in electromagnetic engineering is large. For
example, t he free-space wavelength of a 60-cycle wave is 5000 kilometers,
whereas the free-space wavelength of a 1000-megacycle wave is only 30
centimeters. Thus, a distance of 1 kilometer is very sbort at 60 cycles,
Direction of travel _ . .
F10. 2-1. A linearly polarized uniform plane traveling wave.

INTRODUCTION TO WAV&S 41
Fra. 2-2. 8 at several instants of time in a linearly polarized uniform plana traveling
wave.
but very long at 1000 megacycles. The usual circuit theory is based on
the assumption that distances are much. shorter than a wavelength.
2.2. Waves in Perfect Dielectrics. In this section we shall consider
the properties of uniform plane waves in perfect dielectrics, of which
free space is the most common example. We have already given a special
case of the uniform plane wave in the preceding section. To summarize,
Ez = Eoe-i"" H 11 = Eo e- ik•
'11
where
X Vp
(2-16)
11=J
It is an x-polarized, +z traveling wave. Because of the symmetry of the
rectangular system, other uniform plane-wave solutions can
be obtained by rotations of the coordinate axes, corresponding to cyclic
interchanges of coordinate variables. We wish to restrict consideration
to +z and -z traveling waves; so we sha.11 consider only the transforma-
tions (x,y,z) to (-y,x,z), to (x,-y,-z),and to (y,x,-z). Thisprocedure,
together with our original solution, gives us the four waves
(2-17)
E"-= Dello•
42 Tl.ME-RA.RMONIC ELECTROMAGNETlC FIELDS
where the previously used Eo has been replaced by A, B, C, or D. The

superscript + denotes a +z traveling wave, and the superscript - denotes
a - z traveling wave. The most general uniform plane wave is a super-
position of Eqs. (2-17). ·
We ha.ve alrea.dy interpreted the first wa.ve of Eqs. (2-17) in Sec. 2-1.
This also constitutes an interpretation oí the other three wa.ves ií the
appropriate interchanges of coordinaoos are made. We ha.ve not yet
mentioned power and energy considerations, so let us do so now. Given
the tra.veling wa.ve
we evaluate the va.rious energy and power quantities as
w. = 2E e2 = EEo 2 cos 2 (wt - kz)
w,,. = ; 3C 2 = EEot cos2 (wt - kz)

(2-18)
2
S = & X 3C = u, - Eo2 cost (wt - kz)
'1
Eo2
S = E X H * = u. -
'1
Thus, the electric and magnetic energy densities are equal, half of the
energy of the wavc being electric and half magnetic. We can define a
<Jel-Ocity of propagation of energy v. as
power fiow density S
v. = energy density = w. + w.. (2-19)
For the uniform plane traveling wave, from Eqs. (2-18) and (2-19) we find
1
v,= -
VÍÜ
which is also the phase velocity [Eq. (2-14)]. These two velocities are
not necessarily equa.1 íor other types of electromagnetic wa.ves. In gen-
eral, the phase velocity may be greater or less than the velocity of light,
but the velocity of propaga.tion of energy is never greaoor than the velocity
of light.
Another property of waves can be illustrated by the standing wave
E,. = Eo sin kz H.,, = j Eo cos kz (2-20)

'1
obta.ined by combining the first and third waves of Eqs. (2-17) with
A = -a = iEo/2. The corresponding instantaneous fields are
Eo
Sa: = v_ ltl2 Eo sin kz cos wt Xy =- y2 -
-
11
cos kz sin wt
Note that the phase is now independent of z, there being no traveling

motion; hence the name standing wave. A picture of 8 and 3C at sorne
instant of time is shown in Fig. 2-3. The field oscillates in amplitude,
with ¿; reaching its peak value when lC is zero, and vice versa. In other
words, 8 and :JC are 90º out of phase. The planes of zero 8 and :JC are
fixed in space, the zeros of 8 being displaced a quarter-wavelength from
the zeros of 3C. Successive zeros of 8 or of :JC are separated by a half-
wavelength, as shown on Fíg. 2-3. The wave is still aplane wave, for
equiphase surfaces are planes. It is still a uniform wave, for its amplitude
is constant over equiphase surfaces. It is still linearly polarized, for 8
always points in the same direction (or opposite direction when 8 is
negative).
The energy and power quantities associated with this wave are
w0 = 82 = EE0 2 sin 2 kz cos2 wt

w,,. = :JC2 = EEo 2 cos 2 kz sin2 wt
2
(2-21)
S = & X 3C =
Eoz sm
z;J . 2kz Slll
. 2wt
"E z
S = E X H* = - J : sin 2kz
2
The time-average Poynting vector S = Re (S) is zero, showing no power

fiow on the average. The electric energy density is a maximum when
magnetic energy density is zero, and vice versa. A picture of energy
Frn. 2-3. A linearly polarized uniform pis.ne standing wave.

TlME-HABMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FlELDS
IE,,I
A+C
A-C
z
Fro. 2-4. Standing-wave pattern of two oppositely traveling waves of unequal ampli"
tudes.
oscillating between t he electric and magnetic forms can be used for this
wa.ve. Note tha.t we ha.ve planes of zero electric intensity at kz = n?r,
n an integer. Thus, perfect electric conductors can be placed over one
or more of these planes. If an electric conductor covers the plane z = O,
Eqs. (2-20) represent the solution to t he problem of reflection of a uniform
plane wave normally incident on this conductor. If two electric con-
ductora cover the planes kz = nr1r and kz = nz?r, Eqs. (2-20) represent
the solution of a ene-dimensional "resonator."
A more general x-polarized field is one consisting of waves traveling
in opposite directions with unequal amplitudes. This is a superposition
of the fust and third of Eqs. (2-17), or
E,,, = Ae-;h + Céka
(2-22)
H 11 = ! (Ae-;i'k: -
7J
If A = O or C = O, we have apure traveling wave, and if IAI = ICI, we
ha.ve apure standing wave. For A r6 C, let us take A and C reaP and
express the field in terma of an amplitude and phase. This gives
E.,= y' A 2 + C2 + 2AC cos 2kz e-Han-• "') (2-23)

The rms amplitude of E is
V A + C + 2A e cos 2kz
2 2
which is called the standing-wave pattern of the field. This is illustrated

by Fig. 2-4. The voltage output of a small probe (receiving antenna)
connected to a detector would essentially follow this standing-wave pat-
1This is actue.lly no restriction on tbe genere.lity of our interpretation, for it corre-
sponda to a judicious choice of z and t origine.
tern. For apure traveling wave, the sta.nding-wave pattern is a constant,
and for a pure standing wave, it is of the form leos kzl, that is, a "recti-
fied" sine wave. The ratio of the maximwn of the standing-wave pat-
tern to the mínimum is called the standing-wave ratio (SWR). From
Fig. 2-4, it is evident that
SWR =A+C (2-24)
A-C
because the two traveling-wave components [Eqs. (2-22)] add in phase at
sorne points and add 180° out of phase at other points. The distance
between successive minima is "A./2. The standing-wave ratio of a pure
traveling wave is unity, that of apure standing wave is infinite. Plane
traveling waves reflected by dielectric or imperfectly conducting bounda-
ries will result in partial standing waves, with SWR's between one and
infinity.
Let us now consider a traveling wave in which both E,. and E 11 exist.
This is a su perposition of the first and second of Eqs. (2-17), that is,
E = (u,.A + (2-25)
H = ( - UxB + u 11 A) !11 e-ik•
If B = O, the wave is linearly polarized in the x direction. If A = O,
the wave is linearly polarized in the y direction. If A and B are both
real (or complex with equal phases), we again have a linearly polarized
wave, with t he axis of polarization inclined atan angle tan- 1 (B/ A) with
respect to the x axis. This is illustrated by Fig. 2-5a. If A. and B are
complex with different phase angles, 8 will no longer point in a single
spatial direction. Letting A = IAjeiª and B = IBle'\ we have the instan-
y y
t: vibrates in
e rotates in
this direction this direction
1
1
'\
'x t.>t =o
t.>t = 1' /
/
X
' t = 1T/4
01t = 11'/2
(a) (b)
F 1G. 2-5. Pola.rization of a uniform plane tra.veling wave. (a) Linear polarization;
(b) elliptical pola.rization.
46 TIME-HARMONlC ELECTROMAGNETlC FIELDS
taneous electrio intensity given by
8:\1 = v'2 IAI cos (wt - kz +a)

811 = v'2 IBI cos (wt - kz+ b)
A vector picture of 8 for various instants of time changes in both ampli-
tude and direction, going through this variation once each cycle. For
example, let !Al = 2 IBI, a = O, and b = 7r/2. A plot of & for various
values of t in the plane z = Ois shown in Fig. 2-5b. The tip of the arrow
in the vector picture traces out an ellipse, and the field is said to be
elliptically polarized. Depending upon A and B, this ellipse can be of
arbitrary orientation in the xy plane and of arbitrary axial ratio. Linear
polarization can be considered as the special case of elliptic polarization
for which the axial ratio is infinite.
If the axial rat io is unity, the tip of the arrow t races out a circle, and
the field is said to be circularly polarized. The polarization is said to be
right-handed if 8 rota.tes in the direction of the fingers of the right hand
when the thumb points in the direction of propagation. The polarization
is said to be left.handed if 8 rotates in t he opposite direction. The special-
ization of Eq. (2-25) to right-handed circular polariza.tion is obtained by
setting A = jB = Eo, giving
E = (u., - jU¡¡)Eoe-Jka
(2-26)
H = (uz - j u 11)j Eo e-ik•
,,
A vector picture of the type of Fig. 2-1 for this wave would show e and :JC
in the forro of two corkscrews, with 8 perpendicular to :JC at ea.ch point.
As time increases, this picture would rota.te giving a corkscrew type of
motion in the z direction. The various energy and power quantities
a.ssociated with this wa.ve a.re
E
w. = -2 82 = EEo2
Wm =
2
X. 2 = EEo 2
(2-27)
2
S =t X :JC = u,. -.,, Eo2
2
S =E X H * = u%-.,, Eo2
Thus, there is no change in energy and power densities with time or

spa.ce. Circular polariza.tion gives a. steady power flow, analogous to
circuit-theory power transmission in a two-phase system.
As a final example, consider the circularly polarized standing-wave field
specified by
E = (u., + j u 11)Eo sin kz
(2-28)
H = (u., + j uv) Eo cos kz
11
This is the superposition of Eqs. (2-17) for which A = -C = jEo/2,

D = - B = E 0/2. The corresponding instantaneous fields are
& = (u., cos wt - u11 sin wt) V2 Eo sin kz
3C = (u,. cos wt - U 11 sin wt) v'2 Eo cos kz
11
Note that S and 3C are always parallel to ea.ch other. A vector picture
of & and 3C at t = O is shown in Fig. 2-6. As time progresses, this picture
rotates about the z axis, the amplitudes of S and 3C being independent of
time. It is only the direction of 8 and 3C which changes with t ime. The
amplitudes of S and 3C a.re, however, a function of z, giving a standing-
wave pattcrn in the z direction. The energy and power densities associ-
ated with this wave are
w. = 2 82 = EEo2 sin 2 kz
Wm =2 = EEo2 cos 2 kz
(2-29)
S=SX:JC =O
S = - u. i11 E 0
2
sin 2kz
It is interesting to note that the instanta.neous energy and power densities

are independent of time. This .field can represent resonance between two
perfectly conducting planes situated where E is zero. It thus seems that
the picture of energy oscilla.ting betwcen the electric and magnetic forros
Fia. 2-6. A circularly polarized unüorm plane standing wave.

is not generally valid for resonance. However, the circularly pola.rized

standing wave is the sum of two linearly polarized waves which can exist
independently of each other. We actually have two coincident reso-
nances (called a degenerate case), and the picture of energy oscillating
between electric and magnetic forros applies to each linearly polarized
resonance.
2-3. Intrinsic Wave Constants. When the wave aspects of electro-
magnetism are emphasized, t he wave number k and the int rinsic imped-
ance r¡, given by
(2-30)
play an important role. The second equation is a generalization of Eq.

(2-11), obtained in the same manner as Eq. (2-11) when and y are not z
specialized to the case of a perfect dielectric. We can solve Eqs. (2-30)
for z and y, obtaining
fJ = jk (2-31)
11
A k:nowledge oí k and r¡ is equivalent to a knowledge of z and y, and

hence specifies the characteristics of the medium.
The wave number is, in general, complex, and may be written as
k = k' - jk" (2-32)
where k' is the intrinsic phase constant and k" is the intrinsic attenuation
constant. We have already seen that when k = k', it enters into the
phase function of the wave. We shall see in t he next section that k"
causes an exponential attenuation of the wave amplitude. The behavior
of k can be illustrated by a complex diagram relating k to z and y.
This is shown in Fig. 2-7. In the
lm expressions
y= <T + wt + jwt
11 1
z= wµ." + jwµ. 1
u, E'', and µ" are always positive in

source-free media, for they account
for energy dissipation. T he param-
Re eters E' and µ' are usually positive but
roa.y be negative for certain types of
atomic resonance. Thus, and f)
- z; usually líe in the first quadrant oí the
complex plane, as shown in Fig. 2-7.
Fxa. 2-7. Complex diagram rclating k to The product - #) then usually líes
! and 1). in the bottom half of t he complex
INTRODUCTION TO W AVES 49
lm
Fxo. 2-8. Complex diagram relating 'I

X
to! and f).
l /y
plane. The principal square root, k = y líes in the fourth qua.d-

rant, showing tha.t k' and k" are usually positive. Even when E' or µ' is
negative, k" is positive; it is only k' that could conceivably be negative.
In losslcss media, 'O = jwe, = jwµ 1 and k is real.
The intrinsic wave impedance can be considered in an analogous
manner. Expressing 11 in rectangular components, we have
11 = <R + jOC (2-33)
wbere <R is the intrinsic wave resistance and X is t he intrinsic wave react-
ance. For a wa..ve in a perfect dielectric, '1 is purely resistive and is there-
fore the ratio of tbe amplitude of & to 3C. We sha.11 see in Sec. 2-4 tha.t
X introduces a phase difference between & and 3C. The complex diagram
relating 11 to y and 2 in general is shown in Fig. 2-8. In source-free
regions, u, E'', and µ" are always positive, and e' and µ' are usually posi-
tive. Thus 2 usua.lly líes in the first quadrant and l/g in the fourth
quadrant. The ratio 2/y t herefore usually líes in the right half plane
and 11 in the sector ±45º with respect to the positive real axis. When
l or µ' is negativa, 11 may lie anywhere in the rigbt half pla.ne, but <R is
never negative. In lossless media, t he wave impedance is real.
There are several special cases of particular interest to us. First, con-
sider the case of no magnetic losses. From the fust of Eqs. (2-31), we
ha.ve
zk* jk*2
11 = ik = ikk* = - lzl 1-YI
the last equality following from Eqs. (2-30). Now for = jwµ =
we have
no ma.gnetic losses (2-34)

TABLE 2-1. WAVE NUMBEtl (k - k' - jk") AND INTRINSIC

hfPEDANCE (11 - <R + jX .., !'lleif)
k' k" <R X
General ReV-zO
k' k"
No magnetic losses -191 -
191
Perfect dielectric wy'; o o
Good dielcctric wW wl'

2 t' 2<' e
1
Good conductor
Separation into real and imaginary parts is shown explicitly in row 2 of

Table 2-1. A similar simplification can be made for the case of no elec-
tric losses. (See Prob. 2-13.) T hree special cases of materials with no
magnetic losses are (1) perfect dielectrics, (2) good dielectrics, and (3)
good conductora. The perfect dielectric case is that for whicb
This is sumroa rized in row 3 of Table 2-1. A good dielectric is chara.c-

terized jwµ, 'O= wl' + jwE', with E'» E''. In this case, we ha.ve
11 =
k*
ffil ¡µ (
'\}7 1
E'' )
+ J.2l
which is summarized in row 4 of Table 2-1. Finally, a good conductor is
characterized = jwµ, f/ = " + jWE, with" » WE. In this case, we ha.ve
k = V -jwµ(u + jwE) V -jwµu
k* /jwµ
11 = IOl '\}7
The last row of Table 2-1 shows these parameters separated into real a.nd
imaginary parts.
lNTRODUCTION T O WAVES 51
2-4. Waves in Lossy M atter. T he only difference between the wave
equation, Eq. (2-7), for lossy media and loss-free media is that k is com-
plex in lossy media and real in loss-free media. Thus, Eq. (2-9) is still a
solution in lossy media. In terms of t he real and imaginary parts of k,
it is
(2-35)
Also, H is still given by Eq. (2-10), except that r¡ is now complex. T hus,
the H associated with the E of Eq. (2-35) is
(2-36)
where r¡ = hleil'. The instantaneous fields corresponding to Eqs. (2-35)

and (2-36) are
S" = V2 Eoe-k"z cos (wt - k'z)
Xi, = v2 EaITll e-k"i cos (wt - k'z - n (2-37)
Thus, in lossy matter, a t raveling wave is a.ttenuated in the direction of

tra.vel according to e-k'", and 3C is no longer in pha.se with S. A sketch
of 8 and X versus z at sorne instant of time would be similar to Fig. 2-1
except that t he amplitudes of 8 a.nd 3C would decrease exponentially with
z, and :re would not be in phase with 8 (:Je usually lags 8). A sketch of
S., versus z for several instants of time is shown in Fig. 2-9 for a case of
fa.irly large attenuation . A sketch oí 3<;, versus z would be similar in form.
Direction of travel )o
- _ <""
--Envelope - e - lt.l'z
-- z
---
Fxo. 2-9. S a.t seve1 al instants of time in a linea.rly polarized uniform plane traveling
wave in dissipative matter.
52 TlU\iE-HARMONlC ELECTBOMAGNETIC FlELDS
T he wave of Eq. (2-37) is still uniform, still plane, and still linearly
polarized. So that our definitions of phase velocity and wavelength will
be unchanged for lossy media, we should replace k and k' in the loss-free
formulas, or
211' Vp
X=-=- (2-38)
k' f
Then v,, is still the velocity of a plane of constant phase, and X is still
the distance in which the phase increases by 211'.
Two cases of particular interest are (1) good dielectrics (low-loss), and
(2) good conductors (high-loss). For the first case, we ha.ve (see Table
2-1)
k' = w yµ,E'
k'' = wE''
2 '\J7
in good dielectrics (E" «E') (2-39)
1111 =
E''
r = tan-1 -2E,
Thus, the attenuation is very small, and & and X are nearly in phase.
The wave is almost the same as in a loss-free dielectric. For example, in
polystyrene (see Fig. 1-10), a 10-megacycle wa.ve is attenuated only 0.5
per cent per kilometer, and the phase difference between & and X is
only 0.003°. The intrinsic impedance of a dielectric is usually less than
that of free space, since usually E' > Eo a.nd µ, = p.o. The intrinsic phase
velocity and wavelength in a dielectric are also less than those of free
space.
In the high-loss case (see Table 2-1), we have
k' = lffe
k" =
in good conductors (q » wE) (2-40)
1111 = jf
r=-411"
Thus, the attenuation is very large, and X lags & by 45º. The intrinsic
impedance of a good conductor is extremely small at radio frequencies,
having a magnitude of 1.16 X 10- 3 ohm for copper at 10 megacycles.
The wavelength is also very small compared to the free-space wavelength.
For example, at 10 megacycles the free-space wavelength is 30 meters,
while in copper the wavelength is only 0.131 millimeter. The attenuation
lNTRODUCTION TO WAVES 53
in a good conductor is very rapid. For the above-mentioned 10-mega-
cycle wave in copper the attenuation is 99.81 per cent in 0.131 milli-
meter of travel. Thus, waves do not penetrate metals very deeply. A
metal acts as a shield against electromagnetic waves.
A wave starting at the surface of a good conductor and propagating
inward is very quickly damped to insignificant values. The field is
localized in a thin surface layer, this phenomenon being known as skin
ejfect. The distance in which a wave is attenuated to 1/e (36.8 per cent)
of its initial value is called the skin depth or depth of penetration ó. This
is defined by k" ó = 1, or
/2 1 >-m
Q = "-¡;;¡; = k" = 2'11" (2-41)
where Xm is the wavelength in the metal. The skin depth is very small for
good conductors at radio frequencies, for >..,. is very small. For example,
t he depth of penetration into copper at 10 megacycles is only 0.021
millimeter. The density of power flow into the conductor, which must
also be that dissipated within the conductor, is given by
s =E X H* =
where Ho is the amplitude of H at the surface. The time-average power
dissipation per uuit area of surface cross section is the real part of the
above power flow, or
watts per square meter (2-42)
where <R = Re (11m) is the intrinsic resistance of the metal. <R is also
called the su1jace resistance and .,,.,. the surface impedance of the metal.
Eq. (2-42) is strictly true only when the wa.ve propagates normally into
the conductor. In t he next section we shall see that this is usually so.
In most problems Eq. (2-42) can be used to calculate power losses in
conducting boundaries. (An important exception to t his occurs at sharp
points and corners extending outward from conductors.)
More general waves can be constructed by superpositfon of waves of
the above type with variou.s polarizations and directions of propagation.
For waves uniform in the xy plane, t he four basic waves, corresponding
to Eqs. (2-17), are
H 11+ = .A e-""•e-i,...
.,,
¡¡.,+ = -
.,,B e-""•e-ik'•
(2-43)
H-
11
= -11C ef"•efk'•
H ,,,- = D ek"•eik'•
.,,
The preceding discussion of this section applies to each of these wa.ves if

the appropriate interch:ange of coordinates is made.
A superposition of waves traveling in opposite directions, for example
E,. = Ae- k"•e-ik'• + Cek''•eik'•
(2-44)
H 11 = ! (Ae-k"ze-ik'• - Cek"•&k'•)
11
gives us standing-wave phenomena. However, it is no longer possible

to ha.ve two "equal" waves traveling in opposite directions. One wave
is a.ttenuated in the +z direction, the other in the -z direction; hence
they can be equal only at one plane. Suppose tbat the wave components
are equal at z = O, that is, A = C .in Eq. (2-44) . There will then be
standing waves in the vicinity of z = O, which will die out in both the +z
and -z directions. This is illustrated by Fig. 2-10 for a material having
fairly large losses. Far in the +z direction the +z traveling wave has
died out, leaving only t he -z traveling wave. Similarly, far in the -z
direction we have only the +z traveling wave. The standing-wave ratio
is now a f unction of z, being large in tbe vicinity of z = Oand approaching
unity as lzl becomes large. For very small amounts of dissipation, say
in a good dielectric, the attenuation of the wave is small, and standing-
wave pa.tterns are almost the same as for the dissipationless case.
Other superpositions of Eqs. (2-43) can be formed to give elliptically
and circularly polarized waves. In a picture of a circularly polarized
wave traveling in dissipative media, the "corkscrews 11 for e and 3C would
be attenuated in the direction of propagation. Also, t would be some-
what out of phase with 3<!. A circularly polarized standing wave would
be a localized phenomenon in dissipative media, justas a. linearly polarized
standing wave is loca.lized.
2-6. Refiection of Waves. We saw in Sec. 1-14 that the tangential
components of E and H must be continuous across a material boundary.
IE...I
- -- --- ---
el''z - -- --
---
e-"''•
z
Fio. 2-10. Standing-wave ·pattern of two oppositely traveling waves iv dissipative
matte.r.
INTROD1JCTION TO WAVE8 55
A ratio of a component of E to a com-
Region (1) Region (2)
ponent of H is called the wave imped-
ance in the direction defined by the
cross-product rule a.pplied to the two
lncident
components. ThU5, continuity of tan-
Transmitted
gentia.l E and H requires tha.t wave Reflected
impedance3 normal to a material bound-
ary must be continuow.
The simplest reflection problem is
tha.t of a. uniform pla.ne wave nor- ,
me.lly incident upon a plane boundary Fm. 2-1 L Reflection at a plane di-
between two media.. This is illustra.ted electric interface, norme.1 incidence.
by Fig. 2-11. In region 1 the field will
be the sum of an incident wave plus a refiected wave. The ratio of the
refiected electric intensity to the incident electric intensity at the interface
is defined to be the reflection coeffici,ent r. Hence, íor region 1
E,.01 = Eo(e- ;.t,. + ref1'1•)
H/1> = Eo (e--1.t,. - refl'••)
1]1
In region 2 there will be a. transmitted wave. The ratio of the trans-

m.itted elect ric intensity to the incident electric intensity at the interface
is defined to be the tra.nsmission coefficient T. Hence, for region 2
E,. 0 > = EoTe-i•••
Hvc2> = Eo Te-i•··
1]2
For continuity of wave impedance a.t the interface, we h.ave

E,.<lJ 1 1+r
Z,
1• - O
= H <1l
11 •-O
= 111 1 - r = 112
where 111 and 711 a.re the intrinsic wa.ve impedances of media. 1 a.nd 2.
Solving for the reflection coefficient, we have
r = 712 - 171 (2-45)
1]2 + '11
From the continuity of E,. at z = O, we bave the transmission coefficient
given by
T = 1+ r = 2771 (2-46)
'!t + 711
If region 1 is a. perfect dielectric, the standing-wa.ve ratio is
1 + jrj (2-47)
SWR - 1- ¡r¡
z \ z
\
\
Fto. 2-12. Aplane wave propagating atan anglc E with respeot to the z-z plane.
beca.use the incident and refiected waves add in phase at sorne points and
add 180º out of phase at other points. The density of power t ra.nsmitted
a-0ross the interface is
(2-48)
where Sino = E 02/m is the incideot power density. The difference

between the incident and transmitted power must be that reOected, or
(2-49)
We have used an x-pola.rized wave for the analysis, but the results are
valid for arbitrary polarization, since the x axis may be in any direction
tangential to the boundary. Those of us familiar witb transmission-line
theory should note the complete analogy between the above plane-wave
problem and the transmission-line problem.
Another refiection problem of considerable interest is that of a plane
wave incident at an angle upon a pl.ane dielectric boundary. Before
considering this problem, let us express the uniform plane wave in coordi-
na.tes rotated with respect to the direction of propagation. Let Fig. 2-12
represent a plane wa.ve propagating at an aogle with respect to the xz
plane. An equiphase plane z' in terms oí the unprimed coordina.tes is
z' = z cos E+ y sin
and the unit vector in the y' direction in terms oí the unprimed coordina.te
unit vectors is
Uv• = Uv cos E - u, sin E
The expression for a uniform plane wave with E parallel to t he z = O
plane is the first of Eqs. (2-17) with all coordina.tes primed. Substituting
from the a.bove two equations, we ha.ve
E. = E ,,e-1k(11 llD E+•- o
(2-50)
H = (Ui, cos E- u, sin E) Eo e-11:w.iD(+.-f>
11
The wave impedance in the z direction for this wa.ve is

z. = E,..,. _11_ (2-51)
H 11 cos E
In a similar manner, from the second of Eqs. (2-17), the expression for a.
uniform plane wave with H parallel to the z = O plane is found to be
E = (U11 COS E - u. sin üE,,e- fl:C1111n E+•-t>
H,. = - Eo e-1.t<11.int+••... O (2-52)

11
The wave impedance in t he z direction for this wave is

E
z. = - __!!
H.,,
= '1 cos (2-53)
Thus, the z-directed wave impedance for E parallel to the z = O plane

is always gres.ter tha.n the intrinsic impedance, and for H parallel to t he
z = O plane it is ahva.ys less than the intrinsic impedance of the medium.
Now suppose that a. uniform plane wave is incident atan angle = e,
upon a dielectric interface a.t z = O, as shown in Fig. 2-13. Part oí the
wave will be reflected atan angle = 1r - Or, and part transmitted atan
angle E= 8,. Each oí these partial fields will be of the form of Eqs. (2-50)
if E is parallel to the interface or of the forro of Eqs. (2-52) if H is parallel
to the interface. (Arbitrary polarization is a superposition of these two
Region (1) Reglon (2)
FtG. 2-13. Rtiflection at

a plane dielectric inter-
face, arbitrary angle of
incidence. z
58 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMA.GNETIC FIELDS
cases.) For continuity of tangential E and H over the entire interface,

the y variation of all three partial fields must be the same. This is so if
ki sin o, = ki sin Or = k2 sin O,
From the first equality, we have
Or = O; (2-54)
that is, the angle of reftection is equal to the angle of incidence. From the
second equality, we have
sin o, = ki = V2 = /t1J.1.1 (2-55)

sin O; k2 vi '\/ E2J.1.2
where v is the phase velocity. Equation (2-55) is known as Snell's law
of refraction. The direction of propagation of the transmitted wave is
thus different from that of the incident wave unless E1J.1.1 = E2J.1.2. In
practically all low-loss dielectrics, µ.1 = J.1.2 = µo. H medium 2 is free
space and medium 1 is a nonmagnetic dielectric, the right-hand side of
Eq. (2-55) becomes VEi/Eo = v'Z, which is called the index of refraction
of the dielectric.
The magnitudes of the reflected and transmitted fields depend upon the
polarizátion. For E parallel to the interface, we have in region 1
E,,,(l) = A(c-ik1•••>o '' + rei-"1sco1B,)
H'j/(1) = cos 8;(e-i"1• eo1B; - reik1aeosB,)
171
where A includes the y dependence. Thus, the z-directed wave impedance

in region 1 a.t the interface is
zm= E,,,<o = __!!!__ 1 + r
ª H,}1 > coso, 1 - r
This must be equal to the z-directed wave impedance in region 2 at the
interface, which is Eq. (2-51) with = 81. Thus,
r = 112 sec o, - 111 sec O; (2-56)
112 sec o, + 111 sec e,
Note that this is of the same form as the corresponding, equation for
normal incidence, Eq. (2-45). The intrinsic impedances are merely
replaced by the z..directed wave impedances of single traveling wa.ves.
It should be apparent from the forro of the equations that, for H para.lle!
to the interface, the reflection coefficient is given by
r = 112 cos o, - '71 cos oi (2-57)
112 cos o, + 111 cos oi
INTRODUCTlON TO WAVES 59
In both cases we have standing waves in the z directioo, the standing-waye
ratio being given by Eq. (2-47).
Two cases of special interest are (1) that of total transmission and (2)
that of total reftection. The first case occurs when r = O. For E
parallel to the interface, we see from Eq: (2-56) that r = O when
Substituting for 01 from Eq. (2-55) and for the 71's from Eq. (2-11) we
obtain
E2/E1 - µ2f µ1
sin O; = µ1/ µ2 - µ2/ µi
(2-58)
as the angle at which no refiection occurs. This does not alwa.ys have a
real solution for O;. In fact,
sin o,- oo
¡11-.¡11
For nonmagnctic dielectrics (µ1 = µ2 = µo) there is no angle of total

transmission when E is parallel to the boundary. For the case of H
parallel to the boundary, we find from Eq. (2-57) that r = O when
(2-59)
Again this does not always have a real solution for arbitrary µ a.nd E.
But in the nonmagnetic case
(2-60)
There is usually an angle of total tra.nsmission when H is pa.ra.llcl to the

boundary. The angle specified by Eq. (2-60) is called the polarizing angle
or Brewster angle. If an arbitrarily polarized wave is incident upon a
nonmagnetic boundary at this angle, thc rcflected wave will be polarized
with E parallel to tbe boundary.
The case of total refiection occurs when lrl = l. We are considering
lossless media¡ so the 11's are real. It is a.pparent from Eqs. (2-56) a.nd
(2-57) that lr l 1 for real values of o, and o,. However, when Eiµ1 >
E2µ2, Eq. (2-55) says that sin o, can be gres.ter than unity. What does
thls mean? Our initial assumption was that the transmitted wave wacS
a uniform plane wave. But Eqs. (2-50) specify a solution to Maxwell's
equations of the value of sin t· It can be real or complex.
All that is changed is our interpretation of t he field. To illustrate, sup-
60 TIME-BARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETJC FlELDS
pose sin > 1 in Eqs. (2-50) and let

(2-61)
k cos = k V1 - sin 2 = ± ja
If we choose the minus sign for a, Eqs. (2-50) become
(2-62)
which is a field exponentially attenuated in the z direction. Note the

90º phase difference between E,. and H11 ¡ so the wave impedance in the z
direction is imaginary, and there is no power fl.ow in the z direction. A
similar interpretation applies to Eqs. (2-52) when sin t > l. Returning
now to our reflection problem, from Eq. (2-55) it is evident that sin 8,
is greater than unity wben sin 81 > V E2P.2/E1J1.1. Thus, the point of tran-
sition from real values of 8, (wave impedance real in region 2) to imaginary
va.lues of 8, (wave impedance imaginary in region 2) is
· 8i
Slll = - (2-63)
EtP.1
The angle specified by Eq. (2-63) is called t he critical angle. A wave

incident upan the boundary at an angle equal to or greater than the
critical angle will be totally reflected. Note that there is a real critica}
angle only if E1J1.1 > E2P.2 or, in the nonmagnetic case, if Et > E2. Thus,
total refl.ection occurs only if the wave passes from a "dense" material
into a " less dense" material. The reflection coefficient, Eq. (2-56) or
E q. (2-57), becomes of the form
R-jX
r = R +jX
when total reflection occurs. It is evident in this case that lr l is unity.
Remember that the field in region 2 is not zero when total reflection
occurs. I t is an exponentially decaying field, called a reactive field oran
evanescent field. Optical prisms ma.ke use of the phenomenon of total
reflection.
All the theory of this section can be applied to dissipative media if the
11's a.nd 8's are allowed to be complex. Of particular interest is the case
of aplane wave incident upan a good conductor atan angle 8.¡. When
region 1 is a nonmagnetic dielectric and regían 2 is a nonmagnetic con-
ductor, Eq. (2-55) becomes
sin 8, = ki /jwE
sin 8, k2 '\j q
lNTRODUCT!ON TO WAVES 61
l +dI
--+
1 1
t - - dz .. ,
(a) (b)
Fla. 2-14. A t ransmission line according to oir<luit concepta. (a) Phyaical line; (b)
equivalent oircuit.
This is a.n extremely small quantity for good conductora. For most prac-
tica! purposes1 the wave can be considered to propaga.te normally in to the
conductor regardless of the a.ngle of incidence.
2-6. Transmission-line Concepts. Let us review t he circuit concept
of a transmission line and then show its relationship to the field concept.
Let Fig. 2-14a represent a. two-conductor tra.nsmission line. For each
incremental length of line dz there is a series voltage drop dV and a shunt
current dl. The circuit t heory postulate is that the volts.ge drop is
proportional to the line current l . Thus,
dV = -IZdz
where Z is a series impedance per unit length. It is also postulated that
the shunt current is proportional to the line voltage V. Thus,
di = -VYdz
where Y is a shunt admittance per unit length. Dividing by dz, we ha.ve
the a-e transmission-line equations
dV dl = - VY
- = -IZ (2-64)
dz dz
lmplicit in this development are the assumptions that (1) no mutual
impedance exista between incremental sections of line a.nd (2) the shunt
current di Bows in planes t ransverse to z. The transmission line is said
to be uniform if Z and Y are independent of z.
Taking tbe derivative of the first of Eqs. (2-64) and substituting írom
the second, we obtain
d2V d'ZJ
- 2 - ZYV = O - 1 - ZYI =O (2-65)
dz dz
which are one-dimcnsional Helmholtz equa.tions. The general solution
62 TIME-HA.RMONlC ELECTROMA.GNETIC FlELDS
TABLE 2-2. COMPARISON OF TRANSMISSION- LINE WAVES

TO UNIFOR;'\{ PLANE WAVES
Transmission line Uniform plane wave
d 2V + k'Es "" O
- 1 - 'Y•v
dz
=o dtE,,
dz1
d2J d 2H 11
- 2 - 'Y'l
dt
=o --
dzt +k H11 ""O
2
'Y - .Yzv jk y'ij

V = Vo+e-'\'• + V o-e'Y• Ez - Eo+e-i"' + Eo-eih
I = fo+e--Y• + I o- e'I'• H11 = Ho+e- 1•• + Ho-eikr
Zo = Vo+ =_ Vo- = Eo+

11 "" Ho+ -= -
E o-
Ho- = 'j
J o+ Io- Y
P =VI* S. ""' E.,H!
is a sum of a +z traveling wave anda -z traveling wave, with propaga-

tion constant
'Y = '\l'ZY (2-66)
Choosing the +z traveling wave
v+ = voer· J+ = loe-,.•
we ha.ve from Eqs. (2-64) that
V+ Z 'Y
[+ =:y= y
Substituting for 'Y from Eq. (2-66), we have
Zo = = (2-67)
which is called the characteristic impedance of t he transmission line. The

imaginary parts of Z and Y are usually positive, and it is common practice
to write
Z = R +jwL Y= G +jwC (2-68)
The equivalent circuit of the transmission line is then as shown in Fig.
2-14b. The reader has probably already noted the complete analogy
between the linearly polarized plane wave and the transmission line.
This analogy is summarized by Table 2-2.
In t he circuit theory development, we assumed no mutual coupling
lNTRODUCTION TO WAVES 63
between adjacent elements of the transroission line. From the field
theory point of view, this is equivalent to assuming that río E. or FI.
exista. Such a wave is called transverse electromagnetic, abbreviated
TEM. This is not the only wave possible on a transmission line, for
Maxwell's equations show that infinitely many wave types can exist.
Each possible wave is called a mode, and a TEM wave is called a trans-
mission-line mode. Ali other waves, which must have an E. or an H.
or both, are called higher-order modes. The higher-order modes are
usually important only in the vicinity of the feed point, or in the vicinity
of a discontinuity on the line. In this section we shall restrict considera-
tion to transmission-line, or TEM, modes.
For the TEM mode to exist exactly, t he conductors must be perfect,
or else an E. is required to support the z-directed current. Let us there-
fore specialize t he problem to that of perfect conductors immersed in a
homogeneous medium. We assume E.= Hz= O and z dependence of
the form e-r•. Expa.nsion of the field equations, Eqs. (2-1), then gives
'YE11 = 'YH11 = yEs
'YEs = 'YH: = -'OE11
éJEll - éJE: = o aHll - aH,. = o
éJx éJy ax ay
It follows from these equations that
'Y= jk (2-69)
The propagation constant of any TEM wa.ve is the intrinsic propagation
constant of the medium. The proportionality of components of E to
those of H expressed by the above equations can be written concisely as
1
E = 17H X u. H =- u. X E (2-70)
'7
Thus, the z-directed wave impedance of any TEM wave is the intrinsic
wave impedance of the medium. Finally, manipulation of the original six
equations shows t hat ea.ch component of E and H satisfies the two-
dimensional La.place equation. We can summarize t his by defining a
transverse Laplacian operator
éJ2 éJ2
v,2 = ax2 + ay2 (2-71)
and writing
The boundary conditions for the problem are
E,= O} at the conductora (2-72)

H,. = O
Thus, the bounda.ry-value problem for E is the same as the electrostatic
64 TIME-BARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
prob!em having the same conducting boundaries. The

boundary-value problem for H is the same as the mag-
netostatic problem having "anticonducting" (no H,.)
boundaries. It is for thíS rea.son that "static" capaci-
tances and inductances can be-used for transmission
lines even though the field is time-harmonic.
To show the relationship of the static L's and C's to
the Zo of the transmission line, considera cross section
of the linea.e represented by Fig. 2-15, In the tra.ns-
F10. 2-15. Cross
mission-line problem, the line voltage and current are
section of a trans- related to the fields by
mission line.
V =fe, E· dl I = fe,H ·di (2-73)
where C1 and C2 are as shown on Fig. 2-15. From the second of these and
the second of Eqs. (2-70) we have
1 =
., Jrc. u. X
! E . d1 = !
7/ Jrc. E,. dl
But in the corresponding electrostatic problem the capacitance is
C = !L = ..!.. { E,. dl
V V }c.
Thus, the characteristic impedance of the transmission line is related to
the electrostatic capacitance per unit length by
V E
Zo = T =.,,e (2-74)
Similarly, from the first of Eqs. (2-73) and (2-70) we have
V = .,, { H X u. · d1 = .,, { H,. dl

Je, Je,
In the corresponding magnetostatic problem we ha.ve
L = il = !:.I }e,
( H,. dl
Therefore, the characteristic impedance of the line is related to the

magnetostatic inductance per unit length by
Zo = yV = .,,
L
µ (2-75)
Note also that L and C are related to ea.ch otber tbrougb Eqs. (2-74) and
(2-75). The electrostatic and magnetostatic problems htve E and H
everywhere orthogonal to each other ancl m·e caUed conjugate problems.
TABLE 2-3. CBARACT&RISTIC btPEDANCES OP SoME CoMMON TRANs mssxoN LrnEs
Line Geometry Characteristio impcdance
Two wire 0 ir- Z0

'I
lid -
1T
log-
2D
d
D »d
Coaxial
@ Zo - -" log -b
21' a
Confocal elliptic Zo • - log

'I b +y b 2
- c2
21'
b
Parallel plate b Zo lid " -
tD
tD »b
T
Collinear plate l--D-+-1

- Zo " log 4D
lid -
..
-
w
D »w
Wiro above ground plano Zo lid -" log -4h h »d

2r d
·--··
Shiclded pe.ir b(.ft
...._.,.
.
l_.d
Zo lid ;, log (2
d8Dt
D +
81
2
- ª') D »d
8 »d
Wire in t rough h Zo lid -

'1
2T
(4w rh)
log - tanh -
rd w
h
tD
»d
»d
Once the electrostatic Cor t he magnetostatic Lis known, the Zo of the

corresponding transmission line is given by Eq. (2-74) or Eq. (2-75). Table
2-3 lists tbe characteristic impedances of sorne common tra.nsmission lines.
When the dielectric is lossy but the conductors still assumed perfect,
ali of our equations still apply. Zo (proportional to '7) and 'Y ( = jk)
become complex. The most important effect of this is that the wave is
attenuated in the direction of travel. The attenuation constant in this
case is the intrinsic attenuation constant of the dielectric (T able 2-1,
column 2, row 4). When the conductors a.re imperfect, t he field is no
longer exactly TEM, and exact solutions are usually impractical. How-
ever, the waves will still be characterized by a propagation constant
'Y = a+ j{3. Hence a +z-traveling wave will be of t he forro
V = V I = -V
Zo
a.nd the power flow is given by
P, = VI* = 'if e- 2a• = Poe-2a•

or, in terms of time-average powers,
<T>, = Re (P¡) = Re (Po)e- 2ª•
The rate of decrease in <91 versus z equals the time-average power dissi-
pated per unit length if>d, or
<9d = - diP¡ = 2aif>¡

dz
Thus, the attenuation constant is given by
if>d
a= - (2-76)
2iP¡
While this equation is exact if cJ>d and iJ>1 are determined exMtly, its
greatest use líes in approximating a by approximating <J>". For example,
attenuation due to losses in imperfect conductors can be approxima.ted by
assuming that Eq. (2-42) holds at their surface. We shall carry out
such a calculation for the rectangular waveguide in the next section.
2-7. Waveguide Concepts. The
waves on a transmission line can be
X
viewed as being guided by the con-
ductors. This concept of wave guid-
ance is quite general and applies to
many configurations of matter. In
general, systems which guide waves
are called waveguides. Apart from
transmission lines, t he most com-
monly used waveguide is the rectan-
b y gular waveguide, illustrated by Fig.
F 10. 2-16. Tbe rectangular wa.veguide. 2-16. It is a hollow conducting tube
of rectangular cross section. Fields existing within this tu be must be cha.r-
acterized by zero ta.ngential components of E at the conducting walls.
Consider two uniform plane wa.ves traveling a.t the angles and - e e
with respect to the xz plane (see Fig. 2-12). If the waves a.re x-polarized,
we use Eq. (2-50) and write
E,, = A (e-;k11 a1n f _ e1k11 •in f) e-;h •o• f
= -2jA sin (ky sin t) e-ihea.f
Let Eo denote (-2jA) and define
kc = k 'Y = jk cos
In view of the trigonometric identity sin 2 + cos 2 = l, the parameters
'Y a.nd k. are related by
-y2 = k.2 - k2 (2-77)
Tbe above field can now be written as
E., = Eo sin (k.y) e-r• (2-78)
Let us see if thls field can exist withln the rectangular waveguide. There
is only an E.,; so no component of E is tangential to the conductora x = O
and x = a. Also, E: = O at y = O; so there is no tangential component
of E at the wall y = O. There remains the condition that E: = O at
y = b, whlch is satisfied if
k = n.,,. n = 1, 2, 3, .. . (2-79)
e b
These permissible values of k. are called eigenvalues, or characteristic
values of the problem.
Each choice of n in Eq. (2-79) determines a possible field, or mode.
The modes in a waveguide a.re usually classified according to the existence
of z components of the field. A mode having no E. is said to be a trans-
verse electric (TE) mode. One having no H. is said to be a transverse
magnetic (TM) mode. Ali the modes in the rectangular waveguide fall
into one of these two classes. The modes represented by Eqs. (2-78)
and (2-79) have no E. and a re therefore TE modes. The par ticular modes
that we are considering are TEon modes, the subscript O denoting no
variation with x, and the subscript n denoting the choice by Eq. (2-79).
The complete system of modes will be considered in Sec. 4-3.
For k real (loss-free dielectric), the propagation constant "Y can be
expressed as
'Y= (2-80)
where a a.nd fJ are real. This follows from Eqs. (2-77) a.nd (2-79). When
-y = j{J, we ha.ve wave propagation in the z direction, and the mode is
called a propagating mode. When -y = a, the field decays exponentially
with z, and there is no wave propagation. In this case, the mode is
called a nonpropagating mode, or an evanescent m-0de. The transition
from one type of behavior to the other occurs at a = O or k = n7r/b.
Letting k = 2-rrf VEµ, we can solve for the transition frequency, obta.ining
n
Ío = 2b W (2-81)
This is called the cutoff frequency of t he TEo.. mode. The corresponding

intrinsic wavelength
(2-82)
is called the cutoff wavelength of the TEo,. mode. At frequencies greater

than f 0 (wavelengths less than X.), the mode propagates. At frequencies
less tba.n f. (wavelengths greater tban X,), the mode is nonpropagating.
A knowledge off. or >..is equivalent to a knowledge of k.¡ so they also
are eigenvalues. In particular, from Eqs. (2-79), (2-81), and (2-82), it is
evident that
(2-83)
Using t he last equality and k = 27rf w in Eq. (2-80), we can express 'Y
as
f >J.
(2-84)
f <J.
Thus, the phase constant {3 of a propa.gating mode is always less t han the
intrinsic phase constant k of the dielectric, approaching k as f-+ oo.
The attenuation constant of a nonpropagating mode is always less than
k 0 , approaching k. as f-+ O. When a mode propaga.tes, the concepts of
wavelength and phase velocity can be applied to the mode field as a
whole. Thus, the guide wavelength >."is defined as the distance in which
the phase of E increases by 2-rr, that is, (J).." = 2ir. Using fJ from Eq.
(2-84), we ha.ve
(2-85)
showing that the guide wavelength is alwa.ys greater tha.n the intrinsic
wavelength of the dielectric. The guide phase velocity v11 is defined as the
velocity at which a poiot of constant phase of 6 travels. Thus, in a
manner analogous to that used to derive Eq. (2-14), we find
"'
Vo = = Vl _v,,(fc/J)Z (2-86)
where v,, is the intrinsic phase velocity oí the dielectric. The guide phase
velocity is therefore greater than the intrinsic phase velocity.
Another important property oí waveguide modes is the existence of a
characteristic wave impedance. To show this, let us find H from t he E of
Eq. (2-78) according to V X E = - jwµH . The result is
E,, = Eo sin (key) e-r•
H 11 = .;L Eo sin (kcy) e-r•
jwµ. (2-87)
k
Hz = ,..!- Eo COS (k,,y)
jwµ.
wbere E,, has been repeated for convenience. The wa.ve impedance in
the z directioo is
z -
E,, - jwµ.
• - H 11 -
(2-88)
'Y
This is ca.lled the characteristic impedance oí the mode a.nd plays the
same role in reflection problems as does the Zo of transmission lines. If
we substitute into t he above equation for 'Y from Eq. (2-84) 1 we find
Zo = z. = ¡vi JT/
(f,,/f)"
f > f,,
f < fe
(2-89)
v(fc/!) 1 - 1
Thus, the characteristic impeda.nce of a TEo,. propagating mode is al ways
gres.ter tha.n the intrinsic impedance of the dieleotric, approaohing T/ as
f - oo. The characteristic impedance of a nonpropagating mode is
reactive a.nd approaches zero as f - O.
All our discussion so far has dealt with waves traveling in the +z
direction. For each +z traveling wave, a -z traveling wave is possible,
obtained by replacing 'Y by -'Y in Eqs. (2-87). Tbe simulta.neous
existence of +z a.nd -z traveling wa.ves in the same mode gives rise to
standing wa.ves. The concepts of reflection coefficients, sta.nding-wave
ra.tios, etc., used in the case of uniform plane-wa.ve reflection, also apply
to wa.veguide problems.
The mode with the lowest cutoff frequency in a. particular guide is
ca.lled t be dominant mode. The domina.nt mode in a rectangular wa.ve-
guide, assuming b > a, is the TE01 mode. (This we ha.ve not sbown, for
70 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROl\lAGNETIC FIELDS
y y
X z
Unes into paper x x x
Unes out of paper • • •

F1e. 2-17. Mode pattern for the TE 01 waveguide mode.
we have not considered all modes.) From Eq. (2-82) with n = 1, we

see tha.t the cutoff wavelength of the TE01 mode is >.., = 2b. Thus, wave
propagation can take place in a rectangular waveguide only when its
widest side is greater than a half-wavelength. 1 A sketch of the instan-
taneous field lines at some instant is called a mode pattern. The mode
pattern of the TE01 mode in the propagating state is shown in Fig. 2-17.
This figure is obtained by determining 8 and 3C from the E and H of
Eqs. (2-87) a.nd specializing the result to some instant of time. A.I3 time
progresses, t he mode pattern moves in the z direction.
It is admittedly confusing to learn that many modes exist on a given
guiding system. It is not, however, so bad as it seems at first. If only
one mode propagates in a waveguide, this will be the only mode of
appreciable magnitude except near sources or discontinuities. The
rectangular waveguide is usually operated so that only the TE0r mode
propa.gates. This is therefore the only wave of significant amplitude
a.long the guide except near sources and discontinuities.
Beca.use of the importance of the TE01 mode, let us consider it in a
little more detail. Table 2-4 specializes our preceding equations to this
mode and includes some additional pa.ra.meters which we shall now
consider.
T he power transmitted a.long the waveguide can be found by integrat-
ing the axial component of the Poynting vector over a guide cross section.
This gives
P, = loº lobE,.H; d:t dy = IEol2
which, above cutoff, is real and is t herefore the time-average power trans-
mitted. Below cutoff, the power is ima.ginary, indicating no time-average
1
We are referring to the intrinsic wavelength of the dielectric filling the waveguide,
which is usually free space.
TABL.E 2-4. SuMMARY oF WAVEGUIDE PARAMETERS FOR THE DoMINANT Monz
(TE01) IN A RECTANGULAR W AVEGUIDE
Ez E o S!Il
""
. 'lf'Y
- e-r•
b
Eo . 'lf'Y
Complex field H11 - Slll - e-r•
Zo b
Eo f . "11
H = cos - e-"f•
• h f b
1
Cutoff frequency J.=
2bv;
Cutoff wa.velength >.e - 2b
{ jp jk y'¡ - (J.lf)' f >f.

Propa.gation constant 'Y = 21f'
ª - -v1
>..
- <111.)* I <f.
Characteristic impedance Zo - jwµ "" { ,,¡y1- (f.IJ)i f >f.

'Y uc1n2 - i>
jr¡/ v f <f.
X
Guide wa.v-elength >-o=
v1 - c1.m•
Vp
Guide phase velocity Vo
v1 - u.mi
Power transmitted P = IEol'ab
2Zo
Attenuation due to lossy dielectric ad = we"

2
r¡ V 1- {f.//)2
Attenuation due to imperfect conductor

ª• = ar¡ v 1m- u .11P [ 1+ b"
2a
! «·YJ
power transmitted. (The preceding equation applies only at z = O below
cutoff unless the factor e- 2"' is added.) It is also interesting to note that
the time-average electric and magnetic energies per unit length of guide
are equal above cutoff (see Prob. 2-32).
In contrast to the transmission-line mode, there is no unique voltage
and current associated with a waveguide mode. However, the amplitude
of a modal traveling wave (Eo in Table 2-4) enters into waveguide reflec-
tion problems in the same manner as V in transmission-line problems.
To emphasize this correspondence, it is common to define a mode voltage V

and a mode current 1 such that
V
Zo =y P =VI* I
\., . (2-90)
From Table 2-4 1 it is evident that

íab
V = Eo '\J2" r'T"
V
l= - (2-91)
Zo
sa.tisfy this definition. Remember that we a.re dea.ling with only a +z
traveling wa.ve. In the -z traveling wave, 1 = - V /Zo. When waves
in both directions are present, the ratio V/ I is a. function of z. Other
definitions of mode voltage1 mode current, a.nd characteristic impeda.nce
can be found in the literature. These alternative definitions will always
be proportional to our definitions (see Prob. 2-34).
Our treatment has so far been confined to the ideal loss-free guide.
When losses are present in the dielectric but not in the conductor, all
our equations still apply, except tha.t most parameters become complex.
There is no longer a real cutoff frequency 1 for 'Y never goes to zero. Also,
the characteristic impedance is complex at ali frequencies. The behavior
of 'Y = a+ j{3 in the low-loss case is sketched in Fig. 2-18. The behavior
of 'Y for the loss-free case is shown dashed. The most important effect
of dissipation is the existence of an attenuation constant at a.U frequencies.
In the low-loss case, we can continue to use the relationship
provided f is not too clase to fe· Letting k = k' - jk" a.nd referring to
Fxo. 2-18. Propa.gation

constant Cor a. lossy wa.ve-
g u id e (loss-free case
shown dashed).
o fe f
lNTRODUCTION TO W AVES 73
Table 2-1, we find
a.i
wl'
T V"l
{µ 1 - {\J /c) 2
(2-92)
This is t!ie attenuation constant due to a lossy dielectric in the guide.

Even more important is the attenuation dueto imperfectly conducting
guide walls. Our solution is nq longer exact in this case, beca.use the
boundary conditiona are charrged. The tangential component of E is
now not quite zero at the conductor. H owever, for good conductors, the
tangentíal component of E is very sma.11, and the field is only slightly
changed, or " perturbed," from the loss-free solution. The loss-iree
solution is used to approximate H at the conductor, and Eq. (2-42) is
used to approximate the power dissipa.ted in the conductor. Such a
procedure is called a perturbational method (see Chap. 7). The power per
unit length dis.sipated in the wall y = O is
d>d L.o = <R foº IH.1 dx = <RIEol' (:¡yfoº dx

2
= <RIEol2a ( :jY
and an equal amount is dissipated in the wall y = b. The power per unit
length dissipated in the wa.11 x = O is
d>d 1 = <R (b (JH11l 2 + IH.1 2) dy

-o Jo
== <RIEol2 ("[ ªin' (1f'///b) +
}o
('e) cos 7r'Y ] dy
2
2
b
- <RIEol
2
[ +
and an equal amount is dissipated in the wall x = a. The total power
dissipated per unit length is the sum of that for the four walls, or
<P" = <RIEol 2 [i 02 + (2a + b) ]

Equation (2-76) is va.lid for any traveling wave; so using the above
and = P of Ta.ble 2-4, we ha.ve
ac = <R.Zo b +
ab [ zo2 (!c)r¡f
2
(2a + b) ]
_
- ar¡ yl
<R
- Uc/!) 2
[l
+b
2a (fc)
f
2
] (2-93) ..,..
....
This is the attenuation constant due to conductor losses. When both
dielectric losses and conductor losses

X
need to be considered, the total
attenuation constant is
(2-94)
for by Eq. (2-76) we merely add the
two losses.
2-8. Resonator Concepts. In Sec.
a 2-2 we notcd a similarity between
standing waves and circuit theory
resonance. In the loss-free case, elec-
tromagnetic fields can exist within
Y a source-free region enclosed by a
FIG. 2-19. The rectangular cavity. perfect conductor. These fields can
exist only at specific frequencies,
ca.lled resonant frequencies. When losses are present, a source must
exist to sustain oscillations. The input impedance seen by the source
behaves, in the vicinity of a resonant frequency, like the impedance of an
LC circuit. Resonators can therefore be used for the sa.me purposes at
high frequencies as LC resonators are used at lower frequencies.
To illustrate resonator concepts, consider the "rectangular cavity"
of Fig. 2-19. This consists of a conductor enclosing a clielectric, both of
which we will assume to be perfect at present. We desire to find solu-
tions to the field equations having zero tangential components of E over
the entire boundary. The TE01 waveguide mode already satisfies this
condition over four of the walls. We recall that standing waves ha.ve
planes of zero field, which suggests trying the stancling-wave TE01 field.
For E., to be zero at z = O, we choose
E,, = E,,+ + = A sin'? -
= Eo sin (7/)sin {Jz
For E., to be zero at z = e, we choose {Je = 1f' 1 which, a.ccording to Table

2-4, is
1f' = ck 1¡ -
"\/
(lfº)2= c21rf y;µ /¡ -
"\/ (2b Eµ f) 2
Solving for the resonant frequency f = fr, we have
Ír = _1_ + c2 (2-95)
2bc Eµ
When a is the smallest cavity climension, tbis is the resonant frequency of

the dominant mode, called the TE011 mode. The additional subscript 1
indicates that we ha ve chosen the fust zero of sin {Jz. The higher zeros
give higher-order modcs, t hat is, modes with higher resonant frequencies.
Setting fJ = 7r/e in the above expression for E" and detcrmining H from the
Maxwell equations, we have fo r the TE011 mode
. 1rY . 1fZ
E ,. = E osm bsmc
jbEo . 7r'IJ 7rZ
'T 11 = cos - (2-96)
17 y b2 + c2
Slil -
b e
JI. = - JcEo cos 7r'Yb sin 1TZ
17 b2 + c2 e
Note that E and lI are 90° out of phase¡ so 8 is maximum when Je is
minimum and vice versa. A sketch of t he instantaneous field lines at somo
time when both 8 and Je exist is given in Fig. 2-20. Also of interest is
the energy stored within the cavity. From the conservation of complex
power, Eq. (1-68), we know th a.t W,,. = 'W e. Thus, t he time-average
electric and magnetic energies are
Wm = 'We = fff IEl

co.vity
2
dr = IEol2abc (2-97)
We also know from conservation of energy, Eq. (1-39), that t he total

energy within the resonator is independent of t ime. If we choose a t ime
for which Je is zero, W,,. will be zero, and 'W, will be maximum and twicc
its average value. Therefore,
W = 2'W. = _:4 IEol abc 2

(2-98)
is the total energy stored within t he cavity.
l
X X X X
----).-- - -
X X X X
,\
............
l X X X
I f • -- • \
-- 1 1 1/ • •• • ' \ '1 1
-
;. b 11 · I• • • • • l ·I1 11
-
J
- ¡I \ . • • I
.•• ••• •
• •
• •
• 1 \' .
''
\ ...... ____.....___ _ • I
/
l 1
/
J
Lª_j
e----·
F10. 2-20. Mode pattero for the TE011 ca.vity mode.
76 TIME-HAIWONIC E.L ECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
When the resooator h as losses, we define its quality factor as

w X energy stored w'W
Q = average power dissipated - <2-99)
by analogy to the Q of an LO circuit. If the losses are dielectric losses,
we ha.ve
wE' JJJ IEl 2
d-r l
(2-100)
Qd = wl' JJJ IEl 2 dT = l'
so the Q of the resonator is that of the dielectric, Eq. (1-79). This is

valid for any mode in a cavity of arbitrary shape. Usually more impor-
ta.nt in determining the Q is the loss due to imperfect conductors. This
is determined to the same approximation as we used for waveguide
attenuation. We assume H at walls to be that of the loss-free mode
and calcula.te (94 by Eq. (2-42). To summarize,
iPd = CR 1j> IHl2 ds = c2) [bc(b 2 + c2) + 2a(bª + c8) ]

cav1ty
walla
Substituting t his, Eq. (2-98), and Eq. (2-95) into Eq. (2-99), we ha.ve
11"'1 a(b 2 + c2) % (2-101)
Qc = 2CR bc(b 2 +c2) + 2a(b 8 + c3)
From the symmetry of Qc in b ande, it is evident that b =e for maxi-
mum Q. For a "square-base" cavity (b = e), we ha.ve
1 1.1171
Qc = CR(l + b/2a) (2-102)
The Q also increases as a increases, but if a> b we no longer ha.ve the

dominaot mode. Asan example of the Q's obtainable, considera cubic
cavity constructed of copper. In this case we ha.ve
Qc = 1.07 X 109/ VJ (2-103)
which, at microwave frequencies, gives Q's of severa! thousand. This
idealized Q will, however, be lowered in practice by the introduction of a
feed system, by imperfections in the construction, and by corrosion of
the metal. When both conductor losses and dielectric losses are con-
sidered, the Q of the ca.vity becomes
1 1 1
Q = Qd + Q., (2-104)
which is evident from Eq. (2-99).

2-9. Radiation. We sha.11 now show tha.t a source in unbounded space
is chara.cterized by a ra.diation of energy. Consider the field equa.tions
V X E = - jwµ.H V X H =jwiE +J (2-105)
where ] is the source, or impressed, current. These equations apply
explicitly to a perfect dielectric, but the extension to lossy media is
effected by repla.cing jwµ by and jwE by g. In homogeneous media,
the divergence of the first equation is
V·H = O
Any divergenceless vector is the curl of some other vector; so
H = VXA (2-106)
where A is called a magnetic vector potential. 1 Substituting Eq. (2-106)
into the fi.rst of Eqs. (2-105), we have
V X (E + jwµA } = O
Any curl-free vector is the gradient of some sea.lar. Hence,
E+ jwµA = -V (2-107)
where <l> is a.n electric scalar potential. T o obtain the equa.tion for A,
substitute Eqs. (2-106) and (2-107) into the second of Eqs. (2-105).
Tbis givcs
V X V X A - k2A = J - jwEV (2-108)
which, by a vector identity, becomes
V(V • A) - V2A - k 2A =J- jwEV'f>
Only V X A was specified by Eq. (2-106). We are still free to choose
V • A. If we Jet
V· A = - jwE'f> (2-109)
the equation for A simplifies to
V 2A + k2A = - J (2-110)
This is the Helmholtz equation, or complex wave equation. Solutions
to Eq. (2-110) are called wave potentials. In terms of the magnetic wave
potential, we ha.ve
E= - jwµA + JWE
.,!_ V (V · A) (2-111)
H=VXA
1
In general electromagnetic theory it is more common to let A be th e vector poten-
tial of B. In homogeneous media the two potentials are in the ratio µ, a constant.
78 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIO FIELDS
z obtained from Eqs. (2-106), (2-107),

and (2-109). The principal advan-
tages of using A instead of E or H
are (1) rectangular components of A
r ha ve corresponding rectangular com-
ponents of J as their sources and (2)
A need not be divergenceless.
Let us first determine A for a cur-
y
rent I e},.'tending over an incremental
lcngth l, forming a current element or
electric dipole of moment ll. Take
Fxa. 2-21. A z-directcd current element this current element to be z-dirccted
a.t the coordinate origin. a.nd situated a.t the coordina.te origin,
as shown in Fig. 2-21. Tho current
is z-directed; so we take A to ha.ve only a z component, satisfying
V 2 A, + k A. =
2
O
everywhere except at the origin. The sea.lar quantity A. has a point
source Il and should therefore be spherically symmet ric. Thus, let
A. = A,(r), and the above equation reduces to
_! !!
r 2 dr
(r2 dA.)
dr
+ k2A • = O
This has thc two independent solutions
-1 e-'KT
··- -1 e'"'
r T
the first of which represents a.n outwa.rd-traveling wave, and the second
an inward-traveling wave. (In dissipative media, k = k' - jk", and the
first solution vanishes as r _. oo, and the second solution becoroes
infinite.) We therefore choose the first solution, and take
A.
e
= - e-;1c'
r
where C is a constant.1 As k _. O, Eq. (2-110) reduces to Poisson's
equation, for which the solution is
A • -- !!:_
4-irr
1 To be precise, C might be a. function of k, but the solution must also reduce to

the ata.tic field a.s r - O. Hence, C is not a. funetion of k.
rNTRODUCTION TO WAVES 79
Our constant C must therefore be
and hence (2-112)
is the desired solution for t he current element of Fig. 2-21. The out-
ward-traveling wave represented by Eq. (2-112) is called a spherical wave,
since surfaces of constant phase are spheres.
The electromagnetic field of the current element is obtained by substi-
tuting Eq. (2-112) into Eqs. (2-111). The result is
Er = 211"
Il e-;kr (!L +
T2
1
- -)
JWET 3
cos O
Ee = Il e-i"r
4ir
(jwµr + r!!.. + -.-1- ) sin 8
2 JWET 3
(2-113)
H = Il e- ikr ( jk
4ir r
+ .!)
r
sin O
2
Very close to the current element, the E reduces to that of a static charge
dipole, the H reduces to that of a constant current element, and the field
l
is said to be quasi-static. Far from the current element, Eqs. (2-113)
reduce to
Ee = 11 jll e-1-.r sm
2Ar . O
r »A (2-114)
H jll ºk • o
= 2Ar e-1 r sm
which is called the radiation field. At intermediate values of r the field is

called the induc.tion fieliJ.. The outward-directed complex power over a
sphere of radius r is
P1 = 1fa E X H * · ds = j 2
0
"' dcp j
0
" dO r 2 sin 8 E 8 H:
= (2-115)
The time-average power radiated is the real part of P¡, or
2ir 1X 12
- = '7 3
CP¡ n (2-116)
This is independent of r and can be most simply obtained from the radi-
ation field, Eq. (2-114). The reactive power, which is negative, iodicates
that there is an excess of electric energy over magnetic energy in the
near field.
80 TIME-HA.RMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
r - r'
(x,y,.z) Fm. 2-22. Radius vec-
tor notation.
To obtain the field of an arbitrary distribution of electric currents,

we need only superimpose the solutions for each element, for the equa-
tions are linear. A superposition of vector potentials is usually the most
convenient one. For this purpose, we shall use the radius vector notation
illustrated by Fig. 2-22. The "field coordinates" a.re specified by
r = Uz.X + + U,.Z
and the "source coordinates" by
r' = Uz.X' + U11Y' + u.z'
In Eq. (2-112), r is the distance from the source to the field point. For
Il not at tbe coordinate origin, r should be replaced by
Ir - r'I = v Cx - x')2 + (y - y')"+ Cz - z') 2
Note the direction of the vector potential is that of the current; so Eq.
(2-112) can be generalized to a current element of arbitrary orientation
by replacing Il by JI and A s by A. Thus, the vector potential from
current element of arbitrary location and orientation is
A _ JI e-iklr- r'I
- 411-lr - r'I
To emphasize that A is evaluated at the field point (x,y,z) and Il is situ-
ated at the source point (x',y',z'), we shall use the notation A(r) and
Il(r'). The a.bove equation then becomes
A(r) = (2-117)
Finally, for a current distribution J, the current element contained in a

volume element dr is J dr, anda superposition over ali such elements is
- 1
A (r ) - 4r
frJrJr J (r')e-iklr-r'I
Ir - r'I d-r
I
(2-118)
The prime on dr' emphasizes that the integration is over the source
coordinates. Equation (2-118) is called the magnetic vector potential inte-
gral. It is intended to include the cases of surface currents and fila-
mentary currents by implication. We therefore have a formal solution
for any problem characterized by electric currents in an unbounded homo-
geneous medium. The medium roa.y be dissipative ü k is considered to
be complex.
2-10. Antenna Concepts. A device whose primary purpose is to
radiate or receive electromagnetic energy is called an antenna. To illus-
trate antenna concepts, we shall consider the linear antenna of Fig. 2-23.
It consists of a straight wire carrying a current J (z). When it is ener-
gized at tbe center, it is called a dipole antenna. The magnetic vector
potential, Eq. (2-118), for this particular problem is
1 JL/ 2 J (z')e-iklr-r'I ,
A .. = -
Ir - r ,1 dz (2-119)
4n- -L/ 2
where Ir - r'I = vr + z'

2 2 - 2rz' cos 8 (2-120)
The radiation field (r large) is of primary interest, in which case
Ir - r'I r - z' cos 8 r >> z' (2-121)
e-ikr J L/2
and A_. :;::; - - I (z')eik<' ""' " dz' r»L (2-122)
4n-r - L/2
Note that the second term of Eq. (2-121) must be retained in the "phase
term" e-iklr-•'11 but not in the "amplitude term" jr - r' j-1 • To obtain
the field components, substitute Eq. (2-122) into Eqs. (2-111) and retain
only the l/r terms. This gives
Ee = {wµ sin 8 A_. } z
r large
=-Es r - r'
'11
(2-123)
This result is equivalent to super-
imposing Eqs. (2-114) for all ele-
ments of current.
To evaluate the radiation field,
we must know the current on the
y
antenna. An exact determination
of the current requires the solution
to a boundary-value problem. For-
tunately 1 the radiation field is rela-
tively insensitive to minor changes in -L/ 2
current distribution, and much use- FIG. 2-23. The linear antenna.
ful information can be obtained from an approximate current distribution.

We ha.ve a.lrea.dy seen tha.t on t ransmission lines the current is a harmonic
function of kz. This is a.lso true for the principal mode on a single thin
wire. The current on the dipole antenna must be zero at the ends of the
wire, symmetrical in z, and continuous at t he source (z = O). Thus, we
choose
l (z) = ! ,,.sin [ k - lzl)J (2-124)
The vector potential in the radiation zone can now be evaluated as
A. = l.,.e-ikr ! L/2 sin [k

4?rr -L/ 2 2
- lz'i)] dz'
elh'c.,..e
lme_,K, 2 [ cos ( k - cos ( J k

= ksin 2 8
From Eq. (2-123), the radiation field is
Ee = iTJl ...e-ikr [cos ( k cos - cos ( k

(2-125)
21rr Slll 8
with H. = Es/TJ. Note.that the radiation field is linearly polarized, for
there is only an E 1• The density of power radiated is the r component
of the Poynting vector
_ * _ TJII...l2 [ cos
S, - EeH• - (27rr) 2
(k - cos (
sin 8 (2-126)
The total power radiated is obtained by integrating S, over a large sphere,

or
<91 = fo -r h-r S,
2
r 2 sin 8 d8 dq,
= TJllml2 1 · [ cos (
211' o
k cos - cos (
sm 8
r
d8
(2-127)
Tbe radiation resistance R, of an antenna is defined as

<9,
R, = III' (2-128)
where I is sorne arbitrary reference current. For the dipole antenna,

the reference current is usually picked as I m· Hence,
R. = :;,, [ [ cos ( k cos M) ]'de (2- 129)

280 /"'
240
200
l. - /
R 160
J 1\ /
Fxo. 2-24. Radia.tion re-
' 120
/ '
sista.nce of the dipole j 1\. /
antenna. 80
40 /
/ 1
o 'A/2 A 31'/2 21'

L
This integral can be evaluated in terms of tabulated f unctions (see Prob.

2-44). A graph of R, versus Lis given in Fig. 2-24.
The radiation field pattem of an antenna. is a plot of IEI at constant r
in the radiation zone. For a dipole a.ntenna, the radiation field pattern
is essentially the bracketed tcrm of Eq. (2-125). This is shown in Fig.
2-25 for kL small (short dipole), kL = ,,,. (half-wavelength dipole), and
kL = 2ir (full-wavelcngth dipole). The radiation power pattern, defined
as a plot of IS,I at constant r, is an alternative method of showing radi-
ation characteristics. When the radiation field is linearly polarized, as
it is Cor the dipole antenna, the power pattern is the square of the ficld
pa.ttern. The gain g of an antenna in a given direction is defined as the
ratio of the power required from an omnidirectional antenna to the power
Frn. 2-25. Radia.tion field pa.tterns for the dipole antenna.

84 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMA.GNETI C FlELDS
required from the Mtual antenna.1 assuroing equal power densities in the
given direction. Thus,
g(O) = (2-130)
For L < >., the maxiroum gain of a. dipole antenna occurs at 8 = 7r/2.
From Eqs. (2-126) and (2-128), we ha.ve
= (
11¡1,,.¡z 1 - cos 2 kL)i 11 (1 - cos kL)'
= 2
g 2 7r R, (2-131)
In t he limit kL---+ 0 1 we ha.ve g(7r/2) = 1.5; so the maximum gain of a

short dipole is 1.5. For a half-wave dipole1 we can use Fig. 2.24 and
calcula.te a maximuro gain of 1.64. Similarly1 for a full-wave dipole,
the maximum gain is 2.41.
The input impedance of an antenna is the impedance seen by the source1
that is, the ratio of the complex terminal voltage to the complex terminal
current. A k:nowledge of the reactive power, which cannot be obtained
from radiation zone fields, is needed to evaluate the input reactance.
The input resistance aecounts for the radiated power (and dissipated
power if losses are present). We defino the input resistancc of a loss-
free antenna as
R '= rr.r (2-132)
where the power radiated and J, is the input current. If losses are
present, a "loss resistance" must be added to Eq. (2-132) to obtain the
input resistance. For the dipole a.ntenna,
I , = l ,,.sm
. kL
2
a nd t he input resistance is
R R, (2-133)
' = sin2 [k(L/ 2)]
I n the limit as kL is made small, we find
2
R•. = 11(kL)
2411" (2-134)
The short dipole therefore has a very small input resistance. For exam-
ple, if L = >./10, the input resistance is about 2 ohms. For tho half-
wavelength dipole, we use Fig. 2-24 and Eq. (2-133) and .find
R, = R, = 73.1 ohms (2-135)

For the full-wa.velength dipole, Eq. (2-133) shows R, = co. This incor-
rect rcsult is due t o our initial choice of current, which has a null at t he
source. The input resistance of the full-wavelength dipole is actually
large, but not in1inite, and depends markedly on the wire diameter (see
Fig. 7-13).
2-11. On Waves in General. A complex function of coordina.tes
represcnting an instantaneous function according to Eq. (1-40) is called a..
wave function. A wave function i/;, which may be either a scalar field or
the component of a vector field, may be expressed as
if; = (2-136)
where A and if.> a.re real. Thc corresponding instantaneous fu nction is
vÍ2 A(x,y,z) cos [wt + if.>(x,y,z)] {2-137)
The magnitud.e A of the complex function is the rms a.roplitude of the
instantaneous function. The ph-0.se if.> of the complex function is thc
initial phase of the instantaneous function. Surfaces over which the
phase is constant (instanta.neous function vibra.tes in pha.se) are callcd
equiphase surfaces. These are defined by
if.>(x,y,z) = constant (2-138)
Waves are called plane, cylindrical, or spherical according as their equi-
phase surfaces are planes, cylinders, or spheres. Waves are called uni-
form when the amplitude A is constant over the equiphase surfaces.
Perpendiculars to the equiphase surfaces are called wave normals. These
are, of course, in the direction of V<a? and are the cur ves along which the
phase changes most rapidly.
The rate a.t which the phase decreases in sorne direction is called the
phase constant in tha.t direction. (The term pha.se constant is used even
though it is not, in general, a constant.) For example, the phase con-
stants in the cartesian coordinate directions are
éJ4?
f111 = - üy fJ. = (2-139)
These ma.y be considered as components of a vector phase constant defined

by
lJ = -V<l> (2-140)
The maximum pbase constant is thereforc along the wa.ve normal and is
of magnitude IVI.
The instantaneous phase of a wavc is the argument of the cosine func-
tion of Eq. (2-137). A surface of constant phase is defined as
wt + <l>(x,y,z) = constant (2-141)
that is, the instantaneous phase is constant. At any instant, the sur-
faces of constant phase coincide with the equipha.se surfaces. As time
increa'5es, must decrease to maintain the constancy of Eq. (2-141), and
the surfaces of constant phase move in space. For any increment ds the
change in ti> is
a<J? o<J? a<J?
V<J? · ds = -dx + -dy +-dz
iJx iJy iJz
To keep the instantaneous phase constant for an incremental increa'5e in

time, we must have
w dt + V <l> · ds = 0
That is, the total differential of Eq. (2-141) must vanish. The phase
velocity of a wave in a given direction is defined as the veJocity of surfaces
of constant phase in that direction. For example, the phase velocities
a.long cartesian coordinates are
(2-142)
w w
v. = - iJif.>/ iJz = f.
The phase velocity along a wave normal (ds in the direction of - V<J?) is
w w
Vp = - IVI = 73 (2-143)
which is the sm.allest phase velocity for the wave. Phase velocity is nota
vector quantity.
We can a.Jso express the wave function, Eq. (2-136), as
(2-144)
where e is a complex function whose imaginary part is the phase <J>.
A vector propagation constant can be defined in terms of the rate of change
of e as
'Y = - ve = a + (2-145)
where is the phase constant of Eq. (2-140) and ex is the vector attenu-
ation constant. The components of ex are the logarithmic rates of change
of the magnitude of 1f; in the various directions.
In the electromagnetic field, ratios of components of E to components
of H are called wave impedances. Tbe direction of a wave impedance is
defined according to the right-hand "cross-product" rule of com9onent E
INTRODUCTION TO WA VES 87
rotated into component H. For example,
E" -
- - Z ZJI+ -- Z • (2-146)
H 'll
is a wave impedance in the +z direction, while
(2-147)
is a wave impedancc in the -z direction. The wa.ve impedance in the

+z direction involving E11 and H:r is
-E
_ _11 = Z11.,+ = -Z11:r- (2-148)
H.,
The Poynting vector can be expressed in terms of wave iropedances.
For example, the z component is
S, = (E X H *), = E.,H: - E 11ll!
= ZZJl+IH11l 2 + Z11s+IH,.! 2
(2-149)
The concept of wave impedance is most useful when t he wave imped-
anccs are constant over equiphase surfaces.
Let us illustrate the various concepts by specializing them to the uni-
form plane wave. Consider the x-polarized z-traveling wave in lossy
matter,
E,. = Eoe-""•e-i"'•
H11 = Eo e-""•e-ik'•
11
The amplitude of E,. is Eoe-""• and its phase is - k'z. Equiphase sur-
faces are defined by -k'z = constant, or, since k' is constant, by z = con-
stant. These are planes; so thc wave is a plane wave. The amplitude
of E:r. is constant over each equiphase surface; so the wave is uniform.
The wave normals all point in the z direction. The cartesian compo-
nents of the phasc constant are (3,. = {311 = O, {J, = k' ¡ so the vector phase
constant is ij = u,k'. The phase velocity in the direction of the wave
norma.Is is v,, = w/k'. The cartesian components of the atteouation con-
sta.nt are a., = a 11 = O, a, = k" ¡ so the vector attenuation constant is
a = u,k". The vector propagation constant is
y = a + Jij = u,(k" + jk') = u.jk
The wave impeda.nce in the z direction is z. = Z:rv+ = E.,/ H 11 = '1· Note
that the various parameters specialized to the uniform plane traveling
wave are all intrinsic parameters. Thls is, by definition, the meaning of
the word "intrinsic."
PROBLEMS
2-1. Show that E, = Eoe-ib satisfies Eq. (2-6) but not Eq. (2-5). Show tha.t it
does not satisfy Eq. (2-3) . This is nota possible electroma.gnetic field.
2-2. Derive the "wave equa.tions" for inhomogeneous media.
V X (z- 1V X E) + OE "" O
V X ('f¡- 1V X H) + zH = O
Are these va.lid for nonisotropic media? Do Eqs. (2-5) hold for inhomogeneous
media.?
2-3. Show that for any lossless nonmagnetic dielectric
k = ko Vi.
wbere Er is the dielectric constant and ko, 71 0, >. 0, ancle a.re tbe intrinsic parameters of
va.cuum.
2-4. Show that the quantities of Eqs. (2-18) satisfy Eq. (1-35). Repeat Ior Eqs.
(2-21), (2-27), and (2-29).
2-5. For the field of Eqs. (2-20), show that the velocity of propagation of energy
as defined by Eq. (2-19) is
v, = _ 1_ sin 2kz sin 2wt _l_
W 1 - cos 2kz cos 2wt W
2-6. For the field of Eqs. (2-22), show tbat the phase velocity is
vp - J;; (! : g cos2 kz + !¡ g sin2 kz)
2-7. For tbe field of Eqs. (2-28), show tbat the z-directed wave impedances are
Z,, 11+ = E,. = -j71 tan kz

H11
Z 11:.+ = --E -" =

H,.
-j71 tan kz
Would you expect Zz 11+ =- Z 11z+to be true for ali a...c fields?
2-8. Given a uniform pis.ne wave traveling in the +z direction, show that the wave
is circularly polarized if
E,, ±j
Eu =
being right-handed ü the ratio is +; a.nd left-handed ü the r atio is -j.
2-9. Show tha.t the uniform plane traveling wave oí Eq. (2-25) can be expressed a.a
the swn oí a right-hand circularly pola.rized wave and a leít-hand circula.rly polarized
wa.ve.
2-10. Show that the uniform plane traveling wave of Eq. (2-25) can be expressed as
E .. {E1 + jE )e-11u
1
wbere E 1 and Et are real vectors Lying in the xy plane. Relate E, and E, to A a.nd B.
2-11. Show tba.t tbe tip of the arrow representing 8 for an arbit ra.ry complex E
traces out a.n ellipse in spe.ce. [Hint: lct E = Re (E) +
j Im (E) and use the resulta
o( Prob. 2-10.]
2-Ut For the frequencies 10, 100, and 1000 megacycles, determine k ... k' - jk''
and 'I = CR + jX for (a) polystyrene, Fig. 1-10, (b) Plexiglas, Fig. 1-11, (e) Ferramic A,
Fig. 1-12, e, = 10, and (d) copper, u - 5.8 X 107 •
2-lS. Show tha.t when all losses are of tbe magnetic type (u = e'' ... O),
k k' . le"
'7"" 0 - - - 3 -
IYl <..JE <..JE
2-14. Show that for nonmagnetic dielectrics
Q» 1
I'
OCs::s-
2e'
-
e'
l - -2
8Q
5)
whcre Q is defined by Eq. (l-79).
2-16. Show tha.t for nonmagnetic conductora
# (1
k".,,. # (1 Q« 1
CR.,,.
oc z
where Q is defined by Eq. (1-79).

2-16. Show t hat for mctals
I
'I = CR(l + j) k=!(l-j)
6
m--
u6
where <R is the surfa.ce resista.nce, 8 is the skin depth, a.nd u is the conductivity.
2-17. Derive the íollowing formulas
Gl (silvcr) ""'
2.52 X I0- 7 V/
Gt (copper) - 2.61 X io- 7 VJ
Gt (gold) - 3.12 x io- v1 1
<R (aluminum) - 3.26 X io- 7 v1

CR (brasa) = 5.01 X io- v1 1
wbere f is the frequeney in eycles per second.

2-18. Find the power per square meter dissipatcd in a copper sheet if the rms ma.g-
netic intcnsity at ita eurface is 1 ampere per meter a.t (a) 60 cyclcs, (b) 1 megacycle,
(e) 1000 mcgacycles.
2-19. Ma.ke a. sketch similar to Fig. 2-6 for a circularly polarized standing wave in
dissipative media. Give a verbal description of 8 and 3C.
2-20. Given a uniform plane wave normally incidcnt upon a plane air-to-dielcctric
interface, show that the standing-wave ratio is
SWR • Vf. .. index oí refraction
where t, is the dielectric constant of the dielectric (assumed nonmagoetic and loS&-free).
2-21. Take the index of refraction oí water to be 9, and calculate the percentage oí
power refiected and transmitted when aplane wave is normally incidcnt on a calm la.ke.
2-22. Calculate the two polarizing aogles (interna! and externa!) and the critica!
angle Cor a plane interface between ti.ir and (a) water, fr , . 81, (b) high-density glass,
ca 9, and (e) polystyrene, fr "" 2.56.
2-28. Suppose a unüorm pla.ne wa.ve in a. dielectric just grazes a. plane d ielectric-
to-air interface. Calcula.te the a.ttenua.tion constant in the air [a as defined by Eq.
(2-61)] for the three cases of Prob. 2-22. Calcula.te the distance from the boundary
in which the field is atteouated to 1/e (36.8 per cent) of its value at the boundary.
Wbat is the value of a at the critica! angle?
2-H. From Eqs. (2-66) and (2-68), show that when R « wL a.nd G « wC
ª"'" R +GVíJC
2 VLlC 2
fJ .,,, 111 ...;Le
where 'Y • a + j{J.
2-26. Show that I'/ and C or a transmission line are related by
wl' wl''fl
G- -C= - -
1 Zo
when the dielectrlo ls homogeneoue. Show that R of a. transmission line is approxi-
mately equal to the d-c resistance per unit length of hollow conductora having thick-
nees & (ekin depth) providcd H is approximately constant over each conductor and the
radius of curvature of the conductora is large compared to &.
2-26. Usiog resulta of Prob. 2-25, show that for the lwo-wire line of Table 2-3
d» &
D »d
e.nd that for the coaxial line
and that Cor the parallel-plate line

R 2<R
1D
1D »b
2-27. Verify Eqs. (2-70).
2-28. Consider a para.Uel-plate wa.veguide formed by conductora oovering the planee
y - O and y .. b. Show that tbe field
E. - E, sin e-r• n - 1, 2, 3, ..•

l NTRODUCTION TO W.AVES 91
defines a set oí TE. modes and the field
n - -o, 1, 2, ..•
defines e. set of TM,. modes, where
in both ca.ses. Show that the cutofI Crequencies oí the T E,. a.nd TM. modes a.re
n
J.... - ---.,,=
2b v'e11o
Show that Eqs. (2-83) to (2-86) apply to the parallcl-plate wo.veguide modes.
2-29. Show that the power transmitted per unit width (x direotion) oí the parallel-
pl.a.te waveguide of Prob. 2-28 is
p,.. blEol'
__
21)
'1 1 - (f•)'
-
f
for the TE,. modcs, and
for the TM.. modes (n 0).

2-30. For the parallel-plate waveguide of Prob. 2-28, show that the a.ttenuation
due to conductor loases is
2<Jt(/.//)!
ª• - b.,,
-- v'- ----
1 - (f.lf) 1
for the TE.. modcs, and
2<R
ac =bi¡ --v
-;::1=-=u.=•.=
1n= 2
for the TM.. modos (n 'F O).

2-31. Show that thc TM 0 mode oí the parallel-pla.te waveguidc as dcfined in Prob.
2-28 is actually a TEM mode. Show that for this mode the a.ttenuation due to con-
ductor losses is
Comparo this with a obtained by using the rcsults of Probs. 2-26 and 2-24.
2-32. For tho TE01 rectangular waveguidc mode, show that the time-average elec-
tric and magnetio energice per unit length are
w. = w..... IEol'ab
Can this equality oí w, and w.. be predioted from Eq. (1-62)?
2-33. Show that the time-average velooity oí propagation of cnergy down e. rec-
tangular waveguide is
li. -
'W
... -
.y;;
1 '11 - (!!)'
f
for t he TE01 mode.
92 TIME·HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
2-34. For thc TE01 rectangular waveguide mode, define a voltage V as JE • d1 acrose
the center of the guide and a current 1 as the total z-directed current in the guide wall
x ... O. Show tha.t these are
Show that P ;id V J•. Wby? Define a cbaracteristic impedance Zvr - V/ 1 a.nd
show tba.t it is proportional to Zo of Table 2-4.
2-36. Let a rectangular waveguide have a. discontinuity in dieleotric at z - O,
tha.t is, Ei, µ 1 for z < O and Ei, µ2 for z > O. Show tbat the reflection and trans-
mission coefficient.s for a TE01 wave incident from z < O are
r ... Zoi - Zo1 T _ 2Zos

Zo2 +
Zo1 Zo2 +
Zo1
where z 01 and Zos are the characteristio impedanoes z < O and z > O, rospectively.
These resulta are va.lid for any wa.veguide mode.
2-36. Show that there is no refleeted wavo íor the TEo1 mode in Prob. 2-35 when
where /.a is the cut.off frequency z < O. Note that we cannot ha.ve a reftectionless
interface when both dielectrics are nonmagnetic. This result is va.lid for any TE
mode.
2-37. Ta.ke a parallel-plate wa.veguide witb e1, µ1 for z < O a.nd Et, µ1 for z > O.
Show that there is no reflected wave for a. TM mode incident from z <O when
For nonmagnetio dieleotrics, this reduces to

L _ '\)e1 +Et
Ícl Et
Compare this to Eq. (2-60). These results are va.lid for any TM mode.
2-38. Design a. square-base cavity witb height one-balf the width of the base to
resonate at 1000 megacycles (a) when it i8 air-filled and (b) when it is polystyrcnc-
filled. Calcula.te the Q in each case.
2-39. For the rectangular ca.vity of Fig. 2-19, define a volts.ge V as that between
mid-points of the top a.nd bottom wa.lls and a current 1 as the total z-directed cur-
rent in the aide walls. Show that
V =- E°"
Define a mode conductance Gas G - ¡p,¡¡v¡• and show that

G ... <R[bc(b' + c + 2a(b + c
1
)
1 1
)]
2'i'a'(b' + e')
Define a mode resistance R as R - <P.1/111 1 e.nd show that
<R(bc(bt +e') + 2a(b 1
?r2 + e•))
R = 32(b' e')' +
INTRODUCTION TO WA.VES 93
2-40. Derive Eqs. (2-123).
2-41. Consider the smaJl loop of constant current I as shown in Fig. 2-26. Show
that the m&g;netic vector potential is
A•= A,¡ = la ( Z"' f coa 4>' d,p'

<t>• O 4K Jo
where
f = exp ( - jk vT2+ at - 2ra sin 8 cos 4>')
vr' +a' - 2ra sin 8 eos .¡,'
Expand f in a Maclaurin series about a = O and show tha.t
A
a-+04r
- e-,., ( ik-r + -r'1) sin. 8
•- -l-:ra 2
The quantity fra 1 -= IS is caJled the ma.gnetic moment of the loop.
z
,.
Fm. 2-26. A circular loop

of current.
2-42. Show tha.t the field of the small current loop of Prob. 2-41 is
H - -IS e -11r ( ik
' 2n- r' r
1)
- + -8 cos 8
H e "" -IS .• ( - - k• + + 1)
-jk2 - 3 sin 8 .
4i.- r r r
E 4> = -11/S e-,.•

4K r
(k
2
.• - - ik - 2 ) sin
r
. 8
Show that th.e radiation resiste.nce of the small loop referred to I is
2-43. Consider the current element of Fig. 2-21 and the current loop oí Fig. 2-26
to exist simultaneously. Show that the radiation field is everywhere circularly
pola.rfaed if
ll ... klS
2-44. In terms of the t abula.ted functions
Si(x) = ( .,sin :e dz
.Jo z
C i(x) ... - f, .. cos :e dz
., X
94 TlME-BARMONlC ELECTROMAGNETlC FIELDS
show tha.t Eq. (2-129) can be expressed as
R. - [ C + log kL - Ci kL + sin kL 2kL - Si kL)
+ cos kL ( C + log k + Ci 2kL - 2Ci kL ) ]
where C = 0.5772 · · · is Euler's consta.nt.

2-46. lí the linear a.ntenna. of Fig. 2-23 is a.n integral number of ha.lf-wa.velengths
long, the current will a.asume the form
/(z) = /,,.sin k ( z +
rega.rdless of the position of the feed a"8 long as it is not nea.r a. current null. Sucb a.n
a.ntenna. is said to be of resonant length. Show that the radiation field of the antenna is
Ee =
.I cos (7 cos o)
J'f/ "'e-1i.r ---'-....,..--'- nodd
2irr 81D o
[
. (z
S1D
n11' COS 0)
EB = e-fkr_.....;..___ __,_ neven
21l°f' SID 8
where n - 2L/ 'A is a.n integer.

2-46. For an a.ntenoa of resona.nt length (Prob. Z-45), show tha.t the ra.dia.tion
resistance referred to I'" is
R. = ¿. [C + log 2n11' - Ci(2n11'))
where n - 2L / >.., C - 0.5772, a.nd Ci is as defined in Prob. 2-44. Show tha.t the input
r esista.nce for a loss-free a.ntenna. with feed point a.t z = a'A is
R· - R.
' - sin 2r(a + n/4)
Specialize this result to L = 'A/ 2, a = O (the half-wave dipole) and show that
= 73 ohms.
CHAPTER 3
SOME THEOREMS AND CONCEPTS
3-1. The Source Concept. The complex field equations for linear
media are
- V X E = ,gH + M V X H = gE + J (3-1)
where J and M are sources in the most general sense. We have pur-
posely omitted superscripts on J and M because their interpretations
vary from problem to problem. In one problem, t hey might represent
actual sources, in which case we would call them i.mpressed currents. In
another problem, J migh t representa conduction current that we wish to
keep separate from the gE term. In stíll another problem, M might
represent a magnetic polarization current t hat we wish to keep separate
from the ,gH term, and so on. W e can think of J and M as "mathe-
matical sources, 11 regardless of their physical interpretation.
For our first illustration, let us show how to represent "circuit sources"
in terma of the "field sources" J and M. The current source of circuit
theory is defined as one whose current is independent of the load. In
terms of field concepts it can be pictured as a short filament of impressed
electric current in series with a perfectly conducting wire. This is shown
in Fig. 3-la. That it has the characteristics of the current source of cir-
cuit theory can be demonstrated as follows. We make the usual circuit
assumption that t he displacement current through the surrounding
medium is negligible. It then follows from the conservation of charge
that the current in the leads is equal to the impressed current, inde-
pendent of the load. The field formula for power, Eq. (1-66), reduces to
FIG. 3-1. Circuit sources

+ +
in terms of imprcssed
currents. {a) Curr en t Ji V
so ur ce; (b) vo l tage
source.
(a) (b)
95
96 TIME-HARMONIC .IELECTROMA.GNETIC FIELDS
the circuit formu la forthis source. We ha.ve only electric currcnts; hcnce
P, = - fff E · J'* dr = - l'* f E · di = V l*
Tbe "interna! impedance" of the source is infinite, since a removal of the

impressed current leaves an open circuit.
The voltage source of circuit theory is defined as one whose voltage is
independent of the load. In terms of field concepts it can be pictured
as a sma.11 loop of impressed magnetic current encircling a pcrfcctly con-
ducting wire. Tbis is illustrated by Fig. 3-lb. To show that it has the
characteristics of the voltage source of circuit t heory, we neglect displace-
ment current and apply t he field equation K = - §E · di to a path
coincident with t he wire a.nd closing across the terminals. The E is zero
in the wire; so the line integral is merely the terminal voltage, that is,
K' = - V. The impressed current, and therefore the terminal voltage,
is independent of load. The field formula for power, Eq. (l -66) 1 reduces
in tbis case to
P. = - fff H * · M' dr = - K' f H* · di = VI*

which is the usual circuit formula. The interna! impedance of the source
is zero, since a removal of t he impressed current lea.ves a short circuit.
We can use the circuit sources in field problema when the source and
input region are of "circuit dimensions111 that is, of dimensiona small
compared to a wavelength. Given a pair of terminals closc together,
we can apply the current source of Fig. 3-la, that is, a short filament of
impressed electric current. Given a conductor of small cross section,
we can apply the voltage source of Fig. 3-lb, that is, a small loop of
impressed magnetic current. As an example of the use of a circuit
source, considor the linear antenna of Fig. 2-23. The geometry of the
physical antenna is two sections of wire separated by a small gap at the
input. To excite the antenna, we can place a current source (a short
filament of electric current) across the gap, which causes a current in the
antenna wire. An exact solution to the problem involves a determination
of the resulting current in the wire. This is difficult to do. Instead, we
approximate the current in the wire, drawing on qualitative and experi-
mental knowledge. We then use this current, plus the current source
across the gap, in the potential integral formula. to give us a.n approxi-
mation to the field.
We shall find much use for the concept of current sheets, considered in
Sec. 1-14. As an example, suppose we have a J, over the cross section
of a rectangular wa.veguide, as shown in Fig. 3-2. Furthermore, we pos-
tulate that this current should produce only the TE01 waveguide mode,
SOME TBEOREMS AND CONCEPTS 97
X
Fm. 3-2. A sheet of current in a rectanguiar wa.veguide.
which propagates outward from the current sheet. Abstracting from

Table 2-4, we have the wave
E:r:+ = A sin 7/ e-iPa
H 11+ = A sin 11'11 e-iPa z >O

Zo b
H.+ = f cos 7r: e-iP•
where the constant A specifi.es the mode amplitude. The -z traveling
wave is of the same form with (3 replaced by -(3 and Zo by -Zo. Thus,
E.,- = B sin 7r1.J eiP•

b
H 11- = - B sin 7r'Y efP• z<O
Zo b
H.- = !}. Í=. cos 7r'Y ei6•
Jr¡f b
where B is the mode amplitude of the -z traveling wave. At z = O,
Eqs. (1-86) must be satisfied. T ake the (1) side to be z > O, so that
n = u., and obtain
-u.,[H11+ - H 11-]-o = J. [E:r:+ - E.,-J.-o = O
Substitution for H11 and E.,, from above reduces these equations to
A+B. 7r'IJ
- u., Zo sm b = J, A - B = O
Let J. = u,.J o sin 7/ (3-2)

The preceding equations then have the solution A = B = -J 0Z 0/2.

Thus, if the current of Eq. (3-2) exists over the guide cross section z = O,
then
l
- -loZo . --,ry e-,,,.
- sm ,R
z>O
E.,= 2 b (3-3)
loZo . 7íY
z <o
'R
-
1t would admittedly be difficult to obtain the current of Eq. (3-2) in

practice, but this is not of concern at present. We shall learn how to
treat more practica} problems la.ter. Note that our approach in this
problem was to assume the field and find the current. This we shall find
to be a very powerful concept.
3-2. Duality. If the equations describing two different phenomena
are of the same mathematical form, solutions to them will take the same
mathematical form. The formal recognition of this is called the concept
of duality. Two equations of the same mathematical form are called dual
equations. Quantities occupying the same position in dual equations are
called dual quantities. Note that the field equations, Eqs. (3-1), are
duals of each other. A systematic interchange of symbols changes the
first equation into the second, and vice-versa.
A duality of importance to us is that between a problem for which
ali sources are of the electric type and a problem for which ali sources
are of the magnetic type. The first two rows of Table 3-1 give the field
equations in each case. Tbe last two formulas of column (1) were
derived in Sec. 2-9 for homogeneous space. The corresponding equa-
tions for the magnetic source case are evidently the last two formulas of
column (2), obtained by systematically interchanging symbols. The
particular interchange of symbols is summarized by Table 3-2. The
rea.der should check for himself tha.t repla,ce111ent of the symbols of
TABLE 3-1. DuAL EQUATIONS FOR PnoBLEMs IN Wmcn (1) ÜNLY ELEC'l'RIC
SouncEs ExrsT AND (2) ÜNLY MAONETIC SouncEs ExisT
(1) Electric sources (2) Magnetic sources
V X H = yE + J - v X E= zH +M
- v XE = zH V X H = yE
H = VXA E= -V X F
A = -
1
411"
!1! Ir - r'J
Je- ;1.lr-r'I
d.,.' F = -
I
41r
Jlf M e- iklr- r'I
[r - r'I
d.,.'
SOME THEOREMS AND CONCEPTS 99
TABLE 3-2. DUAL Q U ANTITTES FOR PROBLEMS IN WHICB (1) ÜNLY ELECTRIC
SoURcEs ExxsT, AND (2) ÜNLY MAGNETIC SouncES ExxsT
( 1) Eleclric (2) M agnetic

sources sources
E H
H -E
J M
A F
9 z
z fJ
k k
'1 l /11
column (1) of Table 3-2 by those of column (2) in the equations of column
(1) of Table 3-1 results in the equations of column (2). The quantity F
of these tables is called an electric vector potential, in analogy to A,·a mag-
netic vector potential.
The concept of duality is important for severa! reasons. It is an aid to
remembering equations, since almost half of them are duals of other equa-
tions. It shows us how to take the solution to one type of problem, inter-
cha.nge symbols, and obtain the solution to another type of problem. We
can also use a physical or intuitive picture that applies to one type of
problem and carry it over to the dual problem. For example, the picture
of electric charge in motion giving rise to an electric current can also be
used for magnetic case. That is, we can picture magnetic charge in
motion as giving rise to magnetic current. Such a picture can serve as
a guide to the mathematical development but cannot, of course, serve to
argue for the existence of magnetic charges in nature. The concept of
duality is based wholly on the mathematical symmetry of equations.
It is often convenient to divide a single problem into dual parts, thus
cutting the mathematical labor in half. For example, suppose we have
both electric and magnetic sources in a homogeneous medium of infinite
extent. Tbe field equations, Eqs. (3-1), are linear ; so the total field can
be considered a.s the sum oí two parts, one produced by J and the other
by M . T o be explicit, let
E = E' + E" H = H' + H"
where V X H' = yE' + J -
V X E' = zH'
and V X H" = yE" - V X E" = zH" + M
We have the solution for each of these partial problems in Table 3-1.
The complete solution is therefore just the superposition oí the two partial
solutions, or
E = -V X F + g- 1(v X V X A - J)
(3-4)
Il = V X A +
2'- 1(V X V X F - M )
where
_ ..!_
A(r) - 4ir } .,
r¡ J (r ')e-iklr- r'I
Ir - r'I dr
/
- 1 rrrM (r ')e-iklr-r'J I
(3-5)
F (r) - 4ir}}} Ir - r'j dr
We thus have the formal solution for any problem consisting of electric
and magnetic currents in an unbounded homogeneous region. The above
formulas are meant to include by implication sheets and filaments of
currents.
It is instructive to show that an infinitesimal dipole of magnetic current
is indistinguishable f rom an infinitesimal loop of electric current. We might
suspect t his from the circuit source representations of Fig. 3-1. How-
ever, rather than rely on this argument, let us consider the fields explicitly.
A z-directed magnetic current dipole of moment Kl at t he coordinate
origin is the dual problem to the electric current dipole (Fig. 2-21). An
interchange of symbols, according to Table 3-2, in Eqs. (2-113) will give
us the field of the magnetic current element. For example, the electrio
intensity is
E• = -- Kl
- e-Jkr ( jk
4ir
- + - sm 8
r
1) .
r2
The small loop of electric current is considered in Probs. 2-41 and 2-42
and is pictured in Fig. 2-26. Abstracting from Prob. 2-42, we have the
electric intensity given by
E• = -.,,1s e-Jkr
4ir
(k2 jlc) sm. O
-
r
- -
r2
A comparison of t he above two equations shows that they are identical if

Kl = jwµJS (3-6)
This equality is illustrated by Fig. 3-3. Thus, effect of an element of
magnetic current can be realized in prnctice by a loop of electric current.
3-3. Uniqueness. A solution is said to be unique when it is t he only
one possible among a given class of solutions. It is important to have
i Kl c;:>rs
(a) (b)
Fxo. 3-3. These two sources ra.diate the Fxo. 3-4. S encloses linear matter and
sa.me field if Kl = jwµIS. (a) Magnetic sources J, M.
current element; (b) electric current loop.
precise theorems on uniqueness for severa! reasons. First of all, they tell
us what information is needed to obtain the solution. Secondly, it is
comforting to know that a solution is the only solution. Finally, unique-
ness theorems establish conditions for a one-to-one correspondence of a
field to its sources. T his allows us to calculate the sources from a field,
as well as the more usual reverse procedure.
Suppose we have a set of sources J and M acting in a region of linear
matter bounded by the surface S, as suggested by Fig. 3-4. Any field
within S must satisfy the complex field equations, Eqs. (3-1). Consider
two possible solutions, E1>, li" and Eb, Hb. (These can be thought of as
the fields when the sources outside of S are different.) We forro the
difference .field óE, óH according to
óH = H" - Hb
Subtracting Eqs. (3-1) for the a field from those for t he b field, we obtain
-V X rn = z oH} within S
V X oH =y oE
Thus, the difference field satisfies the source-free field equations within S.
The conclitions for uniqueness are those for which óE = óH = O every-
where within S, for then E" = Eb and H " = H b.
We now apply Eq. (1-54) to the difference field and obtain
cffi {óE X óH*) · ds + fJf (z[óHl 2 + y*[óEl 2

) dr =O
Wbenever cffi (óE X oH*) · ds = O (3-7)
over S, the volume integral must also vanish. Thus, if Eq. (3-7) is true,
then
JJJ[Re (z) jóH[ 2
+Re (Y) [oE[ 2J dr = O
(3-8)
JJJ [Im (z)[óH l 2
- Im (y)lóEj 2J dr =O
For dissipative media, Re (z) and Re (y) are always positive. If we
assume sorne clissipation everywhere, however slight, then Eqs. (3-8) are
satisfied only if oE = oH = O everywhere within S.
Sorne of the more important cases for which Eq. (3-7) is satisfied, and
therefore uniqueness is obtained in lossy regions, are as follows. (1) The
field is unique among a class E, H baving n X E specified on S, for then
n X. óE· = O over S. (2) The field is unique among a class E, H having
n X H specified on S, for then n X óH = O over S . (3) The field is
unique among a class E, H having n X E specified over part of S and
n X H specified over the rest of S. These possibilities can be summarized
by the following uniqueness theorem . A field in a lossy region is uniquely
102 TIME-RARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
specifie,d by the sources within the region plus the tangential components of E
over the boundary, or the tangential components of H over the boundary, or
the f ormer over part of the boundary and the latter over the rest of the boundary.
Note t hat our uniqueness proof breaks down for dissipationless media.
To obtain uniqueness in t his case, we consider the field, in a dissipationless
medium to be the limit of the corresponding jiild in a lossy me,dium as the
diss-ipation goes w zero.
We have explicitly considered only volume distributions of sources and
closed surfaces in our development, but the results are much more general
than this. Singular sources, such as current sheets and current filaments,
can be thought of as limiting cases of volume distributions and therefore
are included by implication. Surfaces of infinite extent can be t hought of
as closed at infinity and can be included by appropriate limiting proce-
dures. Of particular importance is the case íor which the bounding sur-
face is a sphere of radius r-+ oo, so that all space is included. If the
sources are of finite extent, the vector potential solution of Eqs. (3-4) and
(3-5) vanishes exponentially as e-k"r, r -+ oo. We therefore have
lim ,.{{.. E X H * • ds = O (3-9)

,...... .. 'Jt'
for this solution (in lossy media.) . According to our uniqueness proof
this must be t he only solution for a class E, H satisfying Eq. (3-9).
Thus, given sources of finite extent in an unbounded lossy region, any solu-
tion satisfying Eq. (3-9) must be úlentically equal to the potential integral
solution. The loss-free case can be treated as the limit of the lossy case
as dissipation vanishes.
To illustrate the above concepts, consider the current element of Fig.
2-21. Our solution at large r is Eq. (2-114). Let tliis be the a solution
of our uniq_ueness proof, or
jll 'Ir.
H , o = -2Xr e-1 r
•
Slil (} Eeº = TJH, 0
It can be shown that the inward-traveling wave
H ,ª =
L - jll 1
--
2>.r
' L
e " r sm (}
•
is also a solution to the equations at large r . In Sec. 2-9, we threw out

this second solution by reasoning that waves must travel outward from
the source, not inward. Let us now consider these two solutions in the
light of the uniqueness theorem. The difference field in this case is
óH; = H," - H; 6 = j :; cos kr sin (}
óEs = Es" - Ei = '1 >.r

ll sin kr sin (}
SOME THEOREMS ANO CONCEPTS 103
In dissipationless medía (k real), we can pick a sphere r = constant such
that either or f)Es vanishes. Thus, Eq. (3-7) can be satisfied without
obtaining uniqueness of the solut ion. However, in lossy media, sin kr
and cor kr have no zeros T > O, and Eq. (3-7) cannot be satisfied for any T.
In this case, only the a solution vanishes as r oo . It is therefore t he
desired solution in loss-free media.
3-4. lmage Theory. Problems for which t he field in a given region
of space is determined from a knowledge of the field over the boundary of
the region are called boundary-value problems. T he rectangular wave-
guide of Sec. 2-7 is an example of a boundary-value problem. We shall
now consider a class of boundary-value problems for which t he bound-
ary surface is a perfectly conducting plane. The procedure is known as
image theory.
The boundary conditions at a perfect electric conductor are vanishing
tangential components of E. An element of source plus an "image" ele-
men t of source, radiating in free space, produce zero tangential compo-
nents of E over the plane bisecting the line joining the two elements.
According to uniqueness concepts, the solution to this problem is also
the solution for a current element adjacent t o a plane conductor. The
necessary orientation and excitation of image elements is summarized by
Fig. 3-5. Matter al.so can be imaged. For example, if a conducting
sphere is adjacent t o the plane conductor in t he original problem, then
two conducting spheres at image points are necessary in the image prob-
lem. In other words, we must maintain symmetry in the image problem.
The procedure also applies to magnetic conductors in a dual sense. The
application of image theory in a-e fields is much more restricted than in
d-c fields. It is exact only when the plane conductor is perfect.
Asan example of image theory, considera current element normal to
the ground (conducting) plane, as shown in Fig. 3-6a. This must pro-
duce the same field above the ground plane as do t he two elements of
Fig. 3-6b. Let us determine the radiation field. The
radius vector from each current element is then parallel
to that from the origin and given by
rº = r - d cos 8 } r» d
Ti= T + d COS 8
where subscripts o and i refer to original and image
elements, respectively. The radiation field of a single
element is given by Eq. (2-114) ; so the radiation field
i Kl
of the two elements of Fig. 6-6b is t he superposition

j ll ( e-ikr. e-ikr1) .
= - - - + -- sm 8
2A To Ti
F10. 3-5. A sum-
jll e-ik• cos(kd cos 8) sin 8 (3-10) m a ry of ima.ge
Xr theory.
z z
(a)
Fra. 3-6. A current element adjacent to a ground plane. (a) Original problem¡ (b)
image problem.
and Es = 11H9 • According to image theory, this must also be the solu-
tion to Fig. 3-6a above the ground plane.
The problem of Fig. 3-6a represents the antenna system of a short
dipole antenna adjacent to a ground plane. The total power radia.ted
by tbe system is
<91 = JJ E,H: ds = 21r'1 J

hemi-
0
"
12
jH.,1 2 r 2 sin o do
apbere
wbere integration is over the large hemisphere z > O, r - t oo. Substi-

tuting from Eq. (3-10) and integrating, we have
21r71 1 n 1
2
_ 1 cos 2kd sin 2kd ]
<9, = x [
3- (2kd) 2 + (2kd)ª (3-11)
As kd - t the power radiated is equal to that radiated by an isolated

llO ,
element [Eq. (2-116)). As kd - t O, the power radiated is double that

radiated by an isolated element. The gain of the antenna system over
an omnidirectional radiator, according to Eq. (2-130), is
= (3-12)
.! _ cos 2kd + sin 2kd
3 (2kd) 2 (2kd) ª
a.long the ground plane. This is g = 3 at kd = O, and g = 6 as kd - t oo .
The maximum gain occurs at kd = 2.88, for which g = 6.57. Thus, a
gain of more t han four times that of the isolated element (1.5) can be
t.chieved. Figure 3-7 shows the radiation fi.eld patterns for the cases
SOME TIIEOREMS AND CONCEPTS 105
Fto. 3-7. Radiation field pattcrna for the current element of Fig. 3-6a.
•:. : ,:. : :
t:+ t:+
- - - - - - - - - -1 - - - - - - - - - _, - :-
1
1___ ±:l ____¡___ _
- - - - - - -
___ ___ _¡____ !l+n
ti+
- -- -r------1- -
1
- - - - t - - ___ T
: ___ t if- ----¡- ----
:
T1'+ .1 t11+ ,1 1
1
1
(a)
Fto. 3-8. Problema involving multiple images. (a) Current element in a. condueting
tube; (b) eurrent element in a. conducting wedge.
106 TlME-HARMONIC ELEC'l'nOMAQNETIC FIELDS
d = O (element at the gound plane surface) and d = (maximum

ga.in).
Image theory also can be applied in certain problems involving more
tha.n one conducting plane. Two such cases are illustrated by Fig. 3-8.
In tbe case of a conducting tube (Fig. 3-8a), an infinite lattice of imagea
is needed. In the case of a conducting wedge (Fig. 3-8b), a finite set of
images results. Image theory can be used for conducting wedges when
the wedge angle is 180°/n (n an integer).
3-6. The Equivalence Principie. Ma.ny source distributions outside
a given region can produce the same field inside the region. For example,
t he image current element of Fig. 3-6b produces the same field above the
plane z = O as do the currents on t he conductor of Fig. 3-6a. Two
Rources producing the same field within a region of space are said to be
equivalent within that region. When we are interested in the field in a
given region of space, we do not need to .know t he actual sources. Equiv-
alent sources will serve as well.
A simple application of the equivalence principie is illustrated by Fig.
3-9. Let Fig. 3-9a representa source (perhaps a transmitter a.nd antenna.)
interna! to S and free space externa! to S. We can set up a problem
equivalent to the original problem external to S as follows. Let the
original field exist external to S, and the null field internal to S, with
free space everywhere. This is shown in Fig. 3-9b. To support this field,
there must exist surface currents J., M . on S a.ccording to Eqs. (1-86).
These currents are therefore
J.= n X H M. = E X n (3-13)
where n points outwa.rd and E, H are the original fields over S. Since
the currents act in unbounded free space, we can determine the field from
them by Eqs. (3-4) and (3-5). From the uniqueness theorem, we know
that the field so calculated will be the originally postulated field, that is,
E, H externa! to S and zero interna! to S. The final result of this pro-
cedure is a formula for E and H everywhere externa! to S in terms of the
tangential componenter of E and H on S.
E,H E,H
---.....
n
<
n
/"'-E,; . . . ....../ / .........
l\,,j Sources \
I
/
\
Zero
freid \\J. = nXH
\. )f
$"----
t;.)
-"""
f (b)
= EXn
FIG. 3-9. The equiva.lent currents t he sa.me field externa.! to S as do the

original sources.
E11,ffo
. I\
Eb ffb
I --..
--- ' ¡u '\
( E b ffb
\ , }
s ....... ___ ..,,,. /
(a) (b)
Eb,Hb \
\Y1 /---Jº
, /
_j_
' '(
/º
'-....
\ Eb,Hb
'\
\ .l
( .4
\ f .J( E 4 ,B 0
\
)
\ J,J. \:.. / ) - J.
s'----;íit_ s
(e) M. (d) - M.
Flo. 3-10. A general formulation of the equivalence principie. (a) Original a prob-
lem; (b) original b problem; (e) equivalent to a extcrnal to S and to b interna! to S;
(d) equivalent to b externa! to S and to a interna! to S.
We were overly restrictive in specifying the oull field interna! to S in

the preceding exa.mple. Any other field would serve as well, giving us
infi.nitely many equivalent currents as far as t he externa.l region is con-
cerned. This general formulation of the equiva.lence principie is repre-
sented by Fig. 3-10. We have two original problems consisting of cur-
rents in linear media, as shown in Fig. 3-lOa a.nd b. We can set up a
problem equivalent to a external to S and equivalent to b interna.! to S
as follows. Extemal to S, we specify t ha.t the field, medium, and sources
rema.in t he same in the a problem. Interna! to S, we specify that the
field, medium, and sources rema.in t he same as in the b problem. To sup-
port this field, there must be surface currents J, and M, on S. According
to Eqs. (1-86), these are given by
(3-14)
where E0 1 H 0 is the field of the a problem a.nd E6 1 H 6 is the field of the
b problem. This equivalent problem is shown in Fig. 3-lOc. We can
also set up a problem equiva.lent to b external to S a.nd to a internal to S
in a.n, a.nalogous manner, as shown in Fig. 3-l Od. In this ca.se the neces-
sary surface currents are the negative of Eqs. (3-14). Note that in each
case we must keep the original sources and media. in the region for which
we keep the field. Note also t ha.t we ca.nnot use Eqs. (3-4) a.nd (3-5) to
108 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETI C FIELDS
E,H
,---....._
! D
E,H
D
I/ EH
' ' Zero
( 1Sources \
field
\ f J Elec!rlc
'
s . . . . ___ _
-/
conductor
(a) (b) (e)
F:ro. 3-11. The field externa] to Sis the same in (a), (b), and (e). (a) OriginnJ prob-
Iem¡ (b) magnetic current backed by an electric conductor; {e) electric current backed
by a. magnetio conductor.
determine t he field of the currents unless the equivalent currents radiate

into an unbounded homogeneous region. Finally1 note that the restricted
fonn of the equivalen.ce principie (Fig. 3-9) is the special case of the
general forro for which ali a sources and matter líe in.sirle S and ali b
sources are zero.
So far, we have used the tangen.tia! components of both E and H in
setting up our equivalent problems. From uniqueness concepta, we know
t hat the tangential components of only E or H are needed to determine
t he field. We shall now show that equivalont problems can be found in
terms of only magnetic currents (tangential E) or only electric currents
(tangential H ).
Consider a problem for which all sources lie witbin 8 1 as shown in
Fig. 3-lla. We set up the equivalent problem of Fig. 3-llb as follows.
Over S we place a perfect electric conductor, and on top of tbis we place
a sheet of magnetic current M .. External to S we specify the same field
and mcdium as in the original problero. Sin.ce the tangential
of E are zero on the conductor (just behind M .) 1 and equal to the original
field componcnts just in front of M . 1 it follows from Eqs. (1-86) tha.t
M. = E X n (3-15}
We now have the same tangen.tia! components of E over Sin both Fig.
3-lla and b¡ so according to our uniqueness theorero the field outside of S
must be the same in both cases. We can derive the alternative equiva-
lent problem of Fig. 3-llc in an analogous manner. For this we need
the perfect magnetic conductor, that is, a boundary of zero ta.ngential
components of H . We then find tha.t the electric current sheet
J.= n X H (3-16)
over a perfect roagnetic conductor covering S produces t he sa.me field
external to S as do t he original sources.
By now, t he general philosophy of the equivalence principie should be
apparent. It is based upon the one-to-one correspondence between fields
and sources when uniqueness conditions are met. If we specify the field
and matter everywhere in space, we can determine all sources. We
derived our various equivalences in this manner.
Considerable physical interpretation can be given to the equivalence
principie. For example, in the problem of Fig. 3-9b, the field internal to
Sis zero. It therefore makes no difference what matter is within S as
far as the field externa! to Sis concerned. We have previously assumed
that free space existed within S, so that the potential integral solution
could be applied. We could justas well introduce a perfect electric con-
ductor to back the current sbeets of Fig. 3-9b. It can be shown by
reciprocity (Sec. 3-8) that an electric current just in front of an electric
current conductor produces no field. (We can think of the conductor as
shorting out the current.) Therefore, the field is produced by the mag-
netic currents alone, in the presence of the electric conductor, which is
Fig. 3-llb. Alternatively, we could back the equivalent currents of Fig.
3-9b with a perfect magnetic conductor and obtain the equivalent prob-
lem of Fig. 3-llc. When matter is placed within S in Fig. 3-9b, tbe
partial fields produced by J. alone and M. alone will change externa! to S,
but the total fi.eld roust remain unchanged.
Perhaps it would help us to understand the equivalence principie if we
considered the analogous concept in circuit theory. Consider a source
(active network) connected to a passive network, as shown in Fig. 3-12a.
We can set upa problem equivalent to t his as far as the passive network
is concerned, as follows. T he original source is switched off, leaving the
source impedance connected. A current source I, equal to the terminal
current in the original problem, is placed across the terminals. A voltage
I
-
Source }+v Passive
network
Source
lmpedance
Passive
network
- -
(a) (b)
Passive Passive
network network
(e) (d}
Frn. 3-12. A circuit theory analogue to thc equivalence principie. (a) Original prob-
lem; {b) equivalent sources; (e) source impedance replaced by a short circuit; (d)
source impedance replaced by an open circuit.
110 TIME-HARM.ON'IC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
.source V, equal to the terminal voltage in the original problem, is placed

in series with the interconnection. This is illustrated by Fig. 3-12b. It
is evident from the usual circuit c..oncepts that there is no excita.tion of
the source impedance from these equivalent sources, whereas the exci-
t&tion of the passive network is unchanged. Thus, Fig. 3-12b is the
circuit a.nalogue to Fig. 3-9b.
Since there is no excitation of the source impedance in Fig. 3-12b, we
may reple.ce ít by an arbitrary impedance without a.ffecting the excita.tion
of the pa.ssive network. This is analogous to the arbitrary placement of
m.atter within Sin the field equivalence of Fig. 3-9b. In particular, let
the source impedance be replaced by a short circuit. This short-circuits
the current source and leaves only the voltage source exciting the network
(recall circuit theory superposition). Thus, the voltage source alone, as
illustrated by Fig. 3-12c, produces the same excitation of the pa.ssive net-
work as does the original source. This is a.na.logous to the field problem
of Fíg. 3-llb. Now consider the source i.mpedance of Fig. 3-12b replaced
by an open circuit. This lea.ves only the current source exciting the net-
work, as shown in Fig. 3-12d. This is n.nalogous to the field problem of
Fig. 3-llc.
3-6. Fields jn Half-spac:e. A combination of the equivalence principle
and image theory can be used to obtain solutions to boundary-value
problema for which the field in ha.lf-space is to be determined from its
tangential components over the bounding plane. To illustrate, let the
original problem consist of matter and sources z < O, and free space
z > O, as shown in Fig. 3-13a. An application of tne equivalence con-
cepta of Fig. 3-llb yields the equivalent problem of Fig. 3-13b. This
consista of the magnetic currents oí Eq. (3-15) adjacent to an infuúte
z= O z=O z=O
1
E,H 1 E.H E,H E,H
Zero lmage
1 field field
Sources and 1
matter
1
<n M. ... 2EXn
1
1
...
·e
u
¡:;:¡
1
n ll
(a) (b) (e}

Fto. 3-13. lllwitratiou of tbe eteps used to estsblish Eq. (3-17).
SOME THEOREM.S AND CONCEPTS 111
z z
r
(b)
F10. 3-14. A coaxial line open.ing onto a ground plane. (a) Original problem; (b)
equivalent problem.
ground pla.ne. We now image the ma.gnctic currents in the ground pla.ne,
a.ccording to Fig. 3-5. The imagcs are equal in magnitude to, and essen-
tially coincident with, the M . of Fig. 3-13b. Thus, as pictured in Fig.
3-13c, t he magnetio currents 2M . radiating into unbounded space pro-
duce the sa.me field z > O as do the original sources. They produce a n
image field z < O, which is of no interest to us. The field of Fig. 3-13c is
then ca.lculated according to Eqs. (3-4) and (3-5) with A = O. This can
be summarized roathematically by
ff
e- J.l:lr-r'I
E(r) = - V X 211-lr _ r'I E(r') X ds' (3-17)
plan e
This is a mathcmatical identity valid for any field E satiafying Eq. (2-3).
The H field satisfies Eq. (2-4), which is identical to Eq. (2-3); so the
above identity must also be valid for E replaced by H . We can show
thia by reasoning dual to that used to establish Eq. (3-17).
The a.hove result is particularly useful for problems involving a.pcrtures
in conducting ground planes. Aa an exa.mple, suppose we ha.ve a coaxial
transmission line opening into a ground plane (Fig. 3-14a). According to
the above discussion, the field must be the same as that produced by Fig.
3-14b. Note that M. exista only over the aperture (coax opening), for
tangentia.l E is zero over the ground ple.ne. Let us asume that the field
over the apertura is the t ransmission-line mode of the coax, that is
-V
EP = -P,,_
lo-g -(b-/a_,.)
where V is the line voltage. To this approximation, t he magnetic cur-

rent in Fig. 3-14b is
M - V
• - p log (b/a)
This is a loop of magnetic current which, if b «X, acts as an electric

dipole (dual to Fig. 3-3). Visualiz·e this current as a. continuous distri-
bution of magnetic current .filaments oí strength dK = M • dp. The total
moment of the source is then
(b
KS =
f 1rV
7rp2 dK = log (b/a)
_ 7rV(b 2 - a 2)
}a P dp
(3-18)
- 2 log (b/a)
The equivalent clectric current element must satisfy the equation dual to
Eq. (3-6), or
Il = -jwtKS (3-19)
We ha.ve now reduced the problem to tha.t of Fig. 3-6a with kd = O.
From Eq. (3-10) and t he above equalities, we ha.ve the radiation field
given by
(3-20)
and Es = r¡li.. Thus, t he radiation field patterrt is the d = O curve of

Fig. 3-7. The gain of the antenna systcm is g = 3.
The power radiated is Eq. (3-11) with kd = O and ll given by Eqs.
(3-18) a.nd (3-19), or
- ¡ 2
wn V(b 2 - a ) 12 2
<Yi = 27rr¡ 2>. log (b/ a) 3
= l
411' 7r2(b2 - a2) V 12
377 >. 2 log (b/ a)
(3-21)
Note that tho power radiat cd varíes inversely as X4• Note also that our
answers are roferred to a voltage, chara.cteristic of aperture antcnnas.
T his is in contrast to answers referred to current for wire antennas. For
apertüre antennas we define a radiation conductance according to
a, = 1v12 (3-22)
where V is an arbitrary reference voltage. In the coaxial radiator of

Fig. 3-14 it is logical to pick this V to be t be coaxial V a.t the a.perture.
Hence, tho radiation conductance is
41f'6 [ b2 _ a2 ] 2
(3-23)
a, = &7 X2 log (b/ a)
E=EL+ E•
f Source
n
;/
(a) (b)
F10. 3-15. Illustration of the induction tbeorem. (a) Original problem; (b) induction
equivalent.
For the usual coaxial line, G., is small, and the coaxial line sees nearly an
open circuit. As a and b are made larger, the radiation becomes more
pronounced, but our formulas must then be modi.fied. 1
3-7. The Induction Theorem. We now consider a theorem closely
related in concept to the equivalence principie. Consider a problem in
which a set of sources are radiating in the presence of an obstacle (material
body). This is illustrated by Fig. 3-15a. Define the incident field E',
H' as the field of the sources with the obstacle absent. Define the
scattered field E•, H• as the difference between the field with the obstacle
present (E, H ) and the incident field, that is,
H• = H - Hi (3-24)
This scattered field can be thought of as the field produced by t he cur-
rents (conduction and polarization) on the obstacle. External to the
obstacle, both E, H and E', H 1 have the same sources. The scattered field
E•, H• is therefore a source-free field ex.terna! to the obstacle.
We now construct a second problem as follows. Retain the obstacle,
and postulate that the original field E, H exists interna! to it and that
the scattered field E•, H• exists externa! to it. Both. these fields are
source-free in their respective regions. To support these fields, there
must be surface currents on S according to Eqs. (1-86), that is,
J. = n X (H• - H) M. = (E• - E) X n
where n points outward from S. According to Eqs. (3-24), tbese reduce to
J, = H• X n M. = n X E• (3-25)
It follows from the uniqueness theorem that these currents, radiating in
the presence of t he obstacle, produce the postulated field (E, H internal
to S, and E•, H• external to S). This is the induction theorem, illustrated
by Fig. 3-15b.
It is instructive to compare the induction theorem with the equiva-
1 H. Levine and C. H . Papas, Theory of the Circular Diffraotion Antenna., J . Appl.
Phy. 1 vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 29-43, J anua.ry, 1951.

lence theorcm. The latter postulates E, H interna! to S and zero fielrl

external to S, which rnust be supported by currents
J, = H X n M, = n X E
on S. These currents can be considered as radiating into an unbounded
medium having constitutive pararneters equal to those of the obstacle.
Thus, we can use Eqs. (3-4) and (3-5) to calculate the field of the above
currents. However, we do not know J, and M . until we know E, H on S,
that is, until we have the solution to the problern of Fig. 3-15a. We can,
however, approxirnate J. and M, and from these calcula.te an approxi-
mation to E, H within S.
In contrast to the above, the induction theorem yields known current.s
[Eqs. (3-25)]. (This assumes that E', H' is known.) We cannot, how-
ever, use Eqs. (3-4) and (3-5) to calculate the field f'rom J., M ,, for they
radia.te in the presence of the obsta.ele. A determination of this field is a
boundary-value problem of the same order of complexity as the original
problem (Fig. 3-15a). We can, however, approximate the field of ],, M,
and thereby obtain an approximate formula for E, H internal to S and
E•, H• external to S.
A simplification of the induction theorem occurs when the obsta.ele is
a perfect conductor. This situa.tion is represented by Fig. 3-16a. The
solution E must satisfy the boundary condition n X E = O on S (zero
tangential E). It then follows from the first of Eqs. (3-24) tha.t
n X E•= -n X E' onS (3-26)
We now know the tangential components of E• over S; so we can con-
struct the induction representation of Fig. 3-16b as follows. We keep
the perfectly conducting obstacle and specify that external to S the field
E•, H• exists. To support this field, there must be magnetic currents on
S given by
M , = E• X n = n X E• (3-27)
We can visua.lize this current as causing the tangential components of E
to jump froro zero at the conductor to those of E• just outside M .. The
E = Ei + E•
f Source
n n
;,/
(a)
Fto. 3-16. The induction theorem as applied to a perfectly conducting obstacle. (a)
Original problem¡ (b) induction equivalent.
SOME T HEOREMS AND CONCE.P TS 115
lncident wave
M. M.
Conducting Conducting
piate plate
(a) (b)
F10. 3-17. Scatteríng by a. conducting plate. (a) Original problem; (b) induction
equive.lent.
tangential components of E in Fig. 3-16b therefore have been forced to

be E•. Thus, according to uniqueness concepts, the currents of Eq. (3-27)
radiating in the presence of the conducting obstacle must produce E•, H •
external to S.
It is interesting to compare this result with the previous one (Fig.
3-15b). We found that, in general, both electric and magnetic currents
exist on S in the induction representation. How, then, can both Fig.
3-l 5b and Fig. 3-lGb be correct for a perfectly conducting obstacle? The
answer must be that an electric current impressed along a perfect electric
conductor produces no field. If the conductor is plane, this is evident
from image theory. We can prove it, in general, by using the reciprocity
concepts of the next section.
To illustrate an application of the induction theorem, consider the
problem of determining the back scattering, or radar echo, from a large
conducting plate. This problem is suggested by Fig. 3-17a. For normal
incidence, let the plate lie in the z = O plane and let the incident field be
specified by
(3-28)
According to the iuduction theorem, the scattered field is produced by
the currents M11 = Eo on the side facing the source and M11 = -Eo on
the side away from the source. These currents radiate in the presence
of the original conducting plate, as represented by Fig. 3-17b. Let the
field from each element of current be approximated by the field from an
element adjacent to a ground plane. According to image theory, this
meaos that each element of M 11 seen by the receiver radiates as 2M11 = 2Eo
in free spaco. Hence, far from the plate, it contributes
= -j';!º ds e-ikr
116 Tr?t1E-HARMON1C ELECTROMAGNETIO FIELDS
in the back-scatter direction. Each clement not seen by t he receiver

contri bu tes nothing to the back-scattered field. Summing ovor t he entire
plate, we havo the distant ba.ck-scattered field given by
(3-29)
where A is the area of the plate.

The echo area or radar cross section of an obstacle is dcfined as tbe area
for which the incident wave contains sufficient power to produce, by
omnidirectional radiation, the same back-scattered power density. In
mathematical forro, t he echo area is
A, = lim
,.......
(41rr 2
S'
(3-30)
where S' is the incident power density and S' is the scattered power
density. For our problem, S'
= IEol2/11 and, from Eq. (3-29),
g• = ! 1 kE 0 A
11 211'1'
¡
2
Tbe echo arca of a conducting pl::i.t.c is t.hcrefore

kt A 2 +ir A 2
-- =-- (3-31)
'Ir
valid for large plates and normal incidence.

3-8. Reciprocity. In its simplcst sense, a reciprocity theorem states
tha.t a response of a system to a source is unchanged when source and
measurer are interchanged. In a more general sense, reciprocity the<>-
rems relate a response at one sourcc due to a second source to the response
at the second source dueto the first source. We shall establish this type
of reciprocity relationship for a-e fields. The reciprocity theorem of cir-
cuit t heory is a special case of this reciprocity tbeorem for fields.
Consider two sets of a-e sources, ] ª, M 0 and ]b, Mb, of the same fre-
quency, existing in thc same linear mcdium. Denot..e the field produced
by the a sources alone by E 0 , Hª, and the field produced by the b sources
alone by E", ffb. The field equations are then
V X H 0 = yE 0 + ]º V X ffb = yEI> + J"
- v X E0 = zH ª + Mª - V X E"= zH" M" +
We mulLiply the !lrst equation scalarly by El> and the last equation by H 0
and add the rcsulting equations. This gives

- V"· (E" X H 0 ) = yEª · E" + zH ª · ff1> + Eb • ]º + H 0
• M"
where t he leít-hand term has been simplified by the identity
V · (A X B) = B · V X A - A· V X B
An interchange of a and b in this result gives
- V . (Eª X H b) = gE0 • Eb + • Hb + E0 • Jb+ H b • M 0
A subtraction of the former equation from the latter yields

- V · (Eª X Hb - Eb X H ª) = Eª · J"+ Hb · M 0 - E" · Jº - Hª · M"
(3-32)
At any point for which the fields are source-free (J = M = O), this
reduces to
(3-33)
which is called the LO'l'entz reciprocity theorem. If Eq. (3-33) is integrated
throughout a source-free region and the divergence theorem applied, we
have
1P (Eª X H" - E b X Hª) · ds = O (3-34)
which is the integral forro of the Lorentz reciprocity theorem for a source-
free region.
For a region containing sources, integration of Eq. (3-32) throughout
the region gives
- 1!> (Eª X HtJ - Eb X H0 ) • ds

= 111 (Eª · ] 6
- H0 • M6 - E6 • Jº + H 6 • Mª) dr (3-35)
Let us now postulate that all sources and matter are of finite extent.
Distant from the sources and matter, we have (see Sec. 3-13)
Eo = r¡H<> E9 = -r¡Ho
The left-hand term of Eq. (3-35), integrated over a sphere of radius,
r - t co , is then
- 11 efP (Ho He6 + liq,<>lii' -

0
HlHoº - ds =O
Equation (3-35) now reduces to
where the integration extends over all space. T his is the most useful
form of the reciprocity theorem for our purposes. Equation (3-36) also
applies to regions of finite extent whenever Eq. (3-34) is satisfied. For
example, fields in a region bounded by a perfect electric conductor sati.sfy

Eq. (3-34); hence Eq. (3-36) applies in this case.
The integrals appearing in Eq. (3-36) do not in general represent power,
since no conjuga.tes appear. They have been given tho name readion. 1
By definition, the reaction of .field a on source b is
(3-37)
In this notation, the reciprocity theorem is

(a,b} = (b,a} (3-38)
tha.t is, t he reaction of field a on source b is equal to tho reaction of
field b on source a. Reaction is a uscful quantity primarily beca.use
of this conserva.tive property. For example, reaction can be used as a
measure of equiva.lency, since a source must bave the same reaction with
all fields equivalent over its extent. This equality of reaction is a neces-
sary, but not sufficient, test of equivalence as defined in Sec. 3-5. Wc
shall use the term self-reaction to denote the rcaction oí a field on its own
sources, that is, (a,a).
A valuable tool for expositional purposes can be obtained by using the
circuit sources oí Fig. 3-1 in the reaction concept. For a current source
(Fig. 3-la), we ha.ve
(a,b) = fE 0
• Pdl =JI' f E · dl
0
= -Vºl"
wbere Vº is the voltage across the b source due to sorne (as yet unspeci-
fied) a source. For a voltage source (Fig. 3-l b), we ha ve K" = - Vb, and
(a ,b) = - fH 0
• K" dl = -K.1' f Hº · dl = V"!º
wbere 1° is the current tbrough the b source due to some a source. To

summarize, t h e "circuit reactions" are
b a. current source
(3-39)
b a voltage source
If we use a unit current source (l" = 1), thcn (a,b) is a measure oí Vª
(the voltage at b due to another source a). If we use a. unit volts.ge
source (V11 = 1), then (a,b) is a measure of l (the current a.t b due to
0
another source a).

To relate our reciprocity theorem to the usual circuit theory state-
ment oí reciprooity, consider the two-port (four-terminal) network of
1 V. H. Rtll'ruley, The Reaction Concept in Elcctromagnetic Theory, Phys. Rev.,
ser. 2, vol. 94, no. 6, pp. 1483-1491, J une 15, 1954.

SOME TBEOREMS AND CONCEPTS 119
Fig. 3-18. Tbe characteristics of a linear network ca.n be described by
the impeda.nce matrix [z] defined by
[V2V1] [Zuzu Z12]

=
Zu
[11]
12
(3-40)
Suppose we a.pply a. current source I 1 a.t port 1 and a. current source l 2 at

port 2. Let the partial response V;; be the voltage a.t port i dueto source
I; at port j. Each current source sees the other port open-circuited (see
Fig. 3-la); hence
V;;
Z;¡ - lJ
In terms of the circuit reactions [Eq. (3-39)], (j,i) = - V;;l1; bonce
Z
.• = - (j,i) (3-41)
•J l;/¡
Thus, the elements of the impedance matrix are the various reactions
a.mong two unit current sources. The reciprocity theorem [Eq. (3-38)),
applied to Eq. (3-41), shows that
z;¡ = Z¡; (3-42)
which is the usual statement of reciprocity in oircuit theory. Equa.tions
(3-41) and (3-42) a.lso apply to a.n N-port network. The use of volts.ge
sources instead of current sources gives reactions proportional to the ele-
ments of the admittance ma.trix [y], and reciprocity then ata.tes that
y;¡ = y¡;.
The proofs of many other theorems can be based on the reciprocity
theorem. For exa.mple, the preceding paragraph is a proof that any
network construded of linear isotropic matter has a symmetrical imped-
ance matrix. This "network" might be the two antennas of Fig. 3-19.
Reciprocity in this case can be stated as: The voltage at b duo to a cur-
rent source at a is equal to the volta.go at a due to the same current
source at b. If the b antenna. is infinitely rcmote from the a antenna,
its field will be a plane wave in the vicinity of a, and vice versa. The
receiving pattern of an antenna is defined as the voltage at the antenna
\ (b)
Network
\
Fto. 3-18. A two-port network. Fio. 3-19. Two antennas.
terminals due to a plane wave incident upon the antenna. The reci-
procity theorem for antennas can thus be stated as: The receiving pattern
of any antenna constructed o/ linear isotropic matter is identical to its trans-
mitting pattern.
In Secs. 3-5 a.nd 3-7, we used the fa.et that an electric currcnt impressed
a.long the surface of a perfect electric conductor radia.ted no field. The
reciprocity theorem proves this, in general, as follows. Visualiza a set of
termina.Is a on t he conductor a.nd a.nother set of termina.Is b in space
a.way from the conductor. A current element at b produces no tangential
component of E a.long the conductor; so (V ata due to J,,) is zero.
By reciprocity, Vbo (V at b dueto la) is zero. The termina.Is b ara a.rbi-
tra.ry; so the current element a.long the conductor (ata) produces no V
between any two points in space; hence it produces no E. We can think
of /,.as inducing currents 0111 the conductor such that these currents pro-
duce a free-space field equal and opposite to the free-space field of la.
3-9. Green•s Functions. Our reciprocity relationships a.re formulas
symmetrica.l in two field-source pa.irs. Ma.thematical sta.tements of reci-
procity (symmetrical in two functions) are ca.Jled Green's theorems. The
difference between a Green 's theorem and a reciprocity theorem is that
no physical interpretation is given to the functions in the former.
The scalar Green's theorem is based on the identity
V · (1/!V cf>) = if¡V 2 cf> +,Vif¡ ·Ve/>
When this is integrated throughout a region a.nd the divergence theorem
a.pplied to the left-hand term, we obtain Green's first identity
(3-43)
Intercha.nging if¡ and cf> in this identity and subtracting the interchanged
equation from the original equa.tion, we obtain Green's second identity or
Green's theorem
(3-44)
This is a. statement of reciprocity for scalar fields if¡ and cf>.

The vector analogue to Green's theorem is based on the identity
V • {A X V X B) = V X A·V X B - A·V X V X B
An integration of this throughout a region and an application of the

divergence theorem yields the vector analogue to Green's first idcntity
1fo (A X V X B) · ds = fff (V X A · V X B - A • V X V X B) dT
(3-45)
Fia. 3-20. Region to

which Green's theorem is
applied.
We can interchange A and B and subtract the resulting equat ion from
the original equation. This gives the vector analogue to Green's second
identity, or the vector Green's theorem,
<ffi (A X V X B - B X V X A) · ds
= fff (B · V X V X A - A • V X V X B ) dr (3-46)
Our reciprocity theorem [Eq. (3-35)], for a horrwgeneous medium, is
essentially Eq. (3-46) with A = E 0 and B = Eb. For an inhomogeneous
medium, still another vector Green's theorem corresponda to our reci-
procity theorem (see Prob. 3-28).
Green's theorems have been used extensively in t he litera.ture as
follows. Suppose we desire the field E ata point r' in a region. I nstead
of solving this problem directly, a point source is placed at r', and its
field is called a Green's function G. We then substitute E = A and
G = B in Eq. (3-46) . This gives a formula for E at r', as we shall dis-
cuss below. What we have done is salve the reciproca! problem (source
at the .field point of the original problem) and then apply reciprocity.
The equivalence principle gives the solution more directly.
Let us summarize the various Green's íunctions used in the literature.
Stratton chooses 1
(3-47)
e-;klr-r'l
where (3-48)
</> = Ir - r'I
ande is a constant vector. A comparison of Eq. (3-47) with Eq. (2-117)
shows that Gi is the vector potential of a current elcment Jl = 4?rc.
Hence, G 1 is a solution to Eq. (2-108), or
V X V X G1 - k 2G 1 = V (V · G 1) r r' (3-49)
Now suppose we wish to find E at r' in a source-free region enclosed by S.
The source of G i is placed at r' and surrounded by an infinitesimal sphere s,
as shown in Fig. 3-20. Equation (3-46) with A = E and B = G i is now
1 J. A. Stratton, "Electromagnetic Theory," p. 464, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., New York, 1941.

122 TIME-UARMONIC ELECTRO?.iAGNETJC FIELDS
applied to the region enclosed by S and s. T he result is
-4irc . E = # (E X V X G1 - G1 X V X E+ E V . Gi). ds (3-50)
which is a formula for calculating E at r' in terms of n X E , n X V X E,

and n · E on S. Furtllermorc, it is required that E be continuous and
have continuous first derivatives on S. This is a severe restriction on
the usefulness of Eq. (3-50), although it can be amended to admit singular
E's on 8.
A choice of Green's function which overcomes sorne of the disadvan-
tages of Eq. (3-50) is 1
(3-51)
where </>is given by Eq. (3-48). This is evidently t he magnetic ficld of a

current clement n = 4-irc. Hence, G2 is a solution to
r r' (3-52)
We now apply Eq. (3-46) with A = E and B = G 2 to the region enclosed

by S and sin Fig. 3-20. The result is 2
4irc · V' X E = 1P (G 2 X V X E - E X V X G 2) • ds (3-53)

s
This is a formula for v ' X E (hence for H) at r' in terms of n X E a.nd
n X V X E on S. Equation (3-53) <loes not require E to be continuous
on S, nor do wc need to know n ·E on S. Thus, Eq. (3-53) is a sub-
sta.ntial improvement over Eq. (3-50). In fact, Eq. (3-53) can be shown
to be identical to the formula obtained from the equivalence principie of
Fig. 3-9, applied to a homogeneous medium.
Another useful Green's function is
Ga = V X V X C</> (3-54)
where </>is given by Eq. (3-48). This is proportional to the electric field
of an electric currcnt element; so G 3 also satisfies Eq. (3-52). An appli-
ca.tion of Eq. (3-46) would yield a. formula for E at r', similar in form to
Eq. (3-53).
Ali of the G's considered so far are "fre<rspace" Green's functions,
that is, they .are .6.elds of sources radia.ting into unbounded space. We
can choose other G's such that they satisfy boundary conditions on S.
1
J. R. Mentzer, "Scattering and DiJJraction of Radio Wa.ves," p. 14, Pergamon
Press, New York, 1955.
' The left-hand side o{ tllis equation is a runction only of the primed coordina.tes.
Hence, a prime is placed on V ' to indicato operation on r' instead of r.
For example, let
G. = G 2 + G,• (3-55)
such that Gt satisfies Eq. (3-52) and
n X V X G, =0 on S (3-56)
The physical interpretation of G, is that it is the magnetic field of a
current element n = 47rC radiating in the presence of a perfect electric
conductor over S. The G 2 is the incident field, and t he G.· is the scat-
tered field. Application of Eq. (3-46) with A = E and B = G, results in
Eq. (3-53) with the last term zero, because of Eq. (3-56). Thus,
4-irc · V' X E = 1f> (G4 X V X E) · ds (3-57)

s
which is a formula for V' X E in terms of only n X V X E over S. The
same formula can be obtained from thc equivalence principie of Fig. 3-11,
as it applies to a homogeneous region.
Similarly, defining a G5 such that
onS (3-58)
we can obtain a formula
4-irc • V' X E = - 1P (E X V X G&) · ds (3-59)

s
and so on. All t hese various formulas, and many more, can be directly
obtained from t he equivalence principie. We have discussed t he Green's
function approach merely because it has been used extensively in the
literature.
3-10. Tensor Green's Functions. We shall henceforth use the term
"Green's function" to mean "field of a point source." Suppose we have
a current element Jl at r' and we wish to evaluate the field E at r. The
most general linear relationship between two vector quantities can be
represented by a tensor. Hence, the field E is related to the source 11 by
E = [r )Jl (3-60)
where [r ] is called a tensor Green's function. In rectangular components
and matrix notation, Eq. (3-60) becomes
(3-61)
Thus, r ii is the ith component of E due to a unit j-directed electric cur-

rent element. The E might be the free-space field of n, in which case
[r] would be the "free-space Green's íunction." Alternatively, E might

be the field of l l radia.ting in the presence of sorne matter, and [rJ would
then be called the "Green's function subject to boundary conditions."
Still other Green's functions are those relating H to 11, those relating
E to Kl, and so on.
Our principal use of tensor Green's functions will be for concise mathe-
matical expression. For example, the equation
E = fff [r]J d-r' (3-62)
where [r] is the free-space Green's function defined by Eq. (3-60), repre-
senta the solution of Eq. (2-111), which is
E = -jwµA + JWE V (V · A)
_ f" (( J e-iklr-r'I 1
(3-63)
A - JJ 4-irjr - r'I d-r
Equation (3-62) also represents the field of currents in the vicinity of a
material body if [r] represents the appropriate Green's function, and so
on. In other words, Eq. (3-62) is symbolic of the solution, regardless of
whether or not we can find [r].
Even t hough we shall not use tensor Green 's functions to find explicit
solutions, it should prove iostructive to find an explicit [r]. Let us take
[r] to be the free-space Green's fuoction defined by Eq. (3-60). If ll is
:v-directed,
Jle-fklr-r'I
A., = 4-irlr - r'l
and . A ;;
E ;;· = - Jwµ + -.1- a2A"
- -
JWE ax 2
2
E = ...!:__ a A"'
ll jwE ay ax
E = _!_ a2A.,
" jwE (Jz <Jx
Comparing this with Eq. (3-61) .for Ilu = Il. = O, we see that
. 1 a2)
r.,"' = ( -Jwµ + JWE
-.- vX
"'
1 a21f¡
r 11"' =jwE-ay
--
ax
1 iJ2tf¡
r ""' =---
jwE iJz iJx
e-fklr- r'I
where (3-64)
1/1 = 4-irlr - r' 1
The other elements of [r] are found by taking n to be y-dire9-te<Y a6d
then z-directed. From symmetry considerations, the other r,/smill differ
only by a cyclic interchange of (x,y,z). The result Ís theref9re
r .. = (-jwµ. + JWE 't

(3-65)
r 1 a2tft i _,e J.
i; = jwe ai aj r
with 1/¡ given by Eq. (3-64). The reciprocity theorem is reflected in the
symmetry
r ¡;(r,r') = r¡.(r' ,r) (3-66)
which can be proved for r's subject to boundary conditions as well.

3-11. Integral Equations. An integral equation is one for which t he
unknown quantity appears in an integrand. We already have the con-
cepts needed to construct integral equations. For example, the potential
integral of Eq. (2-118) is essentially an integral equation when J is
unknown. Most problems can be formulated either in terms of integral
equations or in terms of differential eq¡uations. When exact solutions
are desired, the differential equation approach is usually the simpler one.
An important use of integral equations is to obtain approximate solutions.
There is good reason for this. Integration is a summation process, and
it is not necessary that each element of the summation be correct. Errors
in sorne elements of the summation may be compensated for by errors in
other elements. Also, all elements do not contribute equally to a sum-
mation. It is much more important that the elements contributing most
to the summation be correct than that the elements of minor contribu-
tion be correct. This is why we were able to obtain useful results by
assuming the current on the linear antenna of Fig. 2-23, by assuming tbe
field of each element of magnetic current in Fig. 3-l 7b, and so on.
To illustrate the formulation of an integral equation, consider t he
induction theorem of Fig. 3-16. Let [f(r,r')] be the tensor relating the
E field at r dueto an element of M at r' radiating in the presence of the
conductor over S. I n equation forro, this is
dE(r) = [r(r,r')] dM (r')
The total scattered field for the problem is then the summation
E•(r) = <jfi [r(r,r')]M.(r') ds'

s
where M. is given by Eq. (3-27). When r is on S, Eq. (3-26) must
126 TIME-HARMONI C ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
also be true; hence
n x E'(r) = n X 1f [r(r,r')]E'(r ') x ds'

8
r on S (3-67)
The incident field E' is assumed to be known; so Eq. (3-67) is an integral

equation for determining [r]. As we mentioned earlier, an exact solution
to Eq. (3-67) would be di:fficult even for the simplest specialization.
Problems involving a region homogeneous except for small "islands"
of matter are commonly encountered. Examples of such problems are
the linear antenna of Fig. 2-23 and the obstacle of Fig. 3-15a. To illus-
trate the general concepts involved, suppose we have an inhomogeneous
region, possibly containing sources J' and M•. Within this region, the
field satisfies
-V X E = zH + M' V X H = yE + J'
where z and y are functions of position. We can define normal values of
impedivity and admittivity, z1 and '01, which may be any convenfont con-
stants (usually the most common z and g in the region). We can now
rewrite the field equations as
- V X E = +M V X H = 'fi1E +J
where the effective currents are
M = (z - + M1 (3-68)
J = (y - 1/1)E + Ji
These effective currents can then be treated as source currents in a homo-
geneous region. Since J and M are functions of E and H , a solution in
terms of them will lead to an integral equation. However, if = z1 and z
g = '01 except in small subregions, we can assume J and M in the sub-
regions and obtain approximate expressions for E and H elsewhere.
(Recall the linear antenna problem, where we assumed Ion tbe antenna
z
wire.) Note that, when the normal and y are taken as the free-space
parameters, Eqs. (3-68) reduce to
M = jw(P. - µo)H + M'
(3-69)
J = jw(l - Eo)E + uE + J'
The effective currents in excess of the t rue sources (M i and J') are now
just those dueto the motion of atomic particles in vacuum.
Let us reconsider the problem of scattering by an obstacle in the light
of the above concepts. Given the problem of Fig. 3-15a, we can consider
the total field to be the potential integral solution of Eqs. (3-4) and (3-5),
with J and M given by Eqs. (3-69). The incident field is that produced
SOME THEOREMS ANO CONCEPTS 12i
by J' and Mi outside of the obstacle, and the scattered field is that pro-
duced by
M = jw(fl - µo)H
- Eo)E + crE
(3-10)
J=
throughout the obstacle. To be explicit, outside of t he obstacle
E• = -V X F + X V X A (3-71)
where
_ 1
A - 411'
f"r¡
J. Ir - r'l
JWEO
Je-ili:lr-r'I
dr
1
f"r¡
obstacle
(3-72)
- 1 M e-iklr-r'I ,
F- 411' }., Tr - r'I dr
with J and M given by Eq. (3-70). If we can guess J and M with

reasonable accuracy, then Eqs. (3-71) and (3-72) will give usan approxi-
mate solution. For a nonmagnetic obstac1e, M, and consequently F,
will be zero. For a good conductor, ] reduces to uE1 and this current
resides primarily on the surface of the obsta.ele. If we assume the
obstacle perfectly conducting, then J becomes a true surface current.
The solution in this case reduces to
1 1f Jj e- Jklr-r 'I
E• = 'J:'ll'JWEO
X V X
r - r'I ds' (3-73)
s
If we specialize this equation to S, then Eq. (3-26) must be met, and we
have an ihtegral equation for determining J,.
An approximation to J,1 known as the physical optics approximation1
is as follows. Let F ig. 3-21a represent a perfectly conducting obstacle
illuminated by sorne source. In terms of the total field, the surface cur-
rent on t he conductor is given by
J, = n X H
When the obstacle is large, we ass:ume that the total field is negligible in
n
lncident wave
(a) (b)
FIG. 3-21. The physical optics approximation. (a) Original problem; (b) the
t¡pprox:imation.
t28 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FJEI:iDS
the "shadow" region. Furthermore, if the obsta.ele is smooth and gently

curved, ea.ch elemeat of surface behaves similarly to a.n element of a
ground plane. According to image theory, the tangential components
of H at a ground plane are just twice those from the same source in
unbounded space. We therefore approxima.te the current on the obsta.ele
by
J, = 2n X H' over S' (3-74)
where S' is the illuminated portion of S. The physical optics approxi-
mation to the scattered field is therefore
E
• 1
virJwEo
V X V X
Jj (n X H i)e-lklr- r'I
1
r - r 'I ds
'
(3-75)
S'
This approximation is illustra.ted by Fig. 3-21b.

As an explicit application of the physical optics a.pproximation, again
consider the la.rge conducting plate of Fig. 3-17a. The incident E is
given by Eq. (3-28); hence
H.} = Eo e-i"'
T/
The physical optics approximation to the obstacle current [Eq. (3-74)] is

therefore
Je= 2Eo
T/
Ea.ch element of this radia.tes as a current element in free spaco, as

a.nalyzed in Sec. 2-9. The contribution to the radiation field in the
back-scatter direction from ea.ch J., ds is
dE.,• = -jkEo ds e-1,.,
2'rr
The total clistant back-scattered field is therefore
E.,• = JJ dE.,• = - jk:;.A e-Jkr (3-76)

plat.e
which is identical to Eq. (3-29), the approximation obtained from the

induction theorem. The physica.l optics approximation to the echo area
of the pla.te is therefore that of Eq. (3-31). This equality of the two
approximations to back scattering (Eqs. (3-29) and (3-76)) is no coinci-
dence. It can be shown that the two approaches always give the same
back scattering but do not give thc same scattering in other directions. 1
1 R. F. Harr.ington, On Scatt.ering by Large Conducting Bodies, /RE Trana.,
vol. AP-7, no. 2, pp. 150-153, April, 1959.

3-12. Construction of Solutions. So far, we have explicitly considered
two types of solutions to tbe field equa.tions, namely, uniíorm pla.ne
waves and the potential integrals. In the next three chapters, we shall
learn how to construct many other solutions. A general method of
obtaining these solutions is considered here.
In a homogeneous source-free region, the field satisfies
-V X E= V ·H =O
(3-77)
V X H = yE V·E = O
In view of the divergenceless character of E and H , we can expresa the

field in terms of a magnetic vector potential A or in terms of an electric
vector potential F. More important, we can employ superposition and
express part of the field in terms of A and part in terms of F. The A
must be a solution to Eq. (2-108) with J = O, and the Fa solution to the
dual equation. Tbe general equations for vector potentials are therefore
V X V X A - k2A = -1/V<f>'>
(3-78)
V X V X F - k 2F = -
where 4>" and are arbitrary scalars. The electromagnetic field in terms
of A and F is given by Eqs. (3-4) with J = M = O, or
E= -V X F + ! V X V X A
y
(3-79)
H = VXA+ i vxvxF
Equations (3-78) and (3-79) are the general form for fields and potentials
in homogeneous source-free regions.
There is a great deal of arbitrariness in the choice of vector potentials.
For instance, we can choose the arbitrary according to
V ·A = -y<f>'> V· F = (3-80)
This reduces Eqs. (3-78) to
V2A+kA = 2
O
(3-81)
VF +kF =
2 2
O
Solutions to these equations are called wave potentials. Note that the
rectangular components of the wave potentials satisfy the sea.lar wave
equation, or Helmholtz equation,
V21/J + k i/I
2
= O (3-82)
Also, when Eqs. (3-80) are satisfied, we can alternatively write Eqs.
(3-79) as
E = - V X F - + ! v (v . A)
'O (3-83)
:El = V X A - f}F + !i V (V · F)
We have yet to decide how to divide the field between A and F. As a
word of caution, do not make the mistake of thinking of A as due to J
and F as due to M. This happened to be our choice for the potential
integral solution, where we considered the sources everywhere. We are
now concerned with regions of finite extent, and we can representa. .field
in terms of A or F or both, rega.rdless of its actual source.
Let us now consider some particular choices of potentia.ls. If we take
F = O and
A = u,1/1 (3-84)
then E = 1
V (V · A) H = V X A (3-85)
This can be expanded in rectangular coordinates as

a y,az
E,. = 1 ax
2
JI'" = ª"'ay
1 a2.y ay,
E11 = ---
gay az ll11 = - -
ax (3-86)
E. = 1 az2 (ª2 + k2)y, H.= O
A field with no JI. is called transverse magnetic to z (TM). Wc shall find it

possible to choose .Y sufficiently general to express an arbitrary TM field
in a homogeneous source-free region according to the above formulas.
In t be dual sense, if we choose A = O and
F = u.Y, (3-87)
1
then E= - V X F H = -'OF + - V {V · F) (3-88)
Expanded in rectangular coordinates, this is

i at,p
E=
;z
-ay,
ay H,. = °i ax oz
E=ay, 1 <J21/t
H ., = - - az (3-89)
11
ax
E.= O H, = ( ::2 + k 2) t/t
A :field with no E. is called transverse electric to z (T E). We sha.11 find it
possiblo to choose t/t sufficiently general to express any TE field in a
homogencous source-free region according to the above formulas.
Now suppose we have a field neither TE nor T M. We can determine
a !/t according to
éJ2tf¡4
éJz2
+ k'l.1.0 = f)E
'
which will generate a field TM to z according to Eqs. (3-86). This TM

fi.eld will ha ve the same E, as does the original field; so the difference
between the two will be a TE field. We can therefore determine this
difference field according to Eqs. (3-89), where the t/¡ is found from
+ k'lt/I' = •
Thus, an arbitrary field in a homogeneous source-jree region can be expressed
as the sum of a TM field and a TE field. Explicit expressions for the field
would be superposition of Eqs. (3-86) and (3-89), with superscripts a and
f added to the t/l's to distinguish between them. Since the z direction is
arbitrary, we can express this independent of the coordinate system by
defining
A = cifl' F = ct/J' (3-90)
where e is a constant vector. The field is then given by Eqs. (3-79),
which become
E = - V X (ct/11) +1 X V X (ci/;0 )
(3-91)
H = V X ( Ci/Iº) + ]1 V X V X (el/;')
where the 1//s are solutions to Eq. (3-82). We must therefore study solu-
tions to the scalar Helmholtz equation to learn how to pick the t/l's.
If the region is not source-free but is still homogeneous, our starting
equations are
- V X E= +M (3-92)
V X H = f)E +J
instead of Eqs. (3-77). General solutions to Eqs. (3-92) can be con-
structed as the sum of any possible solution, called a particular solution,
plus a solution to the source-free equations, called a complementary solUr
tion. We already have a particular solution, namely, the potential inte-
gral solution of Sec. 3-2. Therefore, solutions in a homogeneous region
containing sources are given by
E = EJJ• + Eu H = HJJ• + He. (3-93)
where the particular solution (ps) is formed according to Eqs. (3-4) and
(3-5), and the complementary solution (es) is constructed according to
Eqs. (3-91). We can think of the particular solution as the field dueto
132 TU.fE-BARMONI C ELECTROM.AGNETI C FIELDS
sources inside the region and the complementary solution as the field
dueto sources outside the region.
3-13. The Radiation Field. [t is easier to evaluate the radiation
(distant) field from sources of finite extent than to evaluate the near field.
(See, for exa.mple, Secs. 2-9 and 2-10.) In this section, we shall formalize
the procedure for specializing solutions to the radiation zone.
Consider a distribution of currents in the vicinity of the coordinate
origin, immersed in a homogeneous region of in.finite extent. The com-
plete solution to the problem is represented by Eqs. {3-4) and (3-5). If
we specia.lize to the radia.tion zone (r » as suggested by Fig. 3-22,
we ha.ve
Ir - r'I-+ r - r' cos t (3-94)
where is the angle between r a.nd r '. Furthermore, the second term of
Eq. (3-94) can be neglected in the "magnitude factora," Ir - r 'j- 11 of
Eqs. (3-5). It ca.nnot, however, be neglected in the "phase factors,"
exp ( - jklr - r'I), unless « >.. Thus, Eqs. (3-5) reduce to
A=:· JJJ J (r')eik•'-tdT'
F = :.- JJJ M (r')eik•' coo EdT'

(3-95)
in the radiation zone. Note tha.t we now ha.ve the r dependence shown
explicitly. Many of the opera.tions of Eqs. (3-4) can therefore be
performed.
Rather tban blindly expanding Eqs. (3-4), let us draw upon sorne
previous conclus.ions. In Sec. 2-9 it was shown that the distant field of
an electric current element was essentially outward-traveling plane waves.
The same is true of a magnetic current element, by duality. Hence, the
Fia. 3-22. Geometry for

eva.luating the radiation
fiel d.
z
F10. 3-23. Conveotional

coordinate oriento.tion.
radiation zone must be cbaracterfaed by

Es= TJH• E•= -TJHe (3-96)
since it is a superposition of t he fi.elds from many current elements. We
can evaluate t he partial H fi.eld due to J according to H' = V X A (see
Sec. 3-2). Retaining only the dominant terms (r-1 variation), we have
= (V X A)s = jkA•
= (v X A).,= -jkAs
with E' given by Eqs. (3-96). Similarly, for the partial E field dueto M,
we have, in the radiation zone,
= -(V X F)s = -jkF•
= -(V X F)• = jkF's
with H " given by Eqs. (3-96). The total field is the sum of these partial
fields, or
Es = -jwµAe - jkF•
(3-97)
E• = -jwµA• +
jkF s
in the radiation zone, with H given by Eqs. (3-96). Thus, no differenti-
ation of the vector potentials is necessary to obtain the radiation field.
Also, for future reference, let us determine r' cos as a function of t he
source coordina.tes. The three coordinate systems of primary interest
are the rectangular, cyliodrical, and spherical, as illustrated by Fig. 3-23.
For the conventional orientation shown, we have the transformations
x = r sin () cos </> X= p COS </>
y = r sin () sin </> y=psin<t> (3-98)
z = r cos () z= z
To obtain r' cos we form
rr' cos = r · r' = xx1 + yy' + zz' (3-99)
134 TIME- HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
Substituting for x1 y 1 z from the first set of Eqs. (3-98), we obtain

r' cos = (x' cos cf> + y' sin cf>) sin 8 + z' cos 8 (3-100)
which is the desired form when rectangular coordinates are chosen for
the source. Substituting into Eq. (3-100) for x', y', z' írom the second
set of Eqs. (3-98) 1 we obtain
r' cos = p' sin Ocos (cf> - et>') + z' cos O (3-101)
which is the desired forro when cylindrical coordina.tes are chosen for the
source. Finally, substituting into Eq. (3-100) for x', y', z' from the :first
set of Eqs. (3-98), we have
r' cos = r'[cos 8 cos O' +. sin 8 sin O' cos ( cf> - q,')] (3-102)
whlch is the desired forro when spherical coordinates are chosen for the
so urce.
PR OBLEMS
S-1. Show that a current sheet

J - u.1o
over the z ""' O plane produces the out.ward-traveling plane waves
z>O
z <o
in ao infinite homogeoeous medium.
3-2. lnstead of tbe electric current sheet., suppose tbat the magnetic current sheet
. 1rY
M • - UvM· o Slll b
exista over the cross section z = O in the waveguide of Fig. 3-2. Show that tlilil
magnetic current :>roduces a field
z>O
z<O
S-S. Suppose now that the two current sheets

A.1'1/
J••u,. Zo sm b
M, - Uv A sin 7Z
....
exist simultaneously over the cross section z - O of Fig. 3-2. Show tha.t pro-
duce a field
E ,. - {
-A sin "'Y e-f/1•
b
z >o
o z <o
This source is a "directional coupler."
3-4. In Fig. 3-2, suppose that a "shorting pla.te" (conductor) is placed over the
cross section z - - d. Show that the current sheet of Eq. (3-2) now produces a field
- J oZo (1 - e-12/Jd) sin 11'1/ e- 111• z> O

Ez - 2 b
{ -jJoZoe-i/Jd sin T:
sin (tl(d + z)) -d <z <o
Note that when d is an odd number of guide quarter-wavelengths, E,. Cor z > O is
twice that for the current sheet alone (see Eq. (3-3)), but when d is an integral number
of guide half-wavclengths, no E,. exista for z > O.
3-6. The TE and TM modes of a parallel-plate waveguide (Prob. 2-28) are almost
dual to each other. Show that the field dual to the TE.. mode of Prob. 2-28 is the
TM,. mode for the parallel-plate guide having conductors over the planes y • b/2
and y = -b/2. Show that the field dual to the TM., mode of Prob. 2-28 is the TE..
mode oí this ncw wavcguide.
3-6. Obtain the ficld of a.o infinitesimal loop oí magnetic currcnt having z..directed
moment KS. Show that this produces the samo field as the elcctr.ic currcnt clement
of Fig. 2-21 ií
ll'"" -jweK::J
3-7. Figure 3-24ashows the cross section of a "twin-slot/' transmission line. Show
that the field distribution is dual to that of the collinear plate line of Fig. 3-24b. By
integrating a.long the contours shown in Fig. 3-24c, determine the line voltages and
(a) (b) (e)
Fto. 3-24. Figures for Prob. 3-7. (a) Twin-slot linc; (b) collinear ple.te line; (c) inte-
gration contours.
136 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMA.GNETI C FIELDS
currents of both tbe slot line and the plate line. Show that
,,,
(Zo)•lo• lloe = 4 (Z O) plam Uoa
From Table 2-3, it íollows that
(Zo)ato•lloo .., 4 log D»w
The two transmission linea are said to be complementa.ry structures (see Babinct's
principie, Seo. 7-12).
8-8. Show that the field
J oZo sin T'1J el/ta z>O
E,. .. 2 b
{ JoZo . -ry ·p
- - Slll b e-1 • z<O
2
is also a mathematioal solution to the problem of Fig. 3-2 with J. given by Eq. (3-2).
What do our uniqueness theorcms say about this second solution? What can we say
nbout it on physical grounds? Give a couple of othor possible solutions to the
problem, and interpret tbem pbysically.
8-9. Show that the current sheets
J. - - u 11 -ll
4..-
e-ih (ik
- +-
a a'
1) . Sin 8
Il
M, - -119 -e-I••
4r
-
a
(jwµ +-a' +-.-
1 )
'I
1wEa 1
.
sw 8
over the spbere r ... a produce the field of Eqs. (2-113) r > a and zero field r < a.
8-10. If E is well-behaved in a homogeneous region bounded by S, and if
i H .., - V X E, show tbat the currcnts
1
J - -9E - -i V X V X E
will support this and only this ficld among a olass E, H ba.ving identical tangential
components of E on 8. Show that the sa.mc E, but di.ffcrent H, can be obtaincd
within this olass if magnetic sources K are allowed in addition to J.
8-11. Suppose there exists within the rectangular cavity of Fig. 2-19 a ti.eld
E,. - E 0 sin 7/ sinh -yz
where 'Y - V (r/b)' - k' and k is complex (lossy dielectrio). Show that this .field
can be supported by the source
M, - - u 11Eo sin 7/ sinh -ye
at the wall z = c. Show that for e. low-loss dielectric, M, a.lmost vanisbes at the
resonant frequenoy [Eq. (2-95)], that is, a small M, produces a large E.
8-12. Consider a z-directed current element 1l a distance d in front of e. ground
pla.ne covering the 11 ... O plane, as shown in Fig. 3-25. Show the.t tbe radiation field
is given by
Es - -.,n e-t• sin 8 sin (kd sin </> sin 8)
Ñ"
and r¡H9 = Es. Find the power radia.ted a.nd show that the ra.diation resista.nce
referred to l is
R = T/1fl' _ sin 2kd _ cos 2kd + sin 2kd]
r >.,I 3 2kd (2kd) 1 / (2kd)'
For d $ ></4, the ma.Kimu1.0 radiation is in the y direction. Show tha.t
R -->r¡ - --
321rªl2d 1
, kd-+0 15>..'
and that the gain is 7.5 for d small, 4.15 for d = X/ 4, and approximately 6 for d large.
FIG. 3-25. Current ele-

ment parallel to a ground
plane.
8- 13. In Fig. 3-6a, suppose we have a. small loop of electric current with z...directed
moment IS, instead of the current element. Show that the radiation field is given by
E4> = fr¡2irlS
X2r
e-ill• sin (kd cos IJ) sin (J
and .,,Hs = -E+. Find the power radiated and show that the ra.diation resistance
referred to I is
R, = 21.-r¡ (T
kS) [l3 + cos{2kd)2
2
2kd
-
sin 2kd]
(2kd)ª
For small d, E --+jr¡-1r!Skd e-ill• sin 2/J
4> kd-+0 >..2r
R, k;:;Q ""'I
15 ->..-
(kSkd)'
Thus, me.ximuro radiation is a.t o = 45º for small d. T he gain at small d is 15. For
la.rge d, the ma.ximuro radiation líes close to the g:round plane, and the gain is 6.
8-14. In Fig. 3-25, suppose we ha.ve a small loop of electric current with z..directed
moment IS, instead of the current element. Show that the ra.diation field ii; given by
2
E 41 = r¡k2irrI S e-1..... sin
5
. fJ cos (kd sm
•
. 4> SlD
. o)
138 TJME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETI C FIELDS
and 11 8 11 = -EQ. Show that the radiation resista.nea referred to I is

R ... ( kS)
2
+ sin 2kd + cos 2kd _ sin 2kd]
r 1r'1 X 3 2kd (2kd) 2 (2kd)3
The maximum radiation is along the ground ple.ne, in t'he z direction. For small kd
4ir,., (ks)2
T
which is twice that for the isolated loop. For d ... O, the ga.in is 3; for d = X/4, it is
7.l;andford- oo,itis6.
3-16. The monopole antenna consists of a straight wire perpendicular to e. ground
ple.ne, fed at the ground plane, as shown in Fig. 3-26. Show that the field is the same
as that from the dipole antenna (Fig. 2-23), fed at the center. Show that the gain
of the monopole is twice tbat of the corresponding dipole and tbat the radiatioo
resista.nea is one-he.lf. For exe.mple, the radiation resistance of the X/4 monopole is
36.6 ohms.
FIG. 3-26. The monopole

I (z) antenna.
S-16. Censider an open-ended coaxial line (Fig. 3-14a without the ground plane)
of small radii a and b. Treat the problem a.ecording to the equivalence principie
as applied to a surface just enclosing the coax. Assume n X H is essentially zero
over tbe entire surface and that tangential E is that of the transmission-line mode
over the open end. Show that to this approxima.tion the radia.ted field is one-halI
that of Eq. (3-20) and that the radiation conductance is one-half tbat of Eq. (3-23).
8-17. A slot a.ntenna consists of a slot in a conducting ground pis.ne, as shown io
Fig. 3-27. It is called a dipole slot antenna when fed by a volts.ge impressed a.cross
the center of the slot. -The slot and ground ple.ne can be viewed as a transmission
line, and the field in the slot will be essentially a harmonic function of kz. Assume
E,. es : " ' sin [ k ( - j2j ) J

in the slot, and obtain the magnetic current equivalent of tbe forro oí Fig. 3-13c.
For w small, show tha.t this equivalent representa.tion is the dual problem to the
dipole antenna of Sec. 2-10. Using duality, show that the radiation field is
jV ,,.e-fAr COS ( k COS - COS ( k • { H6 y>O

y< o
Define the radia.tion conductance of this antenna as G, = <Pt!IV,,.¡t, and show that.
(G)
r alot d i polo = 4(R,)wl,,arod lpolo
SOME THEORE MS AND CONCEPTS 139
z
/"r
1
1
Fio. 3-27. A slot antenna.. 1
1
1 y
1
' 1
' 1
-...:.__.¿_-ef>__> ...J
where R, is as plotted in Fig. 2-24. T he input voltage V; is related to V .. by V, "" V.,.
sin (kL/2); so the input conductance is given by
G,
G' ,.. L
sin' ( k 2 )
3-18. For the antenna. of Fig. 3-27, assume E,. in the slot the se.me as in Prob. 3-17,
and show that for arbitrary w
jV,,..e-;v { Hq y> O
'fl1rT f(O,q,) = -Hq y <0
where f(8,q,)
= sin ( k i cos q, sin O) [ cos ( k cos - cos ( k
w .
k
2 cos 4> sm 8
3-19. Figure 3-28 shows an•aperture antenna consisting of a. rectangular waveguide

opening onto a. ground plane. Assume tbat E,. in the aperture is tha.t of the TE01
z
FIG. 3-28. A rectangular

waveguide opening onto
a ground plane.
wa.veguide mode, and show that the radia.tion field is
sin ( k cos sin 9) cos ( k cos 9)

2fbEoe-ib ---=-------"----':.....----=-
<f>
He ""'
11r cos <f> (,,. 2 - (kb cos 9) 2]
3-20. Figurie 3-29 represents a rectangular conduating pla.te of width a in the y

direction a.nd b in the z direction. Let the incident plane wa.ve be specified by
Use the induc·tion theorem with the same appro,ximat.ion as was used in the problem
FIG. 3-29. Scattering by

a rectangular pla.te.
of Fig. 3-17, a.nd show tha.t a.t large r the sca.ttered field in the xy plane is
E, kEoabe-ftr sin [k(a/2)(sin <f> +sin <f>o)] ...
• "'" j2"'r k(a/2)(sin </> + sin <f>o) cos ....
Show that the echo a.rea. is
A. , , 4,.. [ªb cos >.ka sin </>o sin </>o) ]

<f>o (ka
2
3-21. R:epea.t Prob. 3-20 for the orthogonal polarization, tha.t is,
a.nd show tha.t e.t la.rge r the sca.ttered field in the xy plane is
jkH oabe-;v sin [k(a/2) (sin </> + sin </>o)] ...
H
•' "" 2"'r k(a/2)(sin <f> + sin </>o) cos ....o
Show tha.t the echo a.rea is the same as obtained in Prob. 3-20.
3-22. Use reciprocíty to eva.luate the radia.tion field of the dipole a.ntenna. of Sec.
2-10. To do this, place a. 9-directed current element a.t la.rge r, a.nd a.pply Eq¡. (3-36),
obtaining Eq. (2-125).
3-23. By a.pplying volts.ge sources to the network of Fig. 3-18, show t hat the
admittance matrix [y] defined by
[l/1] = [Y••Yn Ya] [Vi]

2 V !122 t
satisfies the reciprocity rela.tionship 1112 1/u when Eq. (3-38) is va.lid.
SOME THEOREMS ANl> CONCEPTS 141
Fto. 3-30. 'Differentie.l

scattering.
8-24. Let Fig. 3-30 represent two antennaa in the presence of a.o obsta.ele. Let
V1 be the voltage received at antenna 1 when a unit current source is applied at
antenna 2 and V2 be the volts.ge received at antenna 2 when a. unít current source is
applied a.t a.ntenna l. Let Vi' a.nd Vé be the corresponding volt.a.ges when the
obstacle is a.bsent. Define the sca.ttered volts.ges a.s
a.nd show that V •• = V,•.

3-25. For the problem o( Fig. 3-2, define the input impedance of the sheet of
current as
Z ... (a,a}
- [!
where (a,a} is the self-reactioo of the curreots a.nd I is the total current of the sheet.
Evaluate Z when the field is given by Eqs. (3-3).
3-26. Repeat Prob. 3-25 for the curreot sheet and field of Prob. 3-1.
3-27. In the vector Green's theorem [Eq. (3-46} ), let A = E a.nd B .. 0
in a
homogeneous isotropic region, and show tha.t it reduces to Eq. (3-35).
3-28. Use the vector ideo tity
V • (A X </>V X B) </>V X A • V X B - A ·V X </>V X B
and derive the modilied vector Green's theorem
1f> </>(A X V X B - B X V X A) • ds
"" JJJ (B. V X q,v X A - A • V X q,v X B) a.,.

Let A = E B11
, </> = z- 1 in an inbomogeneous region, a.nd show that the a.hove
theorem reduces to Eq. (3-35).
3-29. Derive the left-ha.nd term of Eq. (3-50), that is, show
,!{,. (E
'JY X V X G1 - G1 X V X E + E V · G1) • ds lr - r'l-+0 4irc • E
•
S-30. Let Ge be tbe magnetic field of a z-directed current element situa.ted y >O
a.nd r adiating in the presence of a perfect electric conductor covering the y = O pla.ne.
In other words, let e = ª• a.nd S be the y = O plane. Show tha.t
where r1 = V(x - :z:') 2 +(y - y')2 + (z - z')2

r2 = v' (:z: - :z:')2+(y +
11')2 + (z - z')2
3 -31. Specia.lize the G e of Prob. 3-30 to r1 - oo, and a.pply Eq. (3-57) to tbe prob-
lem of Fig. 3-28. Show that this gives the same answer as obta.ined in Prob. 3-19.
3-32. Apply duality to Eqs. (3-65), and evaluate the ma.gnetic tensor Green's
function [r] defined by
H = fr}Kl
in free space.
3-33. Evaluate the rH for the free-space tensor Green's function defined by
H = [r}Il
8-34. R epea.t Prob. 3-20 using the physica.I optics a.pproximation, and show that
the answer for E: differs from tha.t of Prob. 3-20 by an interchange of <P a.nd q, 0•
Show that the echo a.rea is identical to tha.t of Prob. 3-20.
S- 35. R epeat Prob. 3-21 using the physical optics approximation, and show that
the answer for H ,• differs from tha.t of Prob. 3-21 by an interchange of q, and q,0,
Show that the echo a.rea is identical to that of Prob. 3-21.
3-36. Let.¡, = e-11<11 in Eqs. (3-86), and evalua.te tbe electromagnetic field. Classüy
this field in as many wa.ys as you can (wa.ve-type, pola.riza.tion, etc.) .
8-37. Let.¡, = e-ih in Eqs. (3-89), and evaluate the electroma.gnetic field. Classify
this field in a.s many ways as you can.
3-88. Let e = u.z:, Y," = e-fa, y,1 = j e-i"•, and eva.lua.te Eqs. (3-91). Classify this
field in as many ways as you can.
S- 39. Derive Eqs. (3-97) by expa.nding Eqs. (3-4) with A and F as given by Eqs.
(3-95).
CHAPTER 4
PLANE WAVE FUNCTIONS
4-1. The Wave Functions. The problema that we have considered so

far are of two types: (1) those reducible to sources in an unbounded
homogeneous region, and (2) those solvable by using one or more uni-
form plane waves. Equations (3-91) show us how to construct general
solutions to the field equations in homogeneous regions once we have
general solutions to the scalar Helmholtz equation. By a method called
separation of variables, general solutions to the Helmholtz equation can be
constructed in certain coordina.te syst ems. 1 In this section, we use the
method of separation of variables to obtain solutions for the rectangular
coordi11ate system.
The Helmholtz equa.tion in rectangular coordina.tes is
(4-1)
T he method of separation of varia.bles seeks to find solutions of the forro

i/I = X(x) Y(y)Z(z) (4-2)
that is, solutions \Vhich are the product of three functions of one coordi-
nate ea.ch. Substitution of Eq. (4-2) into Eq. (4-1), and division by t/;,
yields
J. d2X + !. d2 Y2 + _!_ d2Z2 + k2 = O (4-3)
X dxz Y dy Z dz
Ea.ch term can depend, at most, on only one coordina.te. Since ea.ch
coordina.te can be varied independently, Eq. (4-3) can sum to zero for
all coordinate values only if each term is independent of x, y, and z.
Thus, let
1 d2X
- - - -k:c2
X dx 2 -
where k.,,, and k. are constants, that is, are independent of x, y, and z.
(The choice of minus a constant squared is taken for later convenience.)
1
It has been shown by Eisenha.rt (Ann. Math., vol. 35, p. 284, 1934) tha.t the
Helmholtz equation is separa.ble in 11 three-dimensional orthogonal coordina.te systems.
143
144 TIME-RARMONlC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
We now have Eq. (4-1) separated into the trio of equations
d2X + k zx =O
dz 2 "'
d2Y + k.,2Y = O (4-4)

dy2
+ k. z =o2
where, by Eq. (4-3) 1 the separation parameters must satisfy

k,;i + k¡¡2 + k.2 = k2 (4-5)
This last equation is called the separation equation.
Equations (4-4) are all of the same form. They will be called harmonic
equations. Any solut ion to the harmonic equation we shall call a
harmonic function, 1 and denote it1 in general, by h(k"'z). Commonly
used harmonic functions are
(4-6)
Any two of t hese are linearly independent. A constant times a harmonic
function is still a harmonic function. A sum of harmonic functions is
still a ha rmonic function. From Eqs. (4-2) and (4-4) it is evident that
(4-7)
are solutions to t he Helmholtz equation when t he k; satisfy Eq. (4-5).
These solutions are called elementary wave functions.
Linear combinations of the elementary wave functions must also be
solutions t o the Helmholtz equation. As evidenced by Eq. (4-5) 1 only
two oí the le. may be chosen independently. We can therefore construct
more general wave functions by summing over possible choices for one or
two separation parameters. For example,
1/1 = l l B1e.1c.1/11o.1,1,
= l"· l"· B1<,1,h(lczX)h("k¡¡y)h(kzZ) (4-8)
k. "·
where the B.; are constants, is a solution to t he Helmholtz equatfon. The

values of the k; needed for any particular problem are determined by the
boundary conditions of the problem and are called eigenvalues or charac-
teristic values. The elementary wave functions corresponding to specific
eigenvalues are called eigenfunctions.
1 The term harmonic fundían also is used to denote a solution to Laplace's equation.
This is not the present mea.ning of the term.

PLANE WAVE FUNCTIONS 145
Still more general wave functions can be constructed by integrating
over one or two of the k,. For example, a solution to the Helmholtz
equation is
1Í1 = f f f(kz,k¡,)Y,1i:,k,k, dk:. dk¡,

=f. "'· k,
[t(k:r:,kv)h(k:X)h(k¡,y)h(k.z) dk,, dk,, (4-9)
where f(k:r:,kv) is an a.nalytic function, and the integration is over any

path in the complex kz and k,, domains. Equation (4-9) exhibits a con-
tinuous variation of the separation parameters, and we say that there
exista a continuous spectrum of eigcnvalues. We shall see that solutions
for finite regions (waveguides and cavities) are characterized by discrete
spectra of eigenvalues, while solutions for unbounded regions (antennas)
often require continuous spectra. Wave functions of the form of
Eq. (4-9) are most commonly used to construct Fourier integra.Is.
We should be familiar with the mathematical propertics and with the
physical interpreta.tions of the various harmonic functions so that we can
properly choose them for particular problems. Keep in mind that wave
functions represent instantaneous quantities, according to Eq. (l-40).
Solutions of the form h(kx) = e-ik:r: (k positive real) represent waves
traveling unattenuated in the +x direction. If k is complex and
Re (k) > O, we ha.ve +x traveling waves which are attenuated or aug-
mented according as Im (k) is negative or positive. Similarly, solutions
of the form h(kx) = eikz, [Re (k) > O] represent -x traveling waves,
attenua.ted or augmented if k is complex. If k is purely imaginary, the
above two harmonic functions represent evanescent fields. Solutions of
the form h(kx) = sin kx and h(kx) = cos kx with k real represent pure
standing waves. If k is complex, they represent localized standing waves.
If k is purely imaginary, say k = - ja with a real, then the "trigonometric
functions" sin kx and cos lcx can be expressed as "hyperbolic functions"
sinh ax and cosh ax. W e should get used to thinking of the va.rious
functions as defined over the entirc complex kx plane. The trigonometric
and hyperbolic functions are then just specializations of the complex har-
monic functions. Table 4-1 summarizes the above discussion. (The
convention k = fJ - ja with a and fJ real is used.) Note that the
degenera.te case k = O has the harmonic functions h(Ox) = l ,x. The
choice of the proper harmonic functions in any particular case is largely
a matter of experience, and facility in this respect will be gained as we
use them.
4-2. Plane Waves. Consideran elemcntary wave function of the form
(4-10)
146 TIME-BARMONlC ELECTROMA.GNETIC FIELDS
TABLE 4-1. PROPERTIES OF THE HARMONIC FvNCTlONS*
SpeciaUza.
Special Pbyaical
h(b' Zero•t Infinitieat tions of
reprcaenta.tioDB intcrpretailon
k /J - ja
.
,., ,1:.;z: .... -i• b-+jm
k real
k imaginary
k complex
.-1/J•
e-a•
e-a•rl/J•
+:z: travcling wave
field
A ttenuated traveling w11ve
k real elfJ• -z travelina wave

elh k:-+ ; ... k;r; -+ - ;.. le imaginary ea• Evanescent field
k complcx ea•el/J• Attcnualed traveling wavc
k real sin (Jr; Standing wave

ainb k;r; - n .. kr;-> ±;.. k irnaginaty -J einh az Two eva11escent fields
k eomplex sin /Jr; cosb ª"' Localized atandjng wavea
- j cos /J;z: sinb a:z:
k real cos /J;z: Standing wave

cos k::; k z - (n + Hlir k:z:-t ± i.. k imaginary cosh a: Two evaneacent ficlde
k oomplex coa fJ::; cosh a: Localized standing wavee
+;sin IJ:r; sinh a:r;
• For k - O, tbe barmonic functiona aro h(O;z:) - 1,.,,

t For an easentinl sin¡ula.r ity, this column ¡ivcs the aeymptotie bebavior.
The k, must satisfy Eq. (4-5), which is of the form of the scalar product
of a vector
k = u,.k,. + u11k11 + u.k. (4-11)
with itself. Note that in terms of k and the radius vector
r = + u y + u.z
11 (4-12)
we can expresa Eq. (4-10) as
(4-13)
For k real, we apply Eq. (2-140) and determine the vector phase constant
= - V (-k· r) = k
Hence, the equipha.se surfaces are planes perpenclicular to k. The ampli-
tude of the wave is constant (unity). Equation (4-13) therefore repre-
senta a scalar uniform plane wave propagating in the direction of k.
Figure 4-1 illustrates this interpretation.
For k complex, we define two real vectors
k = - ja (4-14)
and determine the vector propagation constant according to Eq. (2-145).
This gives
'Y = - v (-J'k · r ) = J'k = a+ j(}
We now have equiphase surfaces perpendicular to and equiamplitude
PI.A.NE WAVE FUNCTIONS 147
Equiphase Direction of
suñace propagation
Fto. 4- 1. A uniform plane

wavo.
surfaces perpendicular to a. Thus, when k is complex, Eq. (4-13) repre-

sents a plane wave propagating in the direction of and attenuating in
the direction of u. It is a. uniform plane wave only if and ex are in the
same direction. Note that definitions k = - j cx and k = k' - jk" do
not imply that f3 equals k' or that a equals k" in general. In fact, for
loss-free media,
k 2 = k · k = fJ 2 - a 2 - j2a · !}
must be positive real. H ence, either a = O or a • !} = O. When a = O
we have the uniform plane wave discussed above. When a and !} are
mutually orthogonal we ha vean evanescent field, such as was encountered
in total reflection [Eq. (2-62)].
The elementary wave functions of Eq. (4-10) or Eq. (4-13) are quite
general, since sinusoidal wave functions a.re linear combina.tions of the
exponential wave functions. Wave functions of the type of Eqs. (4-8)
and (4-9) are linear combinations of the elementary wa.ve functions. We
therefore conjecture that all wave functions can be exprcssed as super-
positions of plan e waves.
Let us now consider the electromagnetic fields that we can construct
from the wa.ve functions of Eq. (4-10). Fields TM to z are obtained if
i,/t is interprcted according to A = u,i,/t. This choice resulta in Eqs. (3-86),
wh.ich, for the Y.. of Eq. (4-10), become
H = - u4k11i/I +
= V i/t X u, = ji/tu, X k (4-15)
a.nd OE = jk,(u ,jk. + u 11jk 11 + u.jk.)i,/t + u,k 1/t
2
= (-k,k + u,k2)1/t (4-16)

For k real, H is perpendicular to k by Eq. (4-15), and E is perpendicular
to k, since
+
yk • E = ( -k.k2 k,k 2)i/t = O
148 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC F!ELDS
Thus, the wave is TEM to the direction of propagation (as well as TM

to z). For k complex, define a and !} by Eq. (4-14). It then follows
that the wave is not necessarily TEM to the direction of propagation
(that of It will be TEM to only if a and are in the same direc-
tion, that is, if
k = - ja = + u,..m + u,n)k
with Z, m, n real. In this case, /3 = k', a = k", and Z, m, n are the
direction cosines.
The dual procedure applies when tf¡ is interpreted according to F = u.tf¡.
In this case, Eqs. (3-89) apply, giving
E = jiJ¡k X u,
(4-17)
= ( -k.,k + u,k2)if¡
which are dual to Eqs. (4-15) and (4-16). For k real, this is a wave
TEM to k and TE to z. Its polarization is orthogonal to the correspond-
ing TM-to-z wave. For k complex, the wave is not necessarily TEM to
the direction of propagation. All these fields are plane waves. An arbi-
trary electromagnetic field in a homogeneous region can be considered
as a superposition of these plane waves.
4-3. The Rectangular Waveguide. The problem of determining modes
in a rectangular waveguide provides a good illustration of the use of ele-
mentary wave functions. In Sec. 2-7 we considered only the dominant
mode. In this section we shall consider t he complete mode spectrum.
The geometry of the rectangular waveguide is illustrated by Fig. 2-16.
It is conventional to classify the modes in a rectangular waveguide as
TM to z (no H .) and TE to z (no E.) . Modes TM tozare expressible in
terms of an A having only a z component 1{1. We wish to consider travel-
ing waves; hence we consider wave functions of the form
1/1 = h(kzx)h(lc"fly)e- ;k,• (4-18)
The electromagnetic field is given by Eqs. (3-86). In particular,
E. = (k2 - k.2),¡;
The boundary conditions on the problem are that tangential components

of E vanish at the conducting walls. Hence, E. must be zero at x = O,
x = a, y = O, and y = b. The only harmonic func tions having two or
more zeros are the sinusoidal functions with k¡ real. Thus, choose
h(kz:t) = sin kz:x k "' -- ??!!!:

(l
m = 1, 2, 3, .
k = 1t7r n = 1, 2, 3, .
11 b
so that the boundary conditions on E. are satisfied. Each integer m and
n specifies a possible field, or mode. The TM,,.n mode f unctions are
therefore
,f,
'f'mnTM =
.
Slil a
ffl'll"X ,
SlD
'Tll1r1J
b ·L
e-J..,• (4-19)
with m = 1, 2, 3, . . . , and n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , and the separation

eter equa.tion [Eq. (4-5)] becomes
(4-20)
The TMmn mode fields are obtained by substituting the t/lmnTM in to Eqs.
(3-86).
Modes T E tozare exprcssible in terms of an F having only a z com-
ponent ,¡,. Again, we wish to find tra.vcling waves; so the 1" must be of
the form of Eqs. (4-18). The electromagnetic field this time will be given
by Eqs. (3-89). In particular,
E=- ªt/I
-ay E = a,¡,
,. ti ax
the first of whicb must vanish at y = O, y = b, and the second at x = O,
x = a. Harmonic f unctions sa.tisfying t hese boundary conditions are
h(k,.x) = cos k,.x m =O, 1, 2,
h(k11y) = cos k11Y n =O, 1, 2,
Each integer m and n, except m = n = O (in which ca,se E vanishes

identically), spccifies a mode. Hence, the TE,,.n mode functions are
= COS -
m'll"X nmJ .
,f.
'Ymn
TE
a- COS - b e-ik,z (4-21)
with m = O, 1, 2, . . . ; n = O, 1, 2, . . . ; m = n = O excepted. The

separation para.meter equation remains tbe same as in the TM case (Eq.
(4-20)]. The TEmn mode fields are obtained by substituting tbe 1"mnTE
into Eqs. (3-89).
Interpretation of each mode is similar to that of the dominant TE01
mode, considcred in Sec. 2-7. Equation (4-20) determines the mode
propagation constant 'Y = jk.. For k real, the propagation constant
vanishes when k is
(4-22)
The (k.),..n is called the ctdoff wave number of the mn mode. For other
values of k, we have
- "k - { j{3 = j Vk2 - (kc)mn2 k > k.
(4-23)
'Y'"" - J • - ª = v'Ck.)..." 2 - k 2
Thus, for k > k. t he mode is propagating, and for k < k. the mode is
nonpropa.gating (evanescent). From Eq. (4-22) we determine the cutoff
frequencies
(/e)mn = = (4-24)
a.nd the cutoff wavelengths

21r 2
(Xc)mn = - = --;:======2 (4-25)
k. v'(m/a)Z + (n/b)
In terms of the cutoff frequencies, we can rc-express the mode propaga.tion
constan ts as
'Y = jk. = l
j{3 = jk
a = k.
1-
-
(Jy f >f.
(4-26)
where mode indices mn are implied. We can also define mode wave-
lengths for ea.ch mode by Eq. (2-85) and mode phase velocities by Eq.
(2-86), where mode indices are again implied.
It is a.pparent that 'Y = jk. for each mode has the same interpretation
as 'Y for the TE01 mode. It is the pbysical size "(compared to wavelength)
of the waveguide that determines wbich modes propaga.te. Table 4-2
gives a. tabulation of some of the smaller eigenvalues for various ratios
b/a. Whenever two or more modes have t he same cutoff frcquency, they
are said to be degenerate modes. The corresponding TEmn and TM,.."
modes are a.lways degenera.te in the rectangular guide (but not in other-
shaped guides). In the square guide (b/a = 1), the TE,..n, TEnm1 TMmn,
and TMnm modes forro a foursome of degeneracy. Waveguides are usu-
ally constructed so that only one modc propaga.tes, hence b/a > 1 usually.
For b/a = 21 we ha.ve a 2: 1 írequency range of single-mode operation,
and this is the most common practical geometry. It is undesirablo to
make b/a greater than 2 for high-power operation, since, ü the guide is
too thin, arcing may occur. (The breakdown power is proportional to
ya for fixed b.) To illustrate the use of Table 4-2, suppose we wish to
designan air-filled waveguide to propagate the TE01mode at 10,000 mega-
cycles (>. = 3 centimeters). We do not wish to opera.te too close to fe,
since the conductor losses are then large (see Table 2-4). If we ta.ke
PLANE WAVE FUNCl'IONS 151
TABLE
(k.),,."
4-2. - - - -(J) • - -
(f.)... (>..)01
FOR TBE
R
ECTANGULAB
W
AVEOUIDE,
b >
_a
(k.) 01 • 01 (>-.).....
TEn TEu
-ab TE01 TE10
TE u
TM11 TEot TE to
TMn
TE21
TMu TMu TE u
1 1 1 1.414 2 2 2.236 2.236 2.828 3

1.5 1 1.5 1.803 2 3 2.500 3. 162 3.606 3
2 1 2 2.236 2 4 2.828 4 .123 4.472 3
3 1 3 3.162 2 6 3.606 6.083 6 .325 3
"° 1
"° "° 2 , "° "° "° "° 3
b = 2 centimeters, then x. = 4 centimeters for the TE01 mode, and we

are opera.ting well above cutoff. The next modesto become propa.ga.ting
are the TE10 and TEoi modes, at a frequoncy of 15,000 megacycles. The
TEu and TM11 modes become propagating at 16,770 mega.cycles, and
so on.
Tho mode patterns (field lines) are also of interest. For this, we deter-
mine E and H from Eqs. (3-86) and (4-19) or Eqs. (3-89) and (4-21),
and then determine 8 1 :re from Eq. (1-41). The mode pattern is a plot
of lincs of 8 and :re at some instan t. (A more direct procedure for obtain-
ing the mode pa.tterns is considered in Sec. 8-1.) Figure 4-2 shows
sketches of cross-scctional mode patterns for sorne of the lower-order
modes. When a. line appears to end in space in these patterns, it actually
loops clown the guide. A more complete picture is shown for the TE01
mode in Fig. 2-17.
In addition, each mode is characterized by a constant (with respect to
- - - ,__ -
- _ ,_ ...
- ,_ 1-
(a) T.Eo1 (b) TE11 (e) TM11
(d) TEo2 (e) TE12 (f) TM12
Fto. 4-2. Rectangular waveguide mode patterns,

152 TIM E-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
x, y) z-directed wa.ve im.pedance. For t he TE,,.,. modes in loss-free media.,

we ha.ve from Eqs. (3-89) and (4-21)
. H ,.
JWJJ = - J.kr oi/t
OX = - J'k aE 11
. H 11 = -3.koi/t
JW¡.L a éJy
'kE
= J • "
The TE.,.,. chara.cteristic wavo impedances are therefore
l
wµ
f >f,,
(Zo),,.,.TB = E"= - E11
H11 H,.
= wµ
k.
= !
JWJJ
(4-27)
a f <f.
Similarly, for the T M,,.n modes, we have from Eqs. (3-86) and (4-19)
jwEE,,, = -jk, = jk,ll11
jwtE11 = - jk. :t = -jk,H*
¡
Thus, the TM,,.,. characteristic wave impedanccs are
f > f,,
(Zo) TM _ E,. _ - E 11 _ k, _ {4-28)
"'" - H 11 - H,. - wE - a
JWE
f <J.
It is interesting to note t hat the product (Zo),,.,.TE(Zo) ... ,.'™ = 172 at all fre-
quencies. By Eq. (4-26), fJ < k for propagating modes; so t he TE char-
actcristic wave impedances are a.lways greatcr than .,,, and the TM char-
a.cteristic wave impeda.nces are always less than 17. For nonpropagating
modes, the TE characteristic impedances are inductive, and the TM
chara.cteristic impeda.nces are capacitive. Figure 4-3 illustrates this
behavior.
Attenuation of the higher-order modes dueto dielectric losses is given
by t he same formula as for the dominant mode (see Table 2-4). Attenu-
ation due to conductor losses is given in Prob. 4-4.
4-4. Altemative Mode Sets. The classifica.tion of waveguide modes
into sets TE or TM to z is important beca.use it appJies also t o guides of
nonrecta.ngula.r cross section. However, for many rectangular waveguidc
problems, more convenient classi.fications can be madc. We now con-
sidcr these alternative sets of modes.
If, instcad of Eq. (3-84), we choose
A = u.,if (4-29)
PLA.NE WA VE FUNCTIONS 153
\ 1 \ Zo ={Ro
f >fe
-
\ J
I
\
jXo f <fe
\
\
\/
'
" - i'-...
-
I
/\
,- xo TM / VRo™
-
XoTE7 V
J
1/ \I
!/ I
o 1 2 3
f / fc
FtG. 4-3. Characteristic impedance of waveguide modes.
we have an electromagnetic field given by a set of equations differing

from Eqs. (3-86) by a cyclic interchange of x, y, z. T o be specific, the
fi.eld is given by
a2
1 ( axz
E,, = 0 + kz) Y, H.,= O
E= -
1 a2y, H =a.¡; (4-30)
11 y ax-
ay " az
1 azy,
E.= y ax az H• = - - ayª"'
This field is TM to x. Similarly, if, instead of Eq. (3-87), we choose
F = u ,,if¡ (4-31)
we have an electromagnetic field given by
E= - a.¡; (4-32)
11 éJz
·'
E = ay,
• ay
154 TIME-HABMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
This field is TE to x. According to t he concepts of Sec. 3-12, an arbi-

trary field can be e:onstructed as a superposition of Eqs. (4-30) and (4-32).
The choice of 1//s to satisfy the boundary conditions for the rectangular
waveguide (Fig. 2-16) is relatively simple. For modes TM to x (TMx,,.,.
modes) we have
"'"'"Tl4% = cos m;x sin e-ik,• (4-33)
where m = O, 1, 2, . . . ; n = 1, 2, 3, . . . ¡ and k. is given by Eq.

(4-26). The electromagnetic field is found by substituting Eq. (4-33)
into Eqs. (4-30). For modes TE to x (TEx'"" modes) we have
(4-34)
where m = 1, 2, 3, . . . ; n = O, 1, 2, . . . ; and k. is again given by

Eq. (4-26). The 6.eld is obtained by substituting Eq. (4-34) into Eqs.
(4-32). Note that the TMxo,. modes are the TEo,. modes of Sec. 4-3,
and the TEx,,.o modes are the TEmo modes. Ali other modes of Eqs.
(4-33) and (4-34) are linear combina.tions of the degenera.te sets of TE
and TM modes. Note that our present set of modes ha.ve both an E.
and H, (except for the 0-order modes). Such modes are called hybrid.
The mode patterns of these hybrid modes can be determined in the
usual manner. (Determine E, H, then S, :Je, and specialize to some
instant of time.) The TEx...omode patterns are those of the TE...omodes,
and the TMx0,. mode patterns are those of the TEo.. modes. Figure 4-4
shows the mode patterns for the TExu and TMxu modes, to illustrate
the character of the higher-order mode patterns.
The chara.cteristic impedances of the hybrid modes a.re also of interest.
For the TMx modes, we ha.ve from Eqs. (4-30) and (4-33)
H 11 = -jk.iJ;
Hence, the z-directed wave impedances are
k2
l
- (m-,;/a) 2
E. k'I. - (mTr/ a) 2 WE{3
f >J.
(Zo) ..,.™"' = H 11 = wEk, = k2 - <:n7í/ a) 2 (4-35)
-JWEot.
f <f.
Note that for a $IDall, the cutoff TMx,,.,. modes, m ha.ve ca.pa.citive
Zo's, while the cutoff TMxo.. modes ha.ve inductive Z 0's. Similarly, from
PI.A.NE WAVE FUNCTIONS 155
(a) TExu
fy
(b) TMxu
FIG. 4-4. Hybrid mode pa.tterns.
Eqs. (4-32) and (4-34) we find
l
wµ/3
-E wµ.k. k2 - (m7r / aY:
f > f,
(Zo),..,. lf% - k2 -
_
(m11'/ a)" - - jwµa
(4-36)
k 1 - (mTr/ a)i
f < f,
Note tha.t for a small1 the cutoff TEx,,.,. modes ali ha.ve inductive charac-
teristic impedances.
Sets of modes TM and TE to y can be determined by letting A = u.,t/I
and F = u 11t/I, respectively. The fields would be given by equations
similar to Eqs. (4-30) and (4-32) with x, y, z properly intercbanged.
The TMy and TEy mode functions would be given by Eqs. (4-33) and
(4-34) with mx/ a and ny/ b intercha.nged.
4-6. The Rectangular Cavity. We considered the dominant mode oí
the rectangular cavity in Sec. 2-8. Wc shall now consider t he complete
mode spectrum. The geometry of the rectangular cavity is illustrated
by Fig. 2-19.
The problem is symmetrical in x, y 1 z; so we can expresa the fields as
TE ot. TM to any one of these coordina.tes. It is conventional to cboose
the z coordina.te, and then tbe cavity modes are standing waves of t he
usual T E and TM waveguide modes. The wave functions of Eq. (4-19)
156 TIME-RARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELJDS
satisfy the boundary condition of zero tangential E a.t four of the walls.
It is merely necessary to repick h(k.z) to satisfy this condition a.t the
rema.ining two wa.lls. This is evidently accomplished if
" . m?rx . n71Y -p?rZ

"'T"'=sm -a sm-cos
mn,, b e (4-37)
with m = 1, 2, 3, .. ; n = l, 2, 3, . . . ; p = O, 1, 2, ; and Eq.

(4-20) becomes
(4-38)
The field of the TM,,.,.,, mode is given by substitution of Eq. (4-37) into
Eqs. (3-86). Similarly, t he TEmnp mode functions are given by
m11'X n'lry . p?rz
.1.TE
't'mnp
= cos -a- cos - b sm - e (4-39)
with m =O, 1, 2, . . . ; n = O, 1, 2, . . . ; p = 1, 2, 3, ;m = n = O
excepted. The separation equation remains Eq. (4-38) . The TE,,.,.,,
mode field is given by substitution of Eq. (4-39) into Eqs. (3-89).
Ai3 indicated by Eq. (4-38), ea.ch mode can exisL at only a single k,
given a, b, c. Setting k = 2-irf VEµ., we solve Eq. (4-38) for the resonant
frequencies
(4-40)
For a < b <e, the dominant mode is the TE011 mode. Ta.ble 4-3 gives
the ratio (f,),,.,.,,/(f,)011 for cavities of various side lengths. Note that
T AllLE
(/,),,.,.,.
4-3. - - FOR THE REC'rANGUt.AR
eAVITY, a< b <e
(/r)ou - -
b e TM111 TM111
-a -
a
TE011 TEIOI TMuo
TEw
TEou TEou TEm TE101 TMuo TM110
TE1u
- - - - -- - -- --- ---- - -- -- - - -
1 1 l 1 1 1.22 1.58 1.58 1.58 1.58 1.58 1.58 1.73
1 2 1 1 1.26 1.34 1.26 1.84 1.84 1.26 2.00 2 .00 1.55
2 2 1 1.58 1.58 1.73 1.58 1.58 2.91 2.00 2 .00 2.91 2.12
2 4 1 1.84 2 .00 2.05 1.26 1.84 3 .60 2.00 2.53 3 .68 2.19
4 4 1 2.91 2.91 3.00 1.58 1.58 5 .71 3. 16 3.16 5.71 3 .24
4 8 1 3.62 3 .65 3.66 1.26 1.84 7 .20 3.65 4.03 7.25 3.82
4 16 1 3 .88 4.00 4.01 1.08 1.96 7 .76 3 . 91 4.35 7.83 4.13
PLA.NE WAVE FUNCTIONS 157
the TEmnp and TMmnp modes, mnp ali nonzero, are always degenerate.
When two or more sides of the cavity are of equal length, still other
degeneracies occur. The greatest separation between the dominant mode
and the next lowest-order mode is obtained for a square-base cavity
(b = e) with height one-half or less of the base length (b/a 2::. 2). In
this case, the second resonance is v% = 1.58 times the first resonance.
The mode patterns of the rectangular cavity are similar to those of the
TE or TM waveguide modes in a z = constant plane, and similar to the
hybrid mode patterns in the other two cross sections. The most signifi-
cant difference between the waveguide patterns and the cavity patterns
is that Sis shifted from :re by >..11/4 in the latter case. Also, s and :re are
90° out of phase in a cavity; so S is zero when :re is maximum, and vice
versa. The TEou mode pattern is shown in Fig. 2-20. To illustrate
higher-order mode patterns, Fig. 4-5 shows the TE12s mode pattern.
The quality factor Q of each cavity mode can be determined by the
method used in Sec. 2-8 for the dominant mode. The Q dueto dielectric
losses is the same for all modes, given by Eq. (2-100). The Q's due to
conductor losses for the various modes are given in Prob. 4-10. Note
that t he Q increases as the mode order increases. The Q varíes roughly
as the ratio of volume to surface area of the cavity, since the energy is
Section A
Section C Section B
Fxo. 4-5. Rectangular ca.vity mode pa.ttern for the TEm mode.
158 TlME-HARMONI C ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
Fio. 4-6. A p&rtially di-

electric-filled rectangular
waveguide.
o b y
stored in the dielectric and the loases are dissipated in the conducting
walls.
4-6. Partially Filled Waveguide. 1 Consider a waveguide that is
clielectric filled between x = Oand x = d (or has two dielectrics). This is
illustrated by Fig. 4-6. The problem contains two homogeneous regions,
O < x < d and d < x < a. Such problems are solved by finding solu-
tions in each region such that tangential components of E a.nd Ha.re con-
tinuous across the common bouodary. An attempt to .find modes either
TE to z or TM to z will prove unsuccessful, except for the TE,,, 0 case.
Most modes are therefore hybrid, ha.ving both E, aud H.. An attempt
to find modes TE or TM to x will prove successful, as we now show.
For fields TM to x, we choose 1/l's in ea.ch region (regioo 1 is x < d,
region 2 is x > d) to represent the x component of A, as in Eq. (4-29).
The field in terms of the 1/l's is then giveo by Eqs. (4-30). To satisfy the
boundary conditions at the conductiog wa.lls, we take
1/11 = C1 COS k,.1X sin 7 e-flt,•
1/12 = C2 cos [kd(a - x)] sin n;y e- Jk,•

(4-41)
with n = 1, 2, 3, , , . . It has been anticipated tha.t k 11 = n,,./ b and

k. must be the same in ea.ch region for ma.tching tangential E and H at
x = d. The separation para.meter equations in the two regioos a.re
(4-42)
1 L. Pincherle, Electromagnetic Wa.ves in Metal Tubes Filled Longitudinally with
Two Dielectrics, Phys. vol. 66, no. 5, pp. 118-130, 1944.

PLANE WAVE FUNCTIONB 159
From Eqs. (4-30) and (4-41) we calcula.te
1 n?r • n?ry
E111 = - -.- C1kd -b Slll kz1X cos - b e-Jk ..
·JWE1
E 111 -.1- CJcst n?r

= jWE2 • n?rY
-b sm [k..s(a - x)] cos - b e;-f"·•
E.i = _!_ C1ks1k. sin ksix sin n?rYb e-11 ..

WE¡
Eat = - _!_ C2kdk• sin [k1>2(a - x)] sin ti?rYb e-i'k,11

WE2
Continuity of E 11 a.nd E. at x = d requires tha.t
_! C1kd sin kz1d = -

E1
IEt CJcz'l sin [ks2(a - d)] (4-43)
Simila.rly, from Eqs. (4-30) a.nd (4-41) we calcula.te
H 11 1 = -jk.C1 cos k;r;1 sin x n;; e;-ik,•
H 112 = -jk,C2 cos [kd(a - x)] sin n;y e- ,J:,.
n11' e k n11'y ik
H11 = b 1 cos z1X cos b <r' ••
H.i = nr
b C2 cos [kz2 ( a - x) ] cos n1!"Y
b e-it,s
Continuity of H 11 and H. at x = d requires that

C1 cos k;r;1d = C2 cos [k.,z(a - d)] (4-44)
Division of Eq. (4-43) by Eq. (4-44) gives
ksi tan k;r;1d = - kd tan [k,,2(a - d)] (4-45)

El E2
Both k:t a.nd kd a.re functions of k. by Eqs. (4-42) ¡ so the a.hove is a

transcendental equation for determining possible k.'s (mode-propagation
constante). Once the desired k. is found, k.,1 and k;r;t are given by Eqs.
(4-42), and the ratio C2/ C1 is given by Eq. (4-43) or Eq. (4-44).
For fields TE to x, we choose y/s in ea.ch region to represent the x com-
ponent of F. To satisfy the boundary conditions at the conducting walls,
we take
1/11 = C1 sin k;r;1X COS n;; e- Jlo,s
1/12 = C2 sin [ks2(a - x)] cos n;; e- ,J:,•

(4-46)
with n = O, 11 2, . . ; . The separation parameter equations are again

Eqs. (4-42). The field is calculated from the .¡/s by Eqs. (4-32) . A
matching of tangential E and H at x = d yields.the characteristic equa.tion
kzi cot kz1d = - kd cot [kd(a - d)] (4-471

1-'l 1-'2
The kd and k,.2 are functions of k, by Eqs. (4-42); so tho a.hove is a

traMcendental equation for determining k.1s for the modes TE to x.
The modes of the partially filled rectangular waveguide a.re distorted
versions of the T Ex and TMx modes of Sec. 4-4. The mode pa.tterns are
similar to those of Fig. 4-41 except that tho field tends to concentra.te in
the material of higher E and µ . In the lossless case, the cutoff frequencies
(k, = O) of the va.rious modes will always lie between those for tho corre-
sponding modes of a guide filled with a material E1, µi, a.nd those-of a
guide filled with a material E2, J.t2. (This can be shown by the perturba.-
tional procedure of Sec. 7-4.) In contrast to the filled guide, the cutoff
frequencies of the corresponding TEx a.nd TMx modes will be different.
Also, a knowledge of the cutoff frequencies of the partially filled guide is
not sufficient to determine k, a.t other frequencies by Eq. (4-26) . We
have to solve Eqs. (4-45) and (4-47) at each frequency.
Of special interest is the dominant mode of a partially fillcd guide.
For b > a, this is the mode corresponding to the TMxo1 mode of the
empty guido, which is also the TE01 mode of the empty guide. For a
given n, Eq. (4-45) has a denumerably infinite set of solutions. We shall
let m denote the order of these solutions, as follows. The mode with the
lowest cutoff frequency is denoted by m = O, the next mode by m = 11
and so on. This numbering system is chosen so that the TMx,,.,. partially
filled wa.veguide modes correspond to the TMx..." empty-guide modes.
The dominant mode of t he pa.rtially filled guide is then the TM:to1 mode
when b > a. Hence, the propagation consta.nt of the dominant mode is
given by the lowest-order solution to Eq. (4-45) when the k.,'s are given
by Eqs. (4-42) with n = l . Fig1tre 4-7 shows sorne calculations for the
case E = 2.45Eo.
When k1 is not very different from kt, we sbould expect ksi a.nd kd
to be small (k., is zero in an empty guide). If this is so, then Eq. (4-45)
can be approximated by
(4-48)
With this explicit relationship between k..i and k:c2, we can solve Eqs.
(4-42) simulta.neously for kd a.nd k. (givcn w). N ote tho.t whcn ku is
real, kd is ima.ginary, and vice versa. The cutoff frequcncy is obtained
by setting k, = O in Eqs. (4-42). Using Eq. (4-48), we ha.ve for the
1.6 1 1 1 1
1.2 "TU
l
,...
la f---- b -+!
E
/
_,.,...,..,..... i--
i--
V
/
/
0.4
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

af'>.o
Fta. 4-7. Propagation constant for a rectangular waveguide part.i:illy filled witb
dielectric, e - 2.45eo, a/b = 0.45, d/a - 0.50. (After Frank.)
dominant mode
k,,1'1. + = W2E1µ1
d) k.,1
2
+ = W
2
E2µ2
These we solvc for the cutoff frequency w = wc, obtaining

7r E1(a - d) + E2'.i (4-49)
:::::: b E1(a - d)E2µt + E2'.iE1µ1
va.lid when Eq. (4-48) applies. Whcn µ. 1 = µ.2 = µ. 1 this reduces to
Wc :::::: ! /E1(a - d) + E2'.i (4-50)

b "\J µE1E2a
Note that this is the equation for resonance of a parallel-plate trans-

mission line, shorted at each end, and hn.ving
L =µa C= E1E2
E1(a - d) +E'}.(].
per unit width. All cylindrical (cross section independent of z) wave-
guides at cutoff are two-dimensional resonators.
A waveguide partially filled in the opposite manner (dielectric boundary
parallel to the narrow side of the guide) is the same problem with a > b.
The dominant mode of the empty guide is then the TEx10 mode, or TE10
mode. The dominant mode of the pa.rtially filled guide will also be a
162 TIME- HARMONI C ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
TEx mode¡ so the eigenva.lues a.re found from Eq. (4-47) with n = O.
We shall order the modes by m as followa. That with the lowest cutoff
frequency is denoted by m = 11 that with the next lowest by m = 2, and
so on. Tbjs numbering system corresponda to that for the empty guide,
the dominant mode being the TEx10 mode. When ki is not too different
from k2, we migbt expect k:oi and ksi to be close to the empty-guide value
ks = w/a. An approximate solution to Eq. (4-47) could then be found
by perturbing ks1 and ks1 a.bout 7r/a. For the cutoff frequency of the
·1 Zo = 111 1 Zo = '12
¡
/J = k1 1 /J = k2
(2,'42
1
1--d · 1·
(a) (b)
Fto. 4-8. (a) Pa.rtia.lly filled wa.veguide; (b) tra.nemission-line resonator. The cutoff
frequency of the domina.nt mode of (a) is the resona.nt frequency of (b).
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

a/>..o
Fio. 4-9. Propagation consta.nt for a rectangular waveguide partially filled with
dielectric, e - 2.45eo. (After Frank.)
PLA.NE WAVE FUNCTIONS 163
X
Fxo. 4-10. The dielectric-

slab waveguide.
dominant mode, Eqs. (4-42) become

k:1
2
= k10
2
= 2
Wc EtJ.tl
k:2 2 = k2c
2
= 2
Wc E2J.t2
and Eq. (4-47) becomes
.!_ cot k1t!l = - ..!._ cot [k2.(a - d)] (4-51)

Vt V2
I t is interesting to note that this is the equation for resonance of two short-
circuited transmission lines having Zo's of v1 and v2, and fj's of k 1• and k2o,
as illustrated by Fig. 4-8. The reason for this is, at cutoff, the TEx10
mode reduces to the parallel-plate transmission-linc mode that propagates
in the x direction. This viewpoint has been used extensively by Frank. 1
Sorne calculated propagation constants for the dominant mode are
shown in Fig. 4-9 for the case e = 2.45eo. Similar results for a centered
dielectric sla.b are shown in Fig. 7-101 and the characteristic equation for
that case is given in Prob. 4-19.
4-7. The Dielectric-slab Guide. It is not necessary to ha.ve con-
ductora for the guidance or localization of waves. Such phenomena. also
occur in inhomogeneous dielectrics. The simplest illustration of this
is the guidance of waves by a dielectric slab. The so-called slab wave-
guide is illustrated by Fig. 4-10.
We shall consider the problem to be two-dimensional, allowing no
variation with tbe y coordinate. It is desired to find z-traveling waves,
that is, e-i"·• variation. Modes TE a.nd T M to either x or z can be found,
and we shall choose the latter representation. For modes TM to z, Eqs.
(3-86) reduce to
E _ -k. al/!
OX E,. = J._ (k2 - k. 2)1/1 H 11 = - al/! (4-52)
:r; - WE JWE éJx
We shall consider soparately the two cases : (1) >/¡ an odd function of x,
denoted by i/Iº, and (2) f an even function of x, denoted by t/;'. For ca.se
1 N. H. Frank, Wave Guide Handbook, MIT Rad. Lab. Rept. 9, 1942.
(1), we choose in t he dielectric region
lxl < 2 (4-53)
a.nd in the air region

a
x> -2
(4-54)
X< - -a2
We have chosen k" = u and kzo = jv for simplicity of notation. (It will
be seen later that u and v are real for unattenuated wave propagation.)
The separation parameter equations in each region become
U. 2 + k, 2 = kd 2 = w 2Edµd
(4-55)
-v2 + k, 2 = ko = w2EoJ.Lo
2
Evaluating the field components tangential to the air-dielectric interface,

we have
a
lxl < 2
a
lxl > 2
-B v2e-11ze-
E. = -.- ;k,• x>-2
a
JWEo
E. = _B v2e""'e-i"·•
:JWEo
X< - -a2
Continuity of E, and H.,, at x = ± a/2 requires that
_A u.2 sin u.a -B vie- 111112

_ = __
Ed 2 EO
A u cos u.a = - Bve- 01112

2
The ratio of the first equation to the second gives
(4-56)
2 2 Eo 2
This, coupled with Eqs. (4-55), is the characteristic equation for deter-
mining k.'s and cutoff frequencies of the odd TM modes.
For TM modes which a.re even f unctions of x, we choose
a
= A cos ux e-;k,. lxl < 2
(4-57)
a
lxl > 2
The sepa.ration para.meter equations are still Eqs. (4-55). Tbe field com-
ponents are still givcn by Eqs. (4-52). In this case, matching E, and
H 11 at x = ± a/2 yields
ua ua fdVa
- - cot- = - - (4-58)
2 2 EO 2
This is the characteristic equation for determining the k,'s and cutoff
frequencies of the even TM modes.
There is complete duality between the TM and TE modes of the sla.b
waveguide; so the characteristic equations must be dual. For the TE
modes with odd i/I we have
ua tan ua = µ" va (4-59)
2 2 µo 2
as the characteristic equation, a.nd for the TE modes with even i/I we ha.ve
u.a ua µ"va
- - cot - = - - (4-60)
2 2 "'º
2
as the characteristic equa.tion. The u's and v's still sa.tisfy Eqs. (4-55).
The odd wave functions generating the TE modes are those of Eqs. (4-53)
and (4-54), and the even wave functions generating the TE modes are
those of Eqs. (4-57). The fi.elds are, of course, obtained from the 1//s by
equations dual to Eqs. (4-52), which are, explicitly,
H =-k.<N 1 E 11 = aiJ¡
H, = - . (ki - k.2)1/1 (4-61)
"' wµ ax JWµ. ax
These a.re specializations of Eqs. (3-89).
The concept of cutoff frequency for dielectric waveguides is given a
somewhat different interpreta.tion than for metal guides. Above the
cutoff frequency, as we define it, the dielectric guide propaga.tes a mode
unattenuated (k. is real). Below the cutoff frequency, there is attenu-
ated propagation (k, = {J - ja). Since tbe dielectric is loss free, this
11ttenuation must be accounted for by radiation of energy as the wa.ve
progresses. Dielectric guides operated in a. radiating mode (below cutoff)
are used as antennas. The pbase consta.nt of an unattenuatcd mode líes
between the intrinsic phase constant of the dielectric and that of a.ir;
that is,
166 TlMFrHARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
This can be shown as follows. Equations (4-55) require that u and v be

either real or imaginary when k, is real. The characteristic equations
ha.ve solutions only when v is real. Furthermore, v must be positive,
else the .field will increase with distance from the slab [see Eqs. (4-54) or
(4-57)). When v is real and positive the characteristic equations have
solutions only when u is also real. Hence, both u and vare real, and it
follows from Eqs. (4-55) that ko < k. < ka. This result is a property of
cylindrical dielectric waveguides in general.
The lowest frequency for which una.ttenuated propagation exists is
called the cutojf frequency. From the above discussion, it is evident that
cutoff occurs as k, ko, in which case v - t O. The cutoff frequencies
are therefore obtained from the characteristic equations by setting
u = vka 2 - ko 2 and V = o. The result is
which apply to both TE and TM modes. These equations are satisfied

when
n =0 1 11 2,
This we solve for the cutoff wavelengths
= 2a _ l n = 01 11 2 1 (4-62)
n toµ o
a.nd thc cutoff frequencies

n
Íc = n =O, 11 2, . . . (4-63)
2a V EaJJ.a - EoJJ.o
The modes are ordered as TM,. and TE,. according to the choice of n in
Eqs. (4-62) and (4-63). Note thatf, for the TEo and TMo modes iszero.
In other words, the lowest-order 7'E and TM modes propagate unattenuated
no matter how thin the slab. This is a general property of cylindrical
dielectric waveguides; the cutoff frequency of the dominant mode (or
modes) is zero. However, as the slab becomes very thin, k. - t k 0 and
v - t O, so the field extends great distances from the slab. This charac-
teristic is considered further in the next section. Finally, observe from
Eq. (4-62) that when Eaµa » EoJJ.o, the cutoffs occur when the guide width
is approximately an integral number of half-wavelengths in the dielectric,
zero half-wavelength included.
Simple graphical solutions of the characteristic equations exist to
determine k. at any frequency above cutoff. Let us demonstrate this
PLANE W A.VE FUNCTIONS 167
for the TE modes. Elimination of k. from Eqs. (4-55) gives
u2 + v2 = kd 2 - ko2 = w2(Eaµd - Eoµo)
Using this relationship, we can write the TE characteristic equations al:!
:: tan
_ µo ua cot ua
=
'\J
'("'2ª)2 (Eaµd - Eoµo) - (uª)z
2
µ4 2 2
Values of ua/ 2 for the various modes are the intersections of the plot
of the left-hand terms with the circle specified by the right-hand term.
Figure 4-11 shows a plot of the left-hand terms íor µ" = µo. A repre-
sentative plot of the right-hand term is shown dashed. As w or E4 is
varied, only the radius of the circle changes. (For the case shown, only
three TE modes are above cutoff.) If µ" µo, the solid curves must be
redrawn. The graphical solution for the TM mode eigenvalues is similar.
Sketches of t he mode patterns are also of interest. Figure 4-12 shows
the patterns of the TE0 and TM 1 modes. These can also be interpreted
as the mode pa.tterns of the TMo and TE1 modes if 6 a.nd are inter-
changed, for there is complete duality between t he TE and TM cases.
__
._
-- __ ... 1
ro
..
:l.
o
,,
1
1
,,1
'
J1
·...
..........
,
.....
J1!
1
1
.....
.,
'\,
\
I
J
I
¡¡,, / ! \,I 1
/ I
1
1 / 1
1'
/
,I
I
"
1 ! }' \
1 \ I
/ ¡' '\
1
J 1
;, J 1
1 /
V 1/ 7
/
1
il V i
1
1
1
1
3u/2 2u
Fio. 4-11. Gr11ophica.l solution of tbe chara.cteristic equa.tion for the sla.b waveguide.
(ó)
Fio. 4-12. Modo pe.tterns for the dielectric-slab we.veguide. (a) T Eo mode lines
dashed); {b) TM1 mode (8 lines solid).
As the mode number increases, more loops appear within tho dielectric,
but not in thc air region.
4-8. Surface-guided Waves. We shall show that any "reactive
bounda.ry" will tend to produce wave guidance a.long tha.t boundary.
The wa.ve impeda.nces normal to the dielectric-to-air interfaces of the
slab guide of Fig. 4-10 can be shown to be reactive. A simple way of
obtaining a single reactive surface is to coat a conductor with a dielectric
layer. This is shown in Fig. 4-13.
The modes of t he dielectric-coated conductor are those of thc dielectric
slab having zero tangential E over t he x = O plane. These are t he TM,.,
n = O, 2, 4, . . . , modes (odd 1/1) and t he TE,., n = 1, 3, 5, . . . , modes
:PLA.NE WAVE FUNCTIONS 169
(even Y,) of the slab. We shall reta.in the same mode designations for the
coated conductor. The characteristic equations for the TM modes of
the coated conductor are therefore Eq. (4-56) with ºa/2 replaced by t
(coating tlµckness). The characteristic cquation for the TE modes is
Eq. (4-60') with a/2 replaced by t. The cuto.tI frequencies are specified
by Eq. (4-63), whicb, for the coated conductor, becomes
n
fe = (4-64)
4t V E!Uld - eoµo
where for TM modes n =O, 2, 4, . . . , and for TE modes n = 1, 3,
5, . . . . The dominant mode is the TMo mode, which propaga.tes
unattenuated at all frequencies. The mode pattern of the TMo mode
is sketched in Fig. 4-14.
Let us consider in more detall thc manner in which the dominant mode
decays witb distance from the boundary. .....lo the air space, the· field
attenuates as e- n. For thick coatings, k. - t kd, a.nd, from Eq. (4-55),
v - ko - - 1 (4-65)
' large e0µ 0
This attenuation is quite large for most dielectrics. For examplc, if the
coating is polystyrene (Ea = 2.56eo, µd = µo), the field in 0.12X has decayed
to 36.8 per cent of its value at thc surface. However, for thin coatings,
z
Fio. 4-13. A dielectric-eoated conductor.
Fio. 4-14. The TMo mode pattern for the coated conductor (S linea solid.)
170 TIME-BABKONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
z
Fio. 4-15. A corruga.ted conductor.
the field deca.ys slowly. In this case, k. - t and
V --4
t amrill
2Jrko ( -µ4 - -
µo
"º)-t
Ea A
(4-66)
If the polystyrene coating were 0.0001 wavelength thick, we would have

to go 40 wa.velengths from the surface before the field decays to 36.8 per
cent of its value a.t the surface. W e say that the field is "tightly bound"
to a thick dielectric coating and "loosely bound" to a thin dielectric
coating.
Another way of obtaining a reactive surface is to "corrugate" a con-
ducting surface, as suggcsted by Fig. 4-15. For a simple treatment of
the problem, let us assume that the "teeth" are infinitely thin, and that
there are many slots per wavelength. The teeth will essentially short
out any E 11, permitting only E. and E., a.t the surface. The TM fields of
the dielectric--slab guide are of thls type; hence we sha.Il assume that this
field exists in the a.ir region. Extracting from Sec. 4-7, we have
E,.=
WEQ
-B
E. = -.- v2e-o:e-11c•• x>d
JWEo
H 11 = Bve-v:e-ilc••
where (4-67)
The wave impedance looking into the corrugated surface is
z_., =E.
H
= jv
WEo (4-68)
11
Note that this is inductively reactive; so to support such a field, the

interface must be a.n inductively reactive surfa.ce. (The TE fields of
Sec. 4-7 require a ca.pa.citively reactive surface.) In the slots of the
corrugation, we assume that the parallel-plate transmission-line mode
exista. These are then short-circuited tra.nsmission lines, of cha.ra.cter-
istic wave impedance 110. Hence, the input wa.ve impeda.nce is
Z-a = i110 tan kod (4-69)
For kod < tr/2, this is inductively reactive. Equating Eqs. (4-68) a.nd
(4-69) 1 we ha.ve
v = ko tan kod (4-70)
and 1 from Eq. (4-67), we ha.ve
k. = ko V'l + tan 2 kod (4-71)
It should be pointed out that this solution is approximate, for we ha.ve
only approximated the wave impcdance at x = d. In t he true solution,
the fields must differ from those assumed in the vicinity of x = d. (We
should expect E. to termina.te on the edges of the teeth.)
Whcn the teeth a.re considcred to be of finite width, an approximate
solution can be obtained by replacing Eq. (4-69) by the average wave
impedance. This is found by assuming Eq. (4-69) to hold over the gaps,
and by assuming zero impeda.nce over the region occupied by the teeth.
The resul t is 1
k, ty tan 2 kod
where g = width of gaps a.nd t = width of teeth.

While a.t this time we lack the concepts for estimating the accuracy
of the a.hove solution, it has been found to be satisfactory for small
kod. Note that, from Eq. (4-70), the wave is loosely bound for very
small kod, becoming more tightly bound as krtl. becomes larger (but still
less tha.n 7r/ 2). The mode pattern of thc wa.ve is similar to that for the
TMo coated-conductor mode (Fig. 4-14), except in the vicinity of the
corrugations.
4-9. Modal Expansions of Fields. The modes existing in a. waveguide
depend upon the excitation of the guide. T he nonpropagating modes
are of apprecia.ble magnitude only in the vicinity of sources or discon-
tinui ties. Given the tangential components of E (or of H ) overa wa.ve-
guide cross section, we can determine the amplitudes of the various wave-
guide modes. This we shall illustrate for the rectangular waveguide.
Consider the rectangular waveguide of Fig. 2-16. Let E., = O and
E 11 = f(x,y) be known over the z = O cross section. We wish to deter-
mine the field z > O, assuming that the guide is matched (only outward-
traveling waves exist). The TEx modes of Sec. 4-4 ha.ve no E.,; so let us
1 C. C. Cutler, Electromagnetic Waves Guided by Corrugated Conducting Surfaces,
Bell Telephone Lab. Rept. MM-44-160-218, October, 1944.
172 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROM:AGNETIC FIELDS
take a superposition of these modes. This is
(4-72)
where A,,.,. are mode amplitudes and the -y..,, are the mode-propagation
consta.nts, given by Eq. (4-23). In terms of ,Y, the field is given by Eqs.
(4-32). In particular, E 11 at z = O is given by
.. .
\' \' . m'lrx
•-O= L.¡ L.¡ -y,,.,.A ..... sm a
m ry
E11 cos b
1
m- 1 n-o
Note that this is in the form of a double Fourier series: a sine series in x
and a cosine series in y (see Appendix C). It is thus evident that -y,,.,.A ..,,
are the Fourier coefficients of E 11 , or
2 E,. !al> dy E • m'lrX nry

'Y,,.,.A ..,. = E,,.,. = ab
lo O
a dx
O
11
1
s-0
sm - - cos - b
a
(4-73)
where En = 1 for n = O and En = 2 for n > O (Neumann's number). The

Am,,, and honce the field, are now evaluated. The solution for E,. = f(x,y)
and E11 = O given over the z = O cross section can be obtained from the
above solution by a rotation of axes. The general case for which both
E,. and E 11 are given over the z = O cross section is a superposition of the
two cases E,. = O and E 11 = O. The solution for the case H,. and H 11
given over the z = O cross section can be obtained in a dual manncr.
For a large class of wa.veguides, when many modes exist simultaneously,
each mode transmits energy as if it existed alone. We shall show that
t he rectangular waveguide has this property. Given the wave function
of Eq. (4-72), specifying a field accord ing to Eqs. (4-32), thc z-directcd
complex power at z = O is
P = !!
a•O
E X H * · u,. ds = -
11
loª dx lo dy [E H!]..-o 11
= loª dx !ob dy [ ¿ E ... ,, sin m;x cos

"'•"
Beca.use of the orthogonality relationships for the sinusoidal functions,

tY
c==JJ i: lncident wave
z
•I
FlG. 4-16. A capacitive waveguide junction.
this reduces to
.. ..
P = ¿¿
m-1 n - 0
(Yo)!nlEmnl 2 ;:n (4-74)
where (Yo)mn are the TEx wave admittances, given by the reciproca! of
Eqs. (4-36). The above equation is simply a summation of the powers
for the individual modes. In a lossless guide, the power for a propagating
mode is real and that for a nonpropagating mode is imaginary.
To illustrate the above theory, consider the waveguide junction of Fig.
4-16. The dimensions are such that only the dominant mode (TE10)
propaga.tes in ea.ch section. Let there be a wa:ve incident on the junc-
tion from the smaller guide, and let the larger guide be ma.tched. For
an approximate solution, assume that E11 at the junction is that of the
incident wave
, 7íZ
sm- y< e
E 11 a (4-75)
{
1z•O O y> e
From Eq. (4-73), the only nonzero mode amplitudes are
e
Eio = "Y10A10 = b
(4-76)
2 . nnrc
E 1n =
"Yin A 111 = - sin - b
n11"
Thus, only the m = 1 term of the m summation remains in Eq. (4-72).
Let us use this solution to obtain an 11 aperture admittance" for the
junction. From Eqs. (4-74) and (4-76), the complex power at z = O is
..
{<Y)*
2
p = ac
Zb
2
o io
+2 (Y)* [ sin (n7íc/b)]
o in n7rc/b
}
n-1
where, from Eqs. (4-36),

k2 - (-rr/ a)Z y l- (fcff)2
(Yoho = wµf3 = --'-----=-:.-"-'-
11
2
( Y o)in = k - .(7r/a) 2 = j2b(Yo)10
-3wµa }.11 y ni - (2b/>. 1 )i
174 TIMErHARMONlC ELECWI'ROMAGNETIC FlELDS
3
1 1 1 ' ' ' ' 1 1 1 1 1
b/>.., == 0.4
I• a .. ,
1 ' -
\
0.31 \
- 0.2, tE 1-l
2 ..--- º' \
' E = sin(11'%/ a) X
\ \\ \
'\_
' ' '\.
'\
1
'
" "' '
.......
r"\...
......... ['...,
........::
t:-....
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
c/ b·
F10. 4-17. Suscepta.nce of a capacitive apertura.
The f ,, a.nd >.0 a.re those of the TE 10 mode. We shall refer the a.perture
a-dmitta.nce to the voltage a.cross the center of the aperture, which is
V = c. The a.perture admittance is then
..
y _ p• _ (Y)
0 10
[a + 1.2a \ ' sin2 (n7rc/b) J (4-77)
ª - !VI' - 2b >-o L¡ (n:rrc/b) 2 v'n2 - (2b/Xo>2
n•l
The imagina.ry pa.rt of this is the aperture susceptance
(4-78)
where >.0 a.nd Zo a.re those of the dominant mode. Calculated values for
B 0 are shown in Fig. 4-17. For sma.11 c/b, we have 1
X0 Zo
2a B 0 - log {0.656 b
e[1 + '\}1/ - (2b)
Xo
2
] } (4-79)
1 This equation is a. qua.si-static result. The dircct specializa.tion of Eq. (4-78) to

8lllall c/b yields a. numerical factor of 0.379 instead of 0.656.
PLANE WAVE FUNCTJONS 175
tx
l ncident
Fta. 4-18. An induotive wa.veguide junotion.
The aperture susceptance is a quantity that will be useful for the treat-
ment of microwave networks in Chap. 8. Note that t he susceptance is
capacitive (positive); so the original junction is ca.lled a capacitive wave-
guide junction. Remember that our solution is only approxima.te,· since
we assuroed E in the aperture. (We shall see in Sec. 8-9 tha.t the true
susceptance cannot be greater than our present solution.) We ha.ve
assumcd that only one mode propaga.tes in the guide; hence our solution is
explicit only for
When a second mode propaga.tes, it contributes to the aperture conduct-

a.nce, and Eq. (4-78) would be summed from n = 2 to CX>, and so on.
Another problem of practica! interest is that of the waveguide junction
of Fig. 4-18. Again we assume only the dominant mode propaga.tes in
each section. Take a wave incident on the junction from the smaller
guide, and let the larger guide be matched. For an approximatc solu-
tion, we assume E 11 in the aperture to be tha.t of the incident wave
• 'lrX
sm- X< C
:::::. e (4-80)
{
0 X> C
From Eqs. (4-73), we determine the only nonzero mode amplitudes as

E _ 2c sin (mTrc/a)
(4-81)
"'º - 7ra[l - (mc/a) 2]
Thus, only the n = O term of the n suromation remains in Eq. (4-72) .
Again we can find an aperture admittance for the junction. From
Eqs. (4-74) and (4-81), the complex power a.t z = O is
2
.. 2
p = 2bc \' (Yo)* [sin (mTrc/a) ]
Tr a
2
L.¡ "'º 1 - (mc/a) 2
m-1
176 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FlELDS
where, from Eqs. (4-36),

(Yoho = Ji:_ = yl - (f,,/ f)'J.
wµfj 11
(Yo) ... o =
k2 - (m7r/a)2 = -- j
. - - 1 m>l
-Jwµa 11 2a
The voltage across the center of the a.perture is V = b. The a.perture
admitta.nce referred to this voltage is therefore
Yo = cc;::J2r (Yoho..
_ t11 L¡
\' [sin (m7rc/a) ]
2 f(m>-) 2_ } (4-S2)
1
1 - (mc/a) '\J 2a 2
m•2
The imagina.ry part of this is the aperture susceptance

..
B4 = -2>.
'17r2b a
\'[sin
L¡ 1 -
(m.,,.c/a) ]
(mc/a) 2
2
'\j 2
f(m)' _ X
(4-83)
m-.2
whicb is plotted in Fig. 4-19. The susceptance is inductive (negative);

so thc original junction is called an inductive waveguide junction. For
single-mode propagation, we must ha.ve a < X¡ so our explicit interpre-
1 1 1 1 1 1
.____
0.2
....... .::::--
-- .......
........... ...........
' :::--.." ::::--. .... V

.....
,,.a/'>-=
0.7
•
......._,
o.s--
[!]]1J1
......... E= sin (-rrx/c) X
-<
:e;- """'r-..
...::
1
0.1
o.a K
0.9' >-.... "" '
•""-l""
"..,
"' JI..
....
JI..
JI.."- ...
' ...... !'-.."JI..

.... t--..
!"---.:
.........:::
:::......
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
e/a
Fio. 4-19. Suscoptance of e.n inductive aperture.
tation of the solution is restricted to this range. For wave propa.gation
in the smaller guide, we must have e > >../2 if it is air-filled. However,
if the srnaller guide is dielectric-filled, we can have wave propagation in it
when e < >../2. Moreover, the aperture susceptance is defined only in
terms of E 11 in the aperture and has significance independent of the
manner in which this E 11 is obtained.
4-10. Currents in Waveguides. The problems of the preceding section
might be called "aperture excitation" of waveguides. We shall now con-
sider "current excitation" of waveguides. This involves the determi-
nation of modal expansions in terms of current sheets over a guide cross
section. The only difference between aperture excitation and current
excitation is that t he former assumes a knowledge of the tangential elec-
tric field and the latter assumes a knowledge of the discontinuity in the
tangential magnetic field. The equivalence principie plus duality can be
used to transforman aperture-type problem into a current-type problem,
and vice versa.
To illustrate the solution, consider a rectangula.r waveguide with a
sheet of x-directed electric currents over the z = O cross section. This is
illustrated by Fig. 3-2, where J, = uJ(x,y) is now arbitrary. We shall
assume that only waves traveling outward from t he current are present,
that is, the guide is matched in both directions. At z = O we must ha.ve
E.,, E 11 , and H., continuous. H., must also be antisymmetric about z = O¡
hence it must be identically zero, and it is convenient to use the TMx
modes of Sec. 4-4. (Note that J and its images are x-directed¡ so it is
to be expected that an x-directed A is sufficient for representing the fi.eld.)
Superpositions of the TMx modes are
.. ..
t/I+ =
2:. 2:...
m- 0 n - 1
m7rx . n7ry
Bmn + cos -a- sm - b e-'Y...• z>O
(4-84)
2: 2:
m• On- 1
Bmn- cos m;x sin n:-' e-,. . z z< O
where superscripts + and - refer to the regions z > Oand z < O, respec-
tively. The field in terms of the t/l's is given by Eqs. (4-30). Continuity
of E., and E 11 at z = O requires that
(4-85)
The remaining boundary condition is the discontinuity in H v caused by
which is
This is a Fourier cosine series in x and a. Fourier sine series in y. It is

evident that 2-y,,.nBmn are t he Fourier coefficients of J ,,, that is,
2Em {ª {6 mn . 11nry
2-y,,.nBmn = Jmn = ab }o dx }o dy J,, cosa sm T (4-86)
This completes the determination of the field. The solution for a.

y-directed current corresponda to a rotation of axes in the above solu-
tion. When both J z and J 11 exist, the solution is a superposition of the
t wo cases J 11 = O and J z = O. The solution for a magnetic current sheet
in the waveguide is obta.ined in a dual manner. A z-directed electric
current can be treated as a. loop of magnetic ourrent in the cross-sectional
plane, according to Fig. 3-3. A z-directed magnetic current is the dual
problem. Thus, we ha.ve the formal solution for a.U possible cases of
currents in a. rectangular waveguide.
It is also of interest to find the power supplied by the currents in a
waveguide. This is most simply obtained from
P = - JJE ·J: ds
•-O
= - Jº dx j
0 0
6
l
dy J! Ez •-O
We express J" in its Fourier series and evaluate Ez by Eqs. (4-30) applied
to the a.bove solution. Beca.use of the orthogonality relationships, the
power reduces to
(4-87)
where (Zo)mn are the TMx wa.ve impedances, given by Eqs.

This is a summation of the powers that ea.ch J "'" alone would produce
in the guide. In a lossless guide, the power associated with ea.ch propa-
gating mode is real, and that associated with a. nonpropagating mode is
imaginary.
As an example of the above theory, consider the coax to waveguide
junction of Fig. 4-20. This is a
waveguide "probe feed," the probe
being the center conductor of the coax. If the probe is thin, the current
on it will ha.ve approximately a sinusoidal distribution, as on the linear
antenna. With the probe joined to the opposite waveguide wall, as
shown in Fig. 4-20, the current maximum is at the joint x =a. We
therefore assume a current on the probe
I (x) cos k(a - x) (4-88)
The current sheet approximating this probe is
J11 = I (x)ó(y - e) (4-89)
PLANE WA.VE FUNCTIONS 179
Matched Matched
load I(x) load
11 Coax
F10. 4-20. A coax to waveguide junction.
where tJ(y - e) is the impulse function, or delta function (see Appendix

C). The Fouricr coefficients for the current are then obtained from
Eq. (4-86) as
J = 2Emka sin ka sin n'Tf'c/b (4-90)
"'" b[(ka)2 - (m7r)2]
This, coupled with our earlier formulas, determines the field.

In terms of this solution, !et us considcr tbe input impedance seen by
the coaxial line. The power supplied by the stub is given by Eq. (4-87).
The impedance seen by the coax is then
z, =rfri= R, + jX;
where, from Eq. (4-88), the input current is
!; = cos ka
Assume that tbe wa.veguide dimensions are such that only the TE01 mode
propaga.tes. Then only the m = O, n = l term of Eq. (4-87) is real, and
R, = ab- 1-J
4 ¡,
¡
01 2 (Zo)o1
2
o 01 ( -
-_ -a (Z) tan-ka) sm
• 2 7rC
- (4-91)
b ka b
All other terms of the summatioo of Eq. (4-87) contribute to X., How-
ever, since we assumed a. filamentary current, the series for X, diverges.
To obtain a finite X,, we must consider a conductor of finite ra.dius. For
small a, the reactance will be capacitive. In the vicinity of a = >../ 4,
we ha.ve a resona.nce, a.hove \vhich the rea.ctance is inductive. Note tha.t
Eq. (4-91) says that the input resista.nce is infinite at this resonance.
This is incorrect for an actual junction, and the error lies in our assumed
current. Equation (4-91) gives reliable input resista.nces only when we
are somcwhat removed from resonant points. [This is similar to our
linear antenna solution (Sec. 2-lO)J. Feeds in waveguides with arbi-
trary terminations a.re considered in Sec. 8-11.
180 TI.ME-HA.RMONIC ELECTROMAGNETI C FIELDS
X X
T
a
wave y z
1 l
Fto. 4-21. A pa.rallel-pla.te guide radia.ting into ha.lf-space.
4-11. Apertures in Ground Planes. We have already solved the prob-

lem of determining the field from apertures in ground planes, in Sec. 3-6.
At this time, however, we shall take an alternative approach and obtain
a different form of solution. By the uniqueness theorem, the two forms
of solution must be equal. One form may be convenient for some calcu-
lations, and the other form for other calculations.
Let us demonstrate the theory for an aperture in the ground plane
y = O, illustrated by Fig. 4-21. W e further restrict consideration to the
case E% = O, t here being only an E% in the aperture. Taking a clue from
our waveguide solution (Sec. 4-9), let us consider Fourier transforms (see
Appendix C). The transform pair for E:i over the y = O plane is
(4-92)
where a bar over a symbol denotes transform. The forro of the trans-
formation suggests that we choose as a wave function
(4-93)
which is a superposition of the form of Eq. (4-9). For our present prob-
lem, we take Eq. (4-93) as representing a field TE to z, according to
Eqs. (3-89). There is a one-to-one correspondence between a function
and its transform; hence it is evident that the transform of "1 is
(4-94)
We also can rewrite Eqs. (3-89) in terma of transforma as
Éz = -jklll{I Bs = l{I
JWµ.
H = -.kvkz lf¡ (4-95)
11 JWµ.
2 2
E.= o "" = k .- kc lf¡
n.
JWµ
Specializing the above to the y = O plane, we ha.ve

Éz 111-0 = -jk11f(k1:,ks)
A compa.rison of this with Eqs. (4-92) shows that
-1 -
f(kz,kc) = Ei:(kz,k.) (4-96)
whero E,. is given by the second of Eqs. (4-92). This completes the solu-
tion. As a word of caution, k 11 = ± y kt. - k,,2 - k, 2 is double-valued,
and we must choose the correct root. For Eq. (4-94) to rema.in finite as
y _.... oo, we must choose
k < v'kz2 + k, 2 (4-97)

k > v k:z2 + k.2
The minus sign on the lower equality is necessary to rema.in on the
same branch as designated by the upper equality.
The extension of this solution to problems in which both E. and E.
exist over the y = O plane can be effected by adding the appropriate TE
to x field to the a.hove TE to z field. I t can also be obtained as the sum
of fields TE and TM to z, orto x, orto y. The case of Hz and H11 speci-
fied over the y = O plane is the dual problem and can be obtained by
an interchange of symbols.
For simplicity, we shall choose our illustrative problema to be two-
dimensional ones. Let Fig. 4-21 represent a. parallel-pla.te wavcguide
opening onto a ground plane. If the incident wave is in the transmission-
line mode (TEM to y), it is apparent from symmetry that H. will be the
only component of H . Let us t herefore take H. as the sea.lar wavc func-
tion a.nd construct
H. =
2
1
.,,.
¡·
- IO
dk,. (4-98)
From this, it is evident that the transform of H. is

B. = f(k,,)ei"•" (4-99)
182 TIME·HARMONIC ELECTROMA.GNETIC FIELDS
From the field equations, we relate the t ransform of E to B. as
- k11 B - k.,. y
E.,.= -WE • E11 = - -
WE
• (4-100)
Specializing É .,. to y = O, we ha.ve
-1v•O = k f (k.,) = f '"

E.,. -1!.
WE - ..
E,,,(x,O)e-i'"•" dx (4-101)
from which f(k,,,) may be found. For an approximate solution to Fig.

4-21 for y> 0 1 we assume E., in the aperture to be of the form of the
incident mode, that is,
l
a
1 lxl < 2
E,,, (4-102)
111-0 o lxl > 2
a
Using this in Eq. (4-101), we find
E., 111•0 11
= k f(k"') = k
WE
2
z
sin (kz -2 ª) (4-103)
To complete the solution, we must also choose the root of k 11 for proper
behavior as y-t oo. From Eq. (4-99), it is evident that this root is
= {j Vkz2 - k2 k < lk..I (4-104)

- v'k2 - k.,2 k > lk.,I
The fields are found from the transforms by inversion.
A parameter of interest to us in future work is the aperture admittance.
To eva.luate this, we shall make use of the integral form of Parseval's
theorem (Appendix C), which is
J:. f(x)g*(x) dx = /_"'.. f(k)g*(k) dk
We can express the power per unit width (z direction) transmitted by

the apertura as
P = - f_. .. [EJI:Ji,-o dx = - 2?T f "'

1 _ .. [E.,B:J - o dk:.
11
From Eqs. (4-100) and (4-102), this becomes
p = - !:!!.
<)_
V1f
j '"
-..
.!..
k*
11
IE...12 dk... = - .!
'\
""'
¡· -..
sin2 (k,.a/2) dk
k*k
11 ...
2 ...
4
\
3 ,, .........
F10. 4-22. Aperture ad- 2 1\ .......

1
mittance of a capacitive \ r--...... 11"-Go
slot radiator. -......
1
'\ 11"-Bo
1"'- .......
r--.
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
a/>.
We now define the a.perture admitta.nce referred to the aperture voltage
¡·
V== a as
P* -4 sin2 (k,.a/ 2)
Y. = ¡v¡2 = >..11a2 - .. k'llk,.2 dk,.
Note that, by Eq. (4-104), the above integrand is real for lk,.I < k and
imaginary for jk,.I > k. We can Lherefore seµarate Ya into its real and
imagina.ry parts as
Ga = _!_
>..11a2
f" k,.2sin' k,.2 dk.,
-.t
(k,,a./2)
y k2 -
B =4-
Q ).. aª
(¡-• + 1'") k vk 2
2
sin (ki(J./2) dk
2 - k2 •
.,, -· l ., "
The a.hove integrals can be simplified to gi.ve
l
ko/ 2 sin2 w dw
>..r¡(}a = 2
o w 2 y(ka/2) 2 - w 2
(4-105)
Xr¡Bª = 2 ('" sin2 w dw
} J:a/2 w V w - (ka/2)
2 2 2
For small ka, these are1
>..r¡(}a 'K [ 1- }
xa < 0.1 (4-106)
>..11Bo 3.135 - 2 log ka
For intermedia.te ka, the a.perture conductance and suscepta.nce are
plotted in F ig. 4-22. For large ka, we ha.ve
1
The formula. for B0 is a quasi-static result. The direct specialization of tbe
second of Eqs. (4-105) to small ka gives a numerical factor of 4.232 instead of 3.135.
> 1 (4-107)
>.
....
The a.perture is capacitive, since B,. is alwa.ys positive.
Another problem of practical interest is that of Fig. 4-21 when the
incident wave is in the dominant TE mode (TE to y). In this ca.se,
E. will be the only component of E, and we shall take E. as our sea.lar
wave f unction. Analogous to t he preceding problem, we construct
E. = -1
2?r -·
f'°
f(k.:)ePr.,zeJ"•" dkz (4-108)
In terms of Fourier transforma, this is

É. = f(k.:)e'.,,•" (4-109)
From the field equations, we find the transform of H to be
iT k,. -
n 11 =-E. (4-110)
wµ.
The f(k.:) is evaluated by specia.lizing Eq. (4-109) to y = O, which gives
E.1 11-0
= f(k,.) = j•
_ ..
E.(x,O)e-ik•" dx (4-111)
For a.n approximate solution, we assume the E, in t he aperture of Fig.

4-21 to be that of the incident TE mode, that is,
l
'll"X a
cosa lxl < 2
E. (4-112)
1v-0 O a
lxl > 2
Substituting this into the preceding equation, we find
E.1 11-0
= f(k,.) = 27ra2 cos (k.:a/2)
?r
2 - (k,.a)
(4-113)
The choice of the root for kv is the same as in tbe preceding example,
given by Eq. (4-104). This completes tbe formal solution.
Let us again calcula.te the aperture admittance. The power trans-
mitted by tbe aperture is
P = f .. [E,H!J11-o dx
_ .. 1
= 271" f'° [E.R!J
-
_ .. 11 -o dk,.
where we ha.ve used Parseval's theorem. From Eqs. (4-110) and (4-113),
PLANE W AVE FUNCTIONS 185
0.8
i----
+x LL V
a /
0.6 ..____ /
..____ \ /
E = cos (7t:r;/a) ( -r¡/X)Ga V

0.4
/""
--
1 1 1 /
0.2 - -(T//'A.) Ba /
"""=
:--..__ V
-
/
_¡_.......-¡_....-- -- r--
o 0.5 1.0 1.5
a/X
Fto. 4-23. Aperture admitta.nce of an inductive slot radiator.
this becomes
p = _=._!_
27rwµ
f'" - ..
k;l.E.¡2 dk: = -211'a2
wµ.
f '° - oo
k!
[11' -
(k,p-<21 dk,.
]
We shall refer the aperture admittance to the voltage per unit length of
the aperture, which is V = l. This gives
_ P* _ -211'a2
¡v¡2 - ---¡;;¡;:- _.. [7r2 _ (k:a)2]2 dk,.
Yo -
f '° k 11 cos2 (k,.a/2)
The integrand is real for lk,.I < k and imaginary for lk:I > k.
A separa.tion
of Y0 into real a.nd imaginary parts is therefore accomplished in the same
manner as in the preceding example. The result is
11 _ 1 ( ""'12 V (ka/2) 2 - w 2 cos2 w
XGa - 2 Jo [(7r/ 2)2 - w2]Z dw
(4-114)
?!. B = -1 ( y 00
w 2
- (ka/ 2) cos w dw2 2
>- ª 2 )1c0 12 [(11'/ 2) 2 - w 2]2

For small ka, we have
?!.>- Gª
Ba
7r >-
-0.194
l a
>;: < 0.1 (4-115)
For intermedia.te ka, the aperture conducta.nce and suscepta.nce are

plotted in Fig. 4-23. For large ka,
xa > 1.5 (4-116)

186 TI ME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETI C FIELDS
Fxa. 4-24. A sheet of 2-di-

rected currents in the
y= O plane.
y
and Ba is negligible. The aperture is inductive since Ba is always

negative.
4-12. Plane Current Sheets. The field of plane sheets of current can,
of course, be determined by the potential integral method of Sec. 2-9.
We now reconsider the problem from the alternative approach of con-
structing transforms. The procedure is similar to that used in the pre-
ceding section for apertures. In fact, ü the equivalence principle plus
image theory is applied to the results of the preceding section, we ha.ve
complete duality between apertures (magnetic current sheets) and elec-
tric current sheets. However, rather than taking this short cut, let us
follow the more circuitous path of constructing the solution from basic
concepta.
Suppose we have a sheet of z-directed electric currents overa portian
of the y = O plane, as suggested by Fig. 4-24. The field can be expressed
in terms of a wave functioo representiog the z-component of ma.gnetic
vector potential. (This we know from the potential integral solution.)
The problem is of the radiation.type, requiriog continuous distributions
of eigenvalues. We anticipa.te the wave functions to be of the transform
type, such as Eq. (4-93). From Eqs. (3-86), we ha.ve the transforms of
the field components for the TM to z field, given by
(4-117)
B, =o
These are dual to Eqs. (4-95). We construct the transform of 1" as
,¡;+ = ¡ +(k:,k.)ei"'••11 y> O
(4-118)
1/t- = ¡-(k:,k.)eik,-11 y< O
For the proper behavior of the fields at large ¡y¡, we must choose k11+,
as in Eq. (4-97), and k 11- the other root. Tha.t is,
k < v1c=2 + k,2 (4-119)

k > v1c=2 + k,2
Our boundary conditions at the current sheet are continuity of E,,, and
E 11 , and a discont.inuity in H.,, according to Eq. (1-86). The bouodary
condition on E., and E 11 leads to f+ = ¡-, and the boundary condition on
H., then leads to
(4-120)
where J,, thc transform of J,, is

(4-121)
This completes the determination of the field transforms. The field is

given by the inverse transformation.
Our two solutions (potential integral and tra.nsform) plus the unique-
ness theorem can be used to establish mathemat.ical identities. For
example, consider the current element of Fig. 2-21. The potential inte-
gral solution is A = u.Y, where
Jle-ikr
"' =-- 4?rr (4-122)
r = V x2 + y2 + z2
For the transform solution,
J. = Il ó(x) ó(z)
J-• = 47r2
1 - .. f"' f"'- .. J ,e-ik1=e-;k,• dx dz Il
= 47r2
Hence, for y > O we have A = u,lf where

jll
"1 = -811" f "'
2 - ..
J. 1 1. 11 1.
_., k11 efk.=e "• e "·' dk: dk,
- (4-123)
where k11 = k,,+ is given by Eq. (4-119). In this example, if as well as the
field is unique. Hence, equating Eqs. (4-122) and (4-123) 1 we ha.ve

the identity
e- ;1tr
-
r
= -2.
1 /'° /'°
7rJ _., -•
e-i11v1c•-1c,•-k,•
vk2 k 2
- ... - •
k 2 e'7t•zejk,a dkz dk. (4-124)
Thls holds for all y, since k 11 changes sign as y changes sign.

We ha.ve coosidered explicitly only sheets of z-directed current. The
solution for x-directed current can be obtained by a rotation of coordi-
na.tes. When the current sheet has both x and z components, the solu-
tion is a. superposition of the x-directed case and the z-directed case. The
solution for magnetic current sheets is dual to that for electric current
sheets. Fina.Uy, if the sheet contains y-directed electric currents, we can
convert to the equiva.lent x- and z-directed magnetic current sheet for a
solution, and vice versa. for y-directed magnetic currents.
A two-dimensional problem to which we shall ha.ve occa.sion to refer in
the next chapter is that of a. ribbon of a.xiaHy directcd current, uniformly
distributed. This is shown in Fig. 4-25. The parameter of interest to us
is the "impedance per unit length," defined by
p
z = 17r (4-125)
where P is the complex power per unit length and I is the total current.
Rather than work through the deta.ils, let us a.pply duality to the aperture
problem of Fig. 4-22. According to the concepts of Sec. 3-6, the field
y > O is unchanged if the aperture is replaced by a magnetic current
ribbon K = 2V. This ribbon radiates into whole space; so the power
pcr unit length is twice that from the a.perture. The admittance of the
magnetic current ribbon is thus
Z y P* 2P:.,..l IL y
....,rib = ¡¡qi = ¡2 v¡ 2 = 72 •P••l
where the aperture adrnittance

J. Y •.,.,l = Go + jBa
is given by Eq. (4-105), which we can
y represent by
1
Yapor' = "IA f(ka)
By duality, we ha.ve the radiation im-

peda.nce of the electric current ribbon
given by
1 .,, .,,2
F:IO. 4-25. A ribbon of current.
Zoleorlb = 2 ">;: J(ka;.} = 2 Yaperi (4-126)
PLANlt \VAVE FUNCTIONS 180
(Compare this with Prob. 3-7. The factor-of-two difference arises
because the aperture of Fig. 4-22 radie.tes into half-spa.ce and the twin-
slot line sees a.ll-spa.ce.) For narrow ribbons1 we ha.ve from Eqs. (4-106)
and (4-126)
z..... lb (r + j(3.135 - 2 log ka)] (4-127)
This we sball compare to the corresponding Z for a oyllnder of current in

Sec. 5-6.
PR.OBLEMS
• -1. Show that Eq. (4-9) is á solutlon to thc scalar Helmholtz equation.
•-2. For k - fJ - ja, show that
sin kz - sin {Jx cosh ax - ; cos fjz sinh az
coa kx ... cos {Jx cosh az + j sin fjz sinh az
4-8. Derive Eqs. (4-17).
6-6. Following the method used to cstablisb Eq. (2-93), show tbnt the attenuation
constant due to conductor loases in a rectangular waveguide is given by Eq. (2-93)
for all TEo.. modes nnd by
(a) ., [ (a + b)(f./!)
1+ / bm' + an• J
('7c)2bt.in'
• '"" 11 ab ../1 - (f.IJ)' "V 1 - + a'n
1
for TE.... modes, m and n nonzero, and by
2dt
(a.) "'" ... --:--;::::=:;:::;::;::;::; m'b* + n'a'
.,,ab v'l - (f./n' m•b• + n'a'
for TM.. ,. modes.
4-G. An air-filled rectangular waveguide is needed for operation at 10,000 mega.-
cycles. It is desired to havc single-mode operation over a 2: 1 froquency range, with
center frequency 10,000 megaeycles. It is also desired to havo maximum power-
handling capacity under these conditions. Determino the waveguide dimensiona and
thc attenuation conste.nt of the propago.ting mode for copper waUs.
•-6. For e. pa.rallel-ple.te wa.veguide formed by conductora coverlng the y - O and
11 • b planes, show tha.t
.¡,,.TB - COS bnir11 0-lt,• n • 1, 2, 3, . . .
are the mode functions genera.ting the two-dimeneione.l TE,. niodéa acéording to Eqi.
(3-89), and
n - 1, 2, 3, . ..
e.re the mode functione gonera.ting the two-dimcnsional TM,. modos aocording to Eqe.
(3-86). Show that the TEM mode is generated by
190 TIME- HARMONlC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
•-7. Show tbat an alternative set of mode functions for the parallel-plate wa.ve-
guide of Prob. 4-6 are
·'· TE.e
't"n
= cos nTy
b n =O, 1, 2, ..
which genera.te the T E:i:n modes according to Eqs. (4-32), and
n ,_ 1, 2, 3, ..
which genera.te the TM:i:.. modes according to Eqs. (4-30). Note that n = O in tbe
above T E:i: mode function gives the T EM mode.
4-8. Show that the TEx and TMx modes of Sec. 4-4 are linear combinations of the
T E and TM modes of Sec. 4-3, that is,
EmnTE• = A (E.,,.TE + BEmnTM)

H ... n™• = C(H,,.nTE + DH..n™)
Determine A, B, O, aod D.
4-9. Show that the resonant frequencies of the two-dimensional (no z variation)
resonator formed by conducting ple.tes over the x "" O, x = a, y = O, and y - b planes
are the cutoff frequencies of the rectangular waveguide.
4-10. Following the method used to establish Eq. (2-101), show tha.t tbe Q dueto
conductor losses for the various modes in a rectangular cavity are
TE r¡abck,.3
(Q.)h,. = 2<R(bckr2 + 2ackv2 + 2abk.1)
TE .,,abck.'
(Q,),,.o,. = 2Gl(ackr1 + 2bck,. + 2abk,2)2
TE _ r¡abck,.,/kr3
(Q.),,.n,. - 4Gl(bc(k,.11 4 +k 11
2 k, 1) + ac(k,.114 + k,.1 k, 2) + abk
0
k, 2 )
2
TM r¡abckr3
(Q.) ..,.o = 20l(abk.a + 2bck,t + 2ack 2) 11
TM r¡abck,.,ikr
(Q,),,.,.,. 4<R[b(a + c)k,. 2 + a(b + c)k112)
where k = mT k11 =Tn'll" 7J1r
k . =e
" a
k,. 11 = v'k,. 2 + k11* kr = Vk,, + k + k,*
1
11
2
4-11. Calcula.te the first ten higher-order resonant frequencies for the rectangular
cavity of Prob. 2-38.
4-12. Oonsider the two-dimensional parallel-plate waveguide formed by conductors
over the x - Oand x = a planes, a.nd dielectrics e, Ior O < x < d and ei for d < x < a.
Show that for modes TM to x t he cqua.tion is Eq. (4-i5) with
and for modes T E to x the characteristic equation is Eq. (4-47). Note that no mode
T EM to z (the direction of propagation) is possible.
'-18. Show tha.t the lowest-order TM to z mode of Prob. 4-12 reduces to the
tra.nsmission-line mode cither a.s E1 -+ o a.nd µ.1 -+ µ.2 or as d-+ O. Show that, if
a « >.t,
for the dominant mode. Show that the static inducta.nce a.nd capacita.nce per unit
width and length of the t ransmission line are
L = µ.1d + "'2(a - d)
The usual transmission-line formula k. = "' VLC t herefore applies if a is small.

Also, the field is almost TEM.
4-14. Consider the dominant mode of the partially filled guide (Fig. 4-6) for b > a.
When d is small, Eq. (4-4-0) can be approximated by Eq. (4-48) for the dominant
mode. Denote the empty-guide propaga.tion constant (d = O) by
and show, from the Taylor expa.nsion of Eq. (4-48) about d ""' O a.nd k. = Po, that for
small d
4-15. Consider the dominant mode of the partia.lly filled guide (Fig. 4-6) for a > b.
Denote the empty-guide propa.ga.tion constant (d = 0) by
and show, from thc Ta.ylor expansion of the reciprocal of Eq. (4-47) about d - O a.nd
k. = Po, tha.t for small d
- µ. (!)
2 21
k• ... Po + P.iµ.JJo 2 + µ. (k1
a a 3112/Jo
11" 2 - k1')
a
4-16. Show that the resona.nt frequencies of a partially filled rectangular cavity
(Fig. 4-6 with additional conductors covering tbe z = O and z = e planes) are solu-
tions to Eqs. (4-45) and (4-47) with
k,,1 2 nr) + (pr)'

+ (T
1
-e = k1'
k.,2
1
+ (bn1r)2+ (p-rr)t
e - ks
2
where n =- O, 1, 2, . . . ; p = O, 1, 2, . . . ; n • p "" O excopted.

4-17. For the partially filled cavity of Prob. 4-16, show that if e > b >a, the
resonant frequency of the dominant mode for small d is given by
"1r - CllO (/Al Ct) dl

1 - - - -
[ 1 - -2 112 El G
192 TI ME-BARMONIC E LECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
where coo is the resonant frequency of the empty cavity,
"'º = _ l
v';;;; b
+ (!)'
e
Hint: Use the results of Prob. 4-14.

4-18. For the pa.rtia.lly filled ca.vity· of Prob. 4-16, show tbat if e > a > b, the
resonant frequency of the domina.nt mode for small d is given by
w _ "'º [ 1 _ _c_
2_ _T2µ1 (t1µ1_ i)
¡.12 a2 + a c1 3¡.12 tt¡.12 a
wbere "'ºis the resono.nt frequency of the empty cavity
"'º = 1
'\/'e:µ2 a
+ (!)'
e
H inl: Use the results of Prob. 4-15.

4-19. Considera rectangular waveguidc with a centered dielectric slab, as shown in
the insert of Fig. 7-10. Show that the charaeteristic equation Cor determiniog the
propagation constants of modes TE to x is
k-co
.. o t
¡.io
(k..oa--2- d) - 7i
k,.1 (k d)
tan .:12
and for modes T M to x it is
::ºtan ( k..o a d) cot ( k,,1 Ü

where k,.o2 + (n;)' + k, 2
• ko 2 = co 2Eo¡.io
+ (7) + k,'
2
2 1
k .. 1' • k1 - co e1¡.11
The dominant mode is the lowest-order TE mode (smallest root for n = O).
4-20. Derive Eq. (4-58).
4-21. A plane slab of polystyrene (tr • 2.56) is cootimcter thick. Wba.t slab-
guide modes will propaga.te una.ttenuated ata frequency of 30,000 megacycles? Cal-
culatc the cutoff frequencies of these modes. Using Fig. 4-11, determine the propa.-
gation conste.nts of thc p'ropaga.ting TE modes a.t 30,000 megacycles. Determine the
propa.gation constants of the propagating TM modes by numerical solution of Eq.
(4-56) or (4-58). How can the cutoff frequencies of corresponding TE and TM modes
be tbe samc, yet the propagation constants be different?
4-22. By a Ta.ylor expa.nsion of Eq. (4-56) about a - O, v - O, show that the
dominant T M mode of the slab guide (Fig. 4-10) is cba.racterized by
11 •
fO
-
(k d2 - ko') -a
fd 2
for small G. Similarly, show that tbe dominant TE mode is characterized by
V - (k.t1 - ko1)
"'" 2
for sma1l a. In eacb oase, the propagation constant is given by
11'
k. - ko +-
2ko
4-28. A pla.ne conductor has been coa.ted witb shellac (€Jo ... 3.0) to a thlckness of
0.005 inch. lt is to be uaed in a 30,000-megacycle field. Will a.ny tightly bound
surface wave be possible? Calcula.te the a.ttenuation constant in the dircction per-
pendicular to tbe coated conductor.
4-24. For the corrugated conductor of Fig. 4-15, it is desired tba.t tbe field be
attenuated to 36.8 per cent oí its sur(ace va.lue at one wavelength írom the surface.
Determine the mínimum depth of slot needed.
4-26. Suppose that the slots of the corruga.ted conductor of Fig. 4-15 a.re filled
witb a dielectric cha.racterized by fd, P.d· Show that for this ca:;e
11 - k, tan ktJd
k. = ko '11 + ''"'º fOP.tJ tan 1 k,¡d

whcre k, ca w -v;;;;,,.
4-26. Use tbe TE:!: mode functions of Prob. 4-7 for the parallel-plate waveguide
formed by conductors covering tho 11 ... Oand 11 ... b planes. Show that a ficld having
no E:a is given by Eqs. (4-32) with
.
t/t ... L
n•O
A. cos n;;' e-r·• z >o
where A,.= -b
fn
'>'•
f. b
O
E'll 1
a•O
n'lf1J d11
cos-b
4-27. Considcr the junction of two parallel-plate transmission lines of beigbt e for
z < O and hcight b for z > O, with the bottom plate continuous. (Tbe cross section
is that of the second drawing oí Fig. 4-16.) Using the formulation of Prob. 4-26,
show that the aperture susceptance per unit width referred to the apertura voltage is
B _ 4 \'
..
sin 1 (nrc/b)
0
- ,,>. (n,,-c/b)S Vn' - (2b/>.) 2
n•l
where a constant E'll has been assumed in tho aperture. Compare this with Eq. (4-78).
4-28. The centered capacitive wo.veguide j unction is shown in Fig. 4-26. Show
that the aperturo susceptance referred to the ma.ximum aperturo voltage is given by
Eq. (4-78) with )., replaeed by 2>-e. It is assumed that E,, in tho apertura is that of
tbe incident mode.
lncident
wave
t
z
F10. 4-26. A centered co.pacitive waveguide junction
194 TIME· HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
lncldent
wave
z
Fxo. 4-27. A centered inductive waveguide junction.
4-29. Consider tbe centered inductive waveguide junction oí Fig. 4-27. Assuming
that E,, in the aperturo is t hat of the incident mode, show tbat the aperture suscept-
ance reíerred to the ma.ximum aperture voltage is given by
..
-sx
B. "" ,.,,,.2b a
\' [ cos (mr c/2a)]'.
1 - (me/ a)' ""\/ 2
-
x
3,6,7, •••
4 -SO. In Eq. (4-83), note that as e/a-+ O the summa.tion becomes simila.r to a.n
integration. Uso tbe analogy me/a,..., :i: ande/a,..., d:i: to show that
- -b11 B.---+ -l1 /c '" ( -

sinrz
- )' :z:dz
X c/ o--+O r O 1 - :i:'
lntegrate by parts, and use the identity 1
( .. sin 2r:t dz ... ( 2... sin y dy - Si(2ir)

Jo z' - 1 Jo y
to show that - Si(2ir) = 0.226
X e/a-o 2ir
4-31. Let there be a sheet of y-directed current J,, over the z • O plane of a. pa.rallcl-
pla.te waveguide formed by conductors over the y - O and y - b planes. The guide
is matched in both the +z and -z directions. Show that the field produced by the
current sheet is
.. t >o
\' A,. cos n..ry e-Y.l•I - { Hª
b -H. z<O
11-0
fa [b nry
where A .. ... 2b Jo J,,(y) cos T dy
4-32. Let the current sheet oí Prob. 4-31 be z-directed instea.d of y-directed. Show
that field produced by thie :t-directed ourrent sheet is
..
E. = l
n-1
B,. sin n;7' e-,.,.¡.¡
jwµ ( b . nry
where B. - -,.b Jo J.(y) sm T d11
1
D. Bierens de Haan, "Nouvelles tables d'intégralee défüues," p. 225, table 161,
no. 3, Hafner Publishing Company, New York, 1939 (reprint).
PLANE WA VE FUNCTIONS 195
4-U. Co11Sider t be coa.x to wa.veguide junction of Fig. 4-28a. Only tbc TE01 mode
propaga.tes in tbe wa.veguide, which is matebed in both directions. Assume tbat tbe
current on the wire va.ries ascos (kl), where lis tbe diata.nce from thc end of tbe wire.
Show that the input resistance seen by the coax is
R = (Z 0) 01 [ sin (rrc/b) sin kd]

2
' b ka cos k(c+ d)
where (Zo)o1 is the TE01 characteristic wa.ve impedance.
xi--b--·I
T
a
l y
(a) (b)
Fto. 4-28. Coa.x to wa.veguide junctions.
4-34. Suppose that the coax to waveguide junction of Prob. 4-33 is changed to
tha.t of Fig. 4-28b. Show that tbe input resistance seen by the coo.x is now
R .., (Z 0) 01 { ªin ('lfc/b)[sin k(c +

d) - sin kc)} '
' b ka cos k(c d) +
4-35. By expanding (sin w/w) 2 in o. Taylor series about w = O, show tbat the first
of Eqs. (4-105) becomes
>..r¡(J. - 11" [1 - 16 (kª)' 1( 2ka) ' - 1008

2 + 60 1 (kª)'
2 + . . .]
lm
4-36. Considcr the second of Eqs.
(4-105) as thc contour integral w plane
>..17 B,. - Re
[1 w' VW -
(1 - eibo)dw J
Ca (ka/2) 1
where C1 is shown in Fig. 4-29. Consider
the closed contour C1 + e, + c.. + Co,
and expresa >...,,B. in terms of a. contour ka/2 Re
integral ovcr C2 and Co. Show that e.s
ka/2 becomes large, this last contour
integral reduces to the second of Eqs.
(4-107).
F 10. 4-29. Contours Cor Prob. 4-36.
196 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIO FIELDS
t-87, By expanding cos1 to/((r/2)1 - w1 ) 1 in a Ta.ylor series about 10 ... O, show
that the first of Eqs. (4-114) becomee
where b1 - +i.o
b, - -0.467401
ba • +0.189108
b, - -0.055613
b, - +0.012182
b, - -0.002083
t-88. Specialize the second of Eqs. (4--114) to the case a • O, integrate by parta,
and use the identity (see Prob. 4-30)
( • sin 2x dz _ ! ( .. sin y d11 _ ! Si(r)
Jo (,../2) 1 - x• r Jo y .,,
to show that - !! Si(T) - .! - 0.194

X o-O 2r r 1
•-89. Show tba.t the tirst of Eqs. (4-114) reduces to thc contour integral
T/
X
G
11
ka.... ..
ka Re [
8
r (1 + ei'W) dw]
Je, [(r/2) 2 - w'P
wherc C, is shown in Fig. 4-30. Consider the closed contour C1 + C, +c. +C.,
and expresa G,. in terma of a contour integral over C, and C0• Evaluate this la.st
contour integral, and show that
lm X
w plane
-r
+E a
t ""y
a
_L
C1 w/2 C1 Re
1
Fro. 4-30. Contours for Prob. 4-39. Fto. 4-31. Two parallel-plate transmis-
sion linea radiating into half-space.
•-'<>. Two parallel-plate transmission linea opening onto a conductine; plane are
excited in opposite phase and equal magnitude, as shown in Fig. 4-31. Assume E. in
the aperture is a oonstant for ea.ch line, a.nd show tbat the aperture suscoptance
refcrrcd to the aperture voltage of one line is
8
Go = - /c sin' w dw
x,, o w2 v' (ka)' - w2
8
B .. - -
Ji "" sin' w dw
X11 wi v'w2 - (ka)'
4-41. Construct the vector potential A ... u¡./! for a sheet of z...directed currente
over the y - O plane (Fig. 4-24) by (a) the potential integral method and (b) the
transform method. Show by use of Green's second identity [Eq. {3-44)) that the
two .¡Is are equal. Specíalize the potential integral solution to r - t oo, and show that
!/; __...
,..... -
e- fJi?
4 ,,.,.
J, ( -k coa 4> sin 81 -k cos 8)
where J.(k11 1k,) is given by Eq. (4-121).

,-ü. Suppose that the current in Fig. 4-25 is :c-directed rather than
and oí magnitude
w-X a
J,. IQ coa - lzl < 2
a
Show tha.t tbe impeda.nce per unit length, defined by Eq. (4-125), wbere I is the
currcnt per unit length, is given by Eq. (4-126), where is now the aperture
adroitta.nce of Fig. 4-23.
Í' >
CHAPTER 5
CYLINDRICAL W AVE FUNCTIONS
6-1. The Wave Functions. Problems having boundaries which coin-

cide with cylindrical coordinate surfaces are usually solved in cylindrical
coordinates. 1 We shall usually orient the cylindrical coordinate system
as shown in Fig. 5-1. We first consider solutions to the scalar Helmholtz
equation. Once we ha.ve these scalar wave functions, we can construct
electromagnetic fields according to Eqs. (3-91).
The scalar Helmholtz equation in cylindrical coordina.tes is
!P ap (Paif;)
ap + _!_ aq,
a;¡, + a;¡,
p2 az +2 2
k;fl = 0 (5-1)
which is Eq. (2-7) with the Laplacian expressed in cylindrical coordi-

na.tes. Following t he method of separation of variables, we seek to find
solutions of the form
t/I = R(p)<t>(<J>)Z(z) (5-2)
Substitution of Eq. (5-2) into Eq. (5-1) and division by .¡ yields
2
1 d ( dR) 1 d <1> 1 d2Z
pR dp P dp + p2él.> dq, 2 + Z dz2 + k2 = O
The third term is explicitly independent of p and q,. It must also be

independent of z if the equation is to sum to zero for all p, q,, z. Hence,
1 d 2Z
- - = -k2 (5-3)
Z dz 2 •
where k. is a constant. Substitution of this into the preceding equation

and multiplication by p 2 gives
.!!.. .!:._ (P dR)

R dp dp
+ <t>_! dq,
d2<f> + (k2 -
2
k.2)p2 = O
Now the second term is independent of p and z, and the other terms are
1
The term "cylindrical" is often used in a more general sense to include cylinders
of arbitrary cross section. We are at present using the term to mean "oircularly
cylindrical."
198
CYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 199
independent of </>. Hence, z
1 d2ip
- - = -n2 (5-4)
ip d<j>2
where n is a constant. The pre-

z
ceding equation then becomes
y
d(P -dR)
-p -
Rdp dp
- nt + (k: - k.2)p: = O
(5-5)
F10. 5-1. Cylindrioa.l coordinates.
which is a.o equa.tion in p only.
The wa.ve equation is now sepa.rated. To summarize, define k, as
k,2 + k. 2
= k2 (5-6)
and write the sepa.rated equa.tions [Eqs. (5-3), (5-4), and (5-5)] as
d( dR)
P dp dp + [(k,p)2 -
P n2]R = O
d</> 2 + n2'P = O {5-7)
+ k. z =o
2
The cp a.nd Z equa.tions are ha.rmonic equations, giving rise to ha.rmonic

functions. These we denote, in general, by h(n</>) and The R
equation is Bessel's equation of order n, solutions of which we sha.11 denote
in general by B,.(k,p). 1 Commonly used solutions to Bessel's equation
are
B,.(k,p) ,...._, J,.(k,,p), N,.(k,p), H 11 Cl>(k,p), H,.< 2>(k,p) (5-8)
where J ,.(k,p) is the Bessel function of the first kind, N ,.(k,p) is the
Bessel function of the second kind, H,.<l)(k,p) is the Hankel function of
the first kind, and H ,.<2>(k,p) is the Hankel function of the second k.ind.
These functions are considered in some detail in Appendix D1 a.nd we
shall discuss them la.ter in this section. Any two of the functions of Eq.
(5-8) are linearly independent solutions; so Brt(k,p) is, in general, a linear
combination of any two of tbem. According to Eq. (5-2), we can now
form solutions to the Helmholtz equation as
(5-9)
is more usual to denote solutions to Bessel's equation by Z.(k,p), but we wish to

1 It
avoid confusion witb our Z(z) function and witb impedances.

200 Tllf&-HARKONIC JlLECTROYAONETIC l'IELDS
where k, and k. are interrelated by Eq. (5-6). W e call theee "1 elemenl.ary
wave ju:ncliom.
Linear oombina.tions of the elementary wave {unctions a.re aleo solu-
tions to the Helmholtz equation. We can sum over possible vo.lues
(eigenvalues) of n and k,, or of n and k. (but not over k, and k. for tbey
ate interrelatoo). For example,
"- f c•. ...li.

- ¿" ¿... c.....B..(k,p)h(ntl>)h(k.z> (5-10)
where the c.....are constante, is a eolution to the Helmholtz equation.

We can also integra.te over the sepamtion constants, e.lthough n is usu-
ally di8crete (this is discussed below). We sha.111 however, ha.ve occa.sion
to integrate over either k, or k.. Thus, possible solutions to the Helm-
holtz equation are
1/1 - l f,.J. (k.)B,.(k,p)h(n<P)h(k,z) dk. (5-11)
1/1 = ¿" /", g,.(k,)B,.(k,p)h(nq,)h(k,z) dk, (5-12)

"
where the integra.tions are ovcr o.ny contour in the complex plano a.nd
/,.(k,) a.nd g,.(k,) are functions to be determined from bounda.ry condi-
tions. We aba.U use Eq. (5-11) to construct Fourier integrals, as we did
in Chap. 4. Equa.tion (5-12) is used to construct Fourier-Bessel integra.Is.
We discussed the interpretation of the harmonic funotioos in Seo. 4-1,
a summary being given in Table 4-1. The z coordina.te of the cylindrioa.l
coordina.te system is also one of the rectangular coordinates; so the same
consideratioos that dicta.ted the choice of h(k.z) in Chap. 4 apply at
present. The 4> coordinate is an angle coordinate and, as such, places
restrictions on the choice of h(nq,) a.nd n. For example, if we desire the
field in a cylindrical region containing a.U ef, from O to 21", it is necessary
tha.t = + 2r) if '/! is to be single-valued. This means tha.t
h(n.¡i) must be periodic in 4', in which case n must be an integer. In
most cases, we choose sin (ncf>) orcos (ntjr) ora linear combination oí the
two, a.lthough in some cases the exponentials el"• a.nd tri"• are more
descriptive, or ea.sier to deal with analytically. Thus, the n summa.tione
of Eqs. (5-10) to (5-12) e.re usua.lly Fourier series on "'·
Now, consider the various solutions to Bessel's equation. Graphs of
the lower-order Bessel functions are given in Appendix D. We note that
only the J n(kpp) ftlnctions are nonsingula.r at p = O. Hence, if a. field is
to be finite at p ... O, the B,.(k,p) must be J .(k,p), and the elementa.ry
OYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 201
wa.ve f unctions .are of the form
.r.. • = J " (kPp)ein9'eik,• p = Oincluded (5-13)
We bave written the harmonic functions in exponential forro, which is
still genéral since sines and cosines are linear combinations of them.
Note. . .from
. Eq. (5-6) that kp = ± yk 2 - 1'.2 is indeterminate with
respect to sign. Our convention will be to choose the root whose real
part is positive, that is, · Re (kp) > 0. 1 Now consider the asymptotic
expressions for the various solutions to Bessel's equation [Eqs. (D-11)
and (D-13)]. Note that R11<2>(kpp) are the only solutions which vanish
for large p ü kp is complex. They represent outward-traveling waves ü
kp is real. Therefore, ü there are no sources at infinity, the Bn(kpp) must
be H,.<2>(kpp) if p oo is to be included. Hence, the elementary wave
functions become
'''k '· = H n c2>(kp p)ein•eik.•
'I' ptn1lli'• p oo included (5-14)
Other choices of cylinder functions are convenient in certain cases, as we
shall see when we apply them.
Insight into the behavior of solutions to Bessel's equation can be gained
by noting their similarities to harmonic functions. It is evident from the
asymptotic formulas of Appendix D that, except for an attenuation of
1/ykp, the following qualitative analogies can be made:
J n(kp) analogous tocos kp
N,.(kp) analogous to sin kp
(5-15)
H,.<ll(kp) analogous to eikp
H,.<2>(kp) analogous to e-ikp
For example, J n. and N" exhibit oscillatory behavior for real k, as do the
sinusoidal functions. Hence, these solutions represent cylindrical stand-
ing waves. The H,.<o and H,.<2> functions represent traveling waves for
k real, as do the exponential functions. They therefore represent cylin-
clrical traveling waves, H ..(l) representing inward-traveling waves and
Hn<2> representing outward-traveling waves. 2 If k is complex, the travel-
ing waves are attenuated or aug:mented in the direction of travel (in
addition to the I / y kp factor). When k is imaginary (k = -ja), it is
conventional to use the modified Bessel functions In and Kn, defined by
l.,(ap) = jnJ,.( - jap)
(5-16)
1 If kp is imagina.ry, choose the root according to the limit Im (k)-+ O.

t This direction of wave travel is a consequencc of our choice of e'"'' time v&riation.
If we bad initially chosen e-f<»t, then our interpretation of HnC1>e.nd Hn<•> would be
reversed.
202 TIME-HARMONIC E LECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
These are real when ap is real. From their asymptotic beha.vior, Eqs.
(D-19), it is evident tha.t we have the qua.lita.tive analogies
l,.(ap) analogous to eª'
(5-17)
K,.(ap) ana.logous to e-ªP
From these it is apparent that the modified Bessel functions a.re used to
represent eva.nescent-type fields. Tha.t the va.rious analogies of Eqs.
(5-15) and (5-17) exist is no coincidence. Both Bessel's equation a.nd
the harmonic equation a.re specializations of the wa.ve equa.tion. In the
case of waves on water, a dropped stone would give rise to "Bcssel func-
tion" waves, while the wind gives rise to " ha.rmonic function" waves.
T able 5-1 summarizes the properties of solutions to Bessel's equation.
Our understanding of the physical interpretation, given in the last col-
umn, will increase as we apply the various functions to specific problems.
When k = O, we ha.ve the degenera.te Bessel functions
B o(Op) ,....., 1, log p
B,.(Op),....., p", p_,. n
Note tha.t t hese are essentially the small-argument expressions for J ..
and Nn.
To express an electromagnetic field in terms of the wave functions 1/1,
the method of Sec. 3-12 can be used. The unit z-coordinate vector is a
consta.nt vector; so we can obtain a field TM to z by letting A = u•.p
and expanding Eqs. (3-85) in cylindrical coordinates. The result is
E = ! a2i¡t H = ! alf¡
p
E _ 1
y éJp az
a2if¡
p p ª"'ª1/1
• - gp ª"' az H• = - -iJp (5-18)
Ee = fi1 (ª2 + k2)1/t

az2
which a.re sufficiently general to expresa any TM (no H.) field existing in
a homogeneous source-free region. Similarly, we can obtain a field TE
to z by letting F = u,1/t and expanding Eqs. (3-88) in cylindrical coordi-
na.tes. The result is
E,= - ! iJl/t
p ª4>
E•= a.¡, (5-19)
i)p
E.= O
TA.BLE 5-1. PnoPERTIES oF SoLUTJONS TO BEBSEL's EQuATION (-y - 1.781) *t
Altern&tive SmaU-ar¡¡umeot L&rge-argu ment

B.(kp) Zeroa Infinitiee Physieal int.erpretation
representatioos formulas (kp --> 0) formulas (lkp) _. oo)
k real-ioward-treveling wave
I - ; ! log ( _!_) n- o kp - o
B.<l)(kp) J.(kp) + ;N.(kp) (kp)•
- - -1
2• n!
11' -ykp
. 2•(n - 1) !
11'(kp) "
n>O
#. 11'kp
; -..6ikp
kp--> ;oo
kp - _ ,..,.
k imr.gioary-vanescent field
k complcx-attenuated traveling
wave
k real-outward-traveling wave
l +;! 11'
log ( _!_)
"tkP
n - 0 kp - o
kp-> - ; .. k field
H .l•l(kp) J. (k p) - ;N.(kp) " .2.
.,,.,,
2 ' j•e-l•p
(kp)• . 2•(n - 1) ! kp-+ioo
- - +1 n >O k eomplox-att.enuated traveliog
2•n ! ,..( kp)•
wave
k rcal--11tanding wave
1 lrl - o Infinite
numb er kp -> ± ioo
J.(kp) H [H .lll(kp) + H .<•l(kp) J C0 8 ( Jr.p - -n'll' - -... )
along
k imaginary-two evaneiicent fields
trkp 2 4
(kp)• the real
lrl >0
2•n r axis k complex- l ocalized standing wa:ve
k real- standing wave

n • O Infinito
1
" .,kp nu mbc.r kp - o
N .(kp) 2j [H.<l)(kp) - H.O>(kp)) "2 2
trkp sin ( kp - n... - ¡• ) along k imaginary-two evaneecent fields
the real
2• (n - 1) 1
- 'l'(kp) •
n >O axis kp-t ± ioo
k complex-locallzed standing wavea
'JI'
• When k • -;a. the functio ns 1 .(jkp) - T.(op) • j•J. (- i«P) and K .(;kp) - K . (ap) - Z( - j) • +•H.l •l (-jap) are uaed.
t Wben k - O. tbe Bcssel funct ione are 1 and log p, n - 0, aod p• and p·• , n O.
which are sufficiently general to express any TE (no E.) field existing in
a homogeneous source-free region. An arbitrary field (one having both
an E. a.nd a.n H.) can be expressed as a superposition of Eqs. (5-18) and
(5-19).
6-2. The Circular Waveguide. The propaga.tion of waves in a hollow
conducting t ube of circular cross section, ca.lled tho circular waveguide,
provides a good illustration of the use of cylindrical wave functions.
Qualitatively, the phenomenon is similar to wave propagation in the
rectangular waveguide, considered in Sec. 4-3. The coordina.tes to be
used are shown in Fig. 5-2.
For modes TM to z, we may express the field in terma of an A having
only a z component 1/1. The field is finite a.t p = O; so the wave func·
tions must be of t he forro of Eqs. (5-13). It is conventional to expresa
the ti> va.ria.tion by sinusoidal f unctions; hence
1/1 = J " (k,p) {sin nt/>} e-fl,1

cos nt/> (5-20)
is the desired form of the mode f unctions. Eithcr sin nt/> or cos nt/> may
be chosen; so we ha.ve a mode degeneracy except for the cases n = O.
The TM field is found from Eqs. (5-18) applied to the a.hove 1/1. In
particular,
1
E. = - (k2 - /a, 2)1/1
f)
which must vanish at the conducting walls p = a. Hence, we must ha.ve

J ,.(k,a) =O (5-21)
from which eigenvalues for k, me.y be determined. Thc functions J ,.(x)

are shown in Fig. D-1. Note that for ea.ch n there are a denumerably
infinite number of zeros. These a.re ordered a.nd designated by the
X
z
Fxo. 5-2. The circular

waveguide.
CYLINDRICAL W A.VE FUNCTIONS 205
TABLE 5-2. ÜRDEJU)D Z EROS x.,. 01' J,.(:i;)
X o 1 2 3 4 5
1 2 .4.05 3.832 5. 136 6 .380 7 .588 8.771

2 5.520 7.016 8 .417 9 .761 11.065 12 .339
3 8 .654 10.173 11 .620 13.015 14 .372
4 11 .792 13 .324 14 .796
first subscript referring to the order of the Bessel function and the second
to the order of the zero. The lower order x,.J> are tabulated in Table 5-2.
Equation (5-21) is now satisfied if we choose
_ Xnp
kp - (5-22)
a
Substituting this into Eq. (5-20), we ha.ve the TM,,J> mode functions
t/ln 11™ = J" (XnpP) {sin nq, } e- f1t,1(5-23)
cos n</>a
where n = O, 1, 2, . . . , and p = 1, 2, 3, . . . . The electromagnetic
field is then determined from Eqs. (5-18) with the above 1/1. The mode
phase constant k. is determined according to Eq. (5-6), that is,
+ k,' = k2 (5-24)
Subscripts np on the k. are sometimes used to indica.te explicitly that it

depends on t he mode number.
Modes TE to z are expressed in terms of an F having only a z compo-
nent Y,. This wave function must be of the forro of Eq. (5-20), with the
field determined by Eqs. (5-19). The E• component is iJtf¡/ iJp, which must
va.nish at p = a; hence the condition
= O (5-25)
must be satisfied. The J n are oscillatory functions; hence, the also
are oscillatory functions. (For example, = - Ji.). The ha.ve
a. denumera bly infinite number of zeros, which we order as (The
prime is used to avoid confusion with the zeros of the Bessel function
itself.) The lower-order zeros are tabulated in Table 5-3.
TABLE 5-3. ÜnDERED ZEROS OF
X o 1 2 3 4 5
1 3 .832 1.841 3 .054 4 .201 5 .317 6 .416

2 7 .016 5 .331 6.706 8 .015 9.282 10.520
3 10.173 8.536 9 .969 11 .346 12.682 13 .987
4 13 .324 11 . 706 13 .170
We now satisfy Eq. (5-25) by choosing

I
k = Xni> (5-26)
P a
Using this in the wave function of Eq. (5-20), we have the TE,.,, mode
functions
·'· TE
9
= J {sin n</> } rí"·• (5-27)
"'" " a cos n<P
where n = O, 1, 2, . .. , and p = 1, 2, 3, . . . . The electromagnetic
field is given by Eqs. (5-19) with the above if¡. The mode propagation
constant is determined by Eq. (5-6), which with Eq. (5-26) becomes
(5-28)
This completes our deterrnination of the roode spectruro for the circular
waveguide.
The interpretation of t he mode propagation constants is the same as
for those of the rectangular guide and, in fact, is the same for all cylin-
drical guides of arbitrary cross section if the dielectric is homogeneous.
(This we show in Sec. 8-1.) The cutoff wave number of a mode is tha.t
for which the mode propagation constant vanish.es. Hence, from Eqs.
(5-24) and (5-28), we have
I
k) TM _ Xnp
(k) TE _ Xnp
(5-29)
< • "" - a • "" - a
lf k >k., the mode propaga.tes, and if k < k, the mode is cutoff. Letting
k. = 'lnrf.y;µ, we obtain the cutoff frequencies
.""
1
.f) TM
( Je _ Xnp
(f) TE - Xnp (5-30)
np - 2
?l'av Eµ
-/ - 211'a VEµ
Alternatively, setting k. = 211'/ ft.., we obtain the cutoff wavelengths
' ) TM - 211'a .; ) TE - 2?ra (5-31)
(
"• "" - Xnp
(
l\c "" - x'
Thus, the cutoff frequencies are proportional to the x,. 11 for TM modes,
""
and to the for the TE modes. Referring to T ables 5-2 and we
note that the zeros in ascencling order of magnitude are Xo1, xu,
a.nd etc. Hence, the modes in order of ascending cutoff frequencies
are TEn, TM01, TE21, TM1i, and TE01 (a degeneracy), etc.
Circular waveguides are used in applications where rotational sym-
metry is needed. The dominant TE11 "mode,, is actually a pair of
degenerate modes (sin cJ> and cos cJ> variation); hence there is no frequency
(a) TEu (b) TM01 (e) TE21
(d) TMu (e) T&n ((} 7M21

.!}(- - -
Fw. 5-3. Circular waveguidc mode patterns.
range for single-mode propagation. (Recall that singlc-mode operation

over a. 2: 1 frequency range is possible in the rectangular waveguide.)
Note that, except for the degeneracies between TEo,. and TM111 modes,
TE and TM modes have different cutoff frequencies and hence difTerent
propagation constants. The modes of the circular waveguide ha.ve
z...directed wave impedances of the same form as we found in the rec-
waveguide. For exa.mple, in a TE mode,
(Zo)TB = E, = - E• = wµ. (5-32)

H• H, k.
which is the same as Eq. (4-27). The behavior of the Zo's is therefore
the same as in the rectangular waveguide, which is plotted in Fig. 4-3.
Attenua.tion of waves in circular waveguides due to conduction losses in
the walls is given in Prob. 5-9. Modal expansiona in circular waveguides
can be obtained by the general treatment of Sec. 8-2.
The mode patterns for sorne of the lower-order modes a.re shown in
Fig. 5-3. These can be determined in the usual manner (find 8 and :re,
and specialize to sorne insta.nt of time). Field lines ending in the cross-
sectional plane loop down the guide, in the same manner as they <lid in
the rectangular waveguide.
Solutions for cylindrical waveguides of other cross scctions also can be
expressed in terms of elementary cylindrical wave functions. Repre-
sentative cross are shown in Fig. 5-4. Note that all of these
(a) (b) (e)
(d) (e) (/)
Fm. 5-4. Sorne waveguide cross sections for which the mode functions are elementary
wave íunctions. (a) Coaxial¡ (b) coaxial with. ha.file; (e) circular with be.file; (d) semi-
circular¡ (e) wedge; (f) sectoral.
are formed by conductors covering complete p = constant and </> = con-

stant coordinate surfaces. Wave functions for the guides of Fig. 5-4 are
given in Probs. ó-5 to ó-7.
5-3. Radial Waveguides. In t he circular waveguide we have plane
waves, t hat is, the equiphase surfaces are parallel planes. Wave func-
tions of the form
i/t =
with B,.(kpp) and h(k.z) real, ha.ve equiphase surfaces which are inter-
secting planes (the </> = constant surfaces). Such waves travel in the
circumferential direction, and we sha ll call them circulating waves.
Examples are given in Prob. 5-10. Finally, we might have wave func-
tions of the form
_ {H,. Cl>(kpp) }
i/I - h(k.z)h(n<J>) Hn<2>(kpp)
with h(k.z) and h(n<J>) real. These waves ha.ve cylindrical equiphase sur-
faces (p = constant), and t ravel in the radial direction. We shall call
them radial waves. 1 In this section sorne simple waveguides capable of
guiding radial waves will be considered.
Radial waves can be supported by parallel conducting plates. Depend-
1 These are true cylindrical waves as defined. in Sec. 2-11 , but we are using the term
"cylindrical wave function" to mean "a. wave function in the cylindrical coordina.te
system," regardless of its equiphase surfaces.
CYLINDRICAL WA VE FUNCTIONS
z
___:__¡___ --!.... y
(a)
_¿::: ""
(b) (e)
Fio. 5-5. Radial waveguides. (a) Po.ro.llel ple.te; (b) wedge; (e) horn.
ing upon the excita.tion, waves between the plates may be either ple.ne or
radial. Whcn the waves are of the radial type, we call the guiding platea
a parallel-plate radial waveguide. Figure 5-5a shows thc coordina.te sys-
tem we shall use. The TM wave functions satisfying the boundary con-
ditions E, = E• = O at z = O and z = a are
l/tmn™ = cos ( :?r z) cosn<t> (6-33)
where m = O, 1, 2, . . . , and n == O, 1, 2, . . , and, by Eq. (6-6),
The electromagnetic field is given by Eqs. (5-18) with the above l/t. The
TE wave functions satisfying the boundary conditions a.re
.l.
'f'mn
TE_
- SlD
· (m11'
a z) cos n<t> {IinCl)(kpp)
HnC2>(kpp)
} (5-35)
where m = 1, 2, 3, . . . , a.nd n = O, 1, 2, . . . , and Eq. (5-34) still

a.pplies. The clectromagnetic field for the TE modes is found from Eqs.
(5-19) with the above if¡. In both the TM and TE cases, the HnCl)(k,p)
represent inward-traveling waves (toward the z axis), and the IIn< 2>(kpp)
represent outward-traveling waves. For a complete set of modes, tbose
with sin n<t> variation must also be included.
Radial wa.ves a.re characterized by a phase constant which is a function
of radial distance. Following the general definition of Sec. 2-11, we have
the phase constants for the above 1/J's given by
= i. [ tan- 1 N n(kpp) ]
p op Jn(kpp)
2 1
(5-36)
= TP Jn 2(kpp) + N,. 2 (kpp)
210 TIME-HARMONIO ELECTROMAGNETI C FIELDS
Using asymptotic formulas for the Bessel functions, we find that for real k,
fJ, -¡;;::"! k,, (5-37)
This is to be expected, because at large radii the wa.ves should be similar
to plane waves on the parallel-plate guide. Note that the phase constant
of Eq. (5-36) is that of the mode function and not t hat for the field.
Components of E and H transverse to p a.re not generally in phase. They
become in pha.se at large radii.
Ea.ch mode of the radial waveguide is also chara.cterized by a single
ra.dially directed wave impedance. Using Eqs. (5-33) and (5-18), we find
for outward-traveling TM modes
Z TM = _ E, = J2.. Hn<>(k,p)
2
(5-38)
+P H• jwE Hn< 2>'(k,p)
while for inward-traveling TM modes
Z TM = E, = _ }1 Hn<O(k,p) (5-39)
_,, H. jwE Hn<O'(k,p)
Note that for real k,, we have z_,™ = Z+,'rM*. Similarly, for TE modes
we find
Z T B _ E• _ jwµ. Hn(t)l(k,p)
+P - H, - k, Hn<'l>(k,p)
(5-40)
E• -jwµ. H,.O>'(k,p)
z_,T'E= - H. = k;- Hn<O(k,p)
where the first equation applies to outward-travcling wa.ves and the
second equation to inward-traveling waves. Note tha.t the TE wave
a.dmittances are dual to the TM wave impeda.nces.
It is seen from Eq. (5-34) that k,, is imaginary ü m7r/ a > k. In this
case, let k,, = -ja, and
where Kn is the modified Bessel function (see Appendix D). The mode
functions are now everywhere in pha.se, and there is no wave propagation.
The radial wn.ve impedances become imaginary, indicating no power flow.
For example, from Eq. (5-38), if k, = -ja,
Z T!d = -ja H,.<2>(-jap) =ja K,.(ap) ( -4l )
5
+P jWE H,.m 1 (-jap) wE
which are always capacitivcly reactive, since K,. is positive and is

negative. Hence, whenever a < 'A/ 2, the modes m > O are nonpropa-
gating (evanescent). For small a, only the TMon modes propagate, for
which Eq. (5-33) reduces to
i/lo..
TM - {H. C1>(kp) }
- cos n<fJ H " <2>(kp) (5-42)
From Eqs. (5-38) and (5-39) we have the wave impedances for these
modes given by
. H,.<2>(kp)
Z+/M = z_p™* = -J11 H .. <2>'(kp)
= IH.. - j[J .. + (5-43)
A consideration of the behavior of the Bessel functions (Figs. D-1 and

D-2) reveals that for arguments kp < n the N.. functions and their
derivatives become large in magnitude. Hence, when 'lnrp < nX, the
wave impedances become predominantly reactive. Figure 5-6 illustrates
this behavior by showing X/R, where Z+P™ = R + jX 1 for the first five
TMo,. modes. We shall call kp = n the point of gradual cutoff, the wave
impedances being predominantly resistive when kp > n and predomi-
rumtly reactive when kp < n. Note that these gradual cutoffs occur
when the circumference of the radial waveguide is an integral number
of wavelengths.
From the a.hove discussion it is evident tha.t the TMoo mode is domi-
nant, that is, propaga.tes energy effectively at sma.ller radii than any
other mode. For this mode we ha.ve
k2
E.- = - . H o<º(kp) (5-44)
JWE
representing inward-traveling waves1 and

k2
E,+= -. Ho<2>(kp) 4
JWE (5-45) 1 l 1 1
= kH1< 2>(kp) 3
n=4
which represent outward-traveling \ 3

waves. Note that there are no p \ \ \
components of E or H, the mode \ ' 2 \ \
being TEM to p. It is called the \ \ \ \. 1\.
'o rZ -
1
' ._",
transmission-line mode of the paral- ' ' !'.. ....._'
...._
lel-plate radial guide, because of its
simila.rity with plane transmission- o 1 2 3 4 5
line modes. For example, ata given kp
radius we can calcula.te a unique FIG. 5-6. Ra.tios of wa.ve reactance to
voltage between the plates and a net wave resistance for the TMoR radial
radia.lly directed current on one of modes on the pa.rallel-plate waveguide.
the plates. Also, the radial transmission line can be analyzed by the
classical transmission-line equations with L and Ca function of p (Prob.
5-13).
Radial waves also can be supported by inclined conducting planes,
called a wedge radial waveguide, as shown in Fig. 5-5b. We shall assume
no z variation of the field, considering the problem as two-dimensional.
TM wave functions satisfying thc boundary conditíon E. = O at </> = O
and </> = </>o are
flM = sin (p7r
</>o
q,) HP"N 0 (kp)
(5-46)
where p = 1, 2, 3, . . . , and the electromagnetic field is given by Eqs.

(5-18). TE wave functions satisfying the boundary condition EP = O at
</> = O and </> = </>o are
tPpTE = COS (p7í</>o </>) (5-47)
where p = O, 1, 2, . . . , and the electromagnetic field is given by Eqs.

(5-19). The interpretation of the modes is essentially the same as that
for the TMo,. parallel-plate modes, except that nonintegral orders oí
Hankel functions appear. This introduces no conceptual diffi.culties, but
if numerical results are desired we would be hampered by a lack of tables
for functions of arbitrary fractional order.
The radial wave impedances for the wedge-guide modes are of the same
formas for the parallel-plate guide [Eqs. (5-38) to (5-40)]. We need only
replace n by P1í/ <l>o and kp by k. These wave impedances exhibit the
same characteristic of gradual cutoff for fractional-order Hankel func-
tions as they do for integral-order Hankel f unctions. Again the tran-
sitional point is that for which the argument and order are equal, that is,
p7r / </>o = kp. The radii so determined correspond to those for which the
are subtending the wedge is an integral number of half-wavelengths long.
This is n.s we should expect from our knowledge of plane waves between
parallel plates (the limiting case </>o--+ O).
The dominant mode is evidently the TE0 mode, in which case, from
Eqs. (5-47) and (5-19), we have
k2
H,- = -. - H o<l)(kp) (5-48)
JWµ.
for inward-travellng waves, and
(5-49)
for outward-traveling waves. This is a transmission-line mode, charac-

terized by no E, or H, and possessing a unique voltage a.nd current a.t
any given ra.dii. This mode also can be a.nalyzed by the classical t rans-
mission-line equations for nonuniform lines (L and C a function of p).
Note tbat the field is dual to tha.t of t he parallel-plate line [Eqs. (5-44)
and (5-45)].
Finally, simple radial waves can be supported by the hom-shaped
guide of Fig. 5-5c, called a sectoral horn waveguide. The TM modes
are specified by the wave functions
ip,,.,,™ = eos (mra z)sin ('P7' q,) {Hr?i

t/>o
(k,.p)}
1• 0
H,,.,.,(k,p) (5-50)
where m = O, 1, 2, , and p == 1, 2, 3, . . . . The field is given by

Eqs. (5-18), a.nd
(5-51)
The TE modes are specified by the mode functions
t/l..,Ts =
a
z)cos (¡nr4>o q,) H ,,.
1• • (k,p)
(5-52)
where m = 1, 2, 3, .. . , and p = O, 1, 2, . . . . The field is given by

Eqs. (5-19), and k, by Eq. (5-51). These modes are qualitatively similar
to the hybrid modes of the rectangular wavcguide (Sec. 4-4). There is,
of course, no transmission-line mode, beca.use of t he single conducting
boundary. Only the TMo, modes propagate if a < >./ 2; these plus the
TM1, and TE1,, roodes propagate if >./ 2 < a < >.; and so on. Ea.ch
propagating mode has a radius of
gradual cutoff, this being the radius z
at which the guide cross section is
about the same size as a rectangular
waveguide a.t outoff. T he TM01
mode is usua.lly considered as the
dom.inant mode. (If a > >./2 one
might argue tha.t the TE10 mode is
dominant at sma.11 ra.dii.)
--
M. The Circular Cavity. If a
-section of circular waveguide is closed
by conductora over two cross sec- /
tions, we ha.ve a. resona.tor known as
the circular cavity. T his is shown y
in Fig. 5-7. It is a simple ma.tter
to modify the circular wa.veguide
mode functions to sa.tisfy t he addi- Fio. 5-7. The circular cavity.
tional boundary conditions of zero tangential E at ?. = O and z = d.

The result is a set of modes TM to z, specified by
.t.Tll.
'f' npq
= J ,. ( XnpP) {sin ntJ¡A. } COS (<pr
d Z) (5-53)
a cos n 'f'
where n = O, 1, 2, . . . ; p = 1, 2, 3, . .. ; and q = O, 1, 2,
The field is given by Eqs. (5-18). The set of modes TE to z is specified by
.1.TB
'f'npQ
= J .. a {sin ne/> }sin (<prd z)
cos ne/> (5-54)
where n = O, 1, 2, . . . ¡ p = 1, 2, 3, . . . ; q = 1 1 2, 3, ; and the

field is given by Eqs. (5-19). The sepa.ration consta.nt equation [Eq.
(5-6)]
for t he TM and T E modes, respectively. Setting k = 27rf v;, we can

solve for the resonant frequencies
= 211"a + (CJ!!/Y
(5-55)
(f,)!!o = 211"a +
Each n except n = O denotes a pair of degenerate modes (cos nt/> or sin n t/>
varia.tion). The x",, and are given in Tables 5-2 and 5-3. T he reso-
nant frequencies for various ratios of d/ a are tabulated in Table 5-4.
TA.BLE 5-4. (f,),.pq FOB THE CmcuLAR CAVITY OF RADIUS a AND LENGTa d
(fr )domi no"I
-d TM010 TE111 T M110 TMou TEm

TM111
TEm TMm TM010
a TEou
o 1.0 00 1.59 00 00 00 00 2 .13 2 .29

0 .5 1.0 2 .72 1.59 2 . 80 2.90 3 . 06 5 .27 2. 13 2.29
1.0 1.0 1.50 1.59 1.63 1.80 2.05 2 .72 2 . 13 2 .29
2.0 1.0 1.0 1.59 1.19 1.42 l. 72 1.50 2 .13 2.29
3.0 1.13 1.0 1.80 1. 24 1.52 1.87 1 .32 2.41 2 .60
4 .0 1.20 1.0 1.91 1.27 1.57 1.96 1.20 2 .56 S .00
00 1. 31 1.0 2.08 1 .31 1. 66 2 . 08 1 .0 2 .78 3 . 00
)( )( l l l
)( )( )( l l
-l )( l l l
-
-
- .. •• .•• .• •
•
• •
• •
Fio. 5-8. Mode pattern for the TM010 mode (dominant when d/a 2).
Note that for d/a < 2 the TM010 mode is dominant, while for d/a 2
the TE1u mode is dominant. If d/ a < 1, the second resonance is 1.59
times the first resonant frequency. Note that this is very similar to the
square-base rectangular cavity of small height (the mode separation is
1.58 in that case).
The TM010 mode corresponds to the first resonance of a short-circuited
radial transmission line. The field pattern of this mode, which is domi-
nant for small d, is shown in Fig. 5-8. The TE111 mode corresponda to
the first resona.nce of a short-circuited circular waveguide opera.ting in
the TEu mode. Its mode pattern is thus that of a standing wave in a
circular waveguide, similar to Fig. 5-3a. The case d/ a - oo corresponda
to that of a circular resonator, for which the resona.nt
frequencies are tho cutoff frequencies of the circular waveguide. The
last row of Ta.ble 5-4 therefore is also the cutoff frequency spectrum of
the circular waveguide.
The Q's of the circular cavity are a.lso of interest, especia.lly t he Q of
the TM010 mode (dominant for smaU d). From Eqs. (5-53) and (5-18)
we determine the field components of the mode as
Following the procedure of Sec. 2-8, we calculate the stored energy in

the cavity as
216 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC F IE LDS
This is a. known integral, 1 the result being

w -
r k• da2 J 12 ( Xo1)
.,O') _
(5-56)
2
WE
The power dissipated in the conducting walls is a.pproximately
CPd = <R 1f> IHl2 ds

IR (•:•)' 2,-[ adJ,'(x,.) + 2J.° pJ,;'(•:"°)dp l
where <R is the intrinsic wave resistance of the metal walls. The above
integral is a.gain known, 1 and we obtain
@d = <R 2Jra(d + a)J12(Xo1) (5-57)
The Q of the cavity is therefore

w'W k' da*
Q = iJ>d = 2wt<Rxo1 2 (d + a)
Recalling that the condition for resonance is ka = Xo1 = 2.405, we can
simplify this to
1.20217
(5-58)
Q = <R(l + a/ d)
where r¡ is the intrinsic impedance of the dielectric. This can be com-
pared to the Q of a square-base rectangular cavity [Eq. (2-102)]. It is
seen that, for the same height-to-diameter ratio, the circular cavity has
an 8.3 per cent higher Q than t he rectangular cavity. This is to be
expected, since the volume-to-area ratio is higher for a circular cylinder
than for a square cylinder. The Q's for the other modes of the circular
cavity are given in Prob. 5-16.
6-6. Other Guided Waves. The geometries of sorne other cylindrical
systems capa.ble of supporting guided waves are shown in Figs. 5-9 and
5-10. We treated the analogous plane-wave systems in Chap. 4. The
methods of solution for the systems of Figs. 5-9 and 5-10, as well as their
qualitative behavior, are similar to those of Chap. 4.
For the partially filled radial waveguide of Fig. 5-9a, we can obtain
fields TM to z which satisfy the conditions Ep = = O at z = O and
z = a by choosing
"11 = C1 cos kaiz cos nq, H.,.C2>(kpp)
(5-59)
"12 = C2 cos (kz2(a - z)] cos nip H,. Ct>(kpp)
1E. Jahnke and F. Emde, "Tables of Functions," p. 146, Dover PubJicatione, New
York, 1945 (reprint).
z z
Conductor 'oJ'o
p
(b)
z z
p
__ ........._._............._......._..........._.__._
Conductor p
(e) (el)
Fro. 5-9. Sorne radial waveguides. (a) Partially filled; (b) dielectric slab; (e) coa.ted
conductor; (d) corruga.ted conductor.
where n = O, 1, 2, . . . . The subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the regions

z < d and z > d, respectively. We ha.ve anticipa.ted tha.t the p a.nd q,
varia.tions must be the sa.me in both regions to sa.tisfy boundary con-
ditions a.t z = d. Equations (5-59) represent outward-tra.veling waves.
Inward-tra.veling wa.ves would be of the same forro but with H,.<2> replaced
by H,.<l). The k's in ea.ch region must, of course, satisfy the separa.tion
relationships
k,2 + k.i 2 = ki 2 = W 2El#Ll (5-60)
k, 2 + k.•l• = kt2 = 2
W E2#L2
The field vectors themselves are obtained from Eqs. (5-18), using the y/s
oí Eqs. (5-59).
To evaluate the C's and k,, we must sa.tisfy the conditions that E,, E•,
H,, and H+ be continuous at z = d. For E, we ha.ve
1 [ - éJ2- ( -1 "11 - -1 Y,2)]

[E,1 - E"2].-c1 = -:--- =O
JW éJp éJz El Et •-d
which reduces to
k.i Ci sin k.id = -k12 e,. sin k.i(a - d) (5-61)
El E2
For E+ we ha.ve
[E+1 - E.2J.-c1 = Jwd
-.1- [ - ª'- (-1 "11
oq, OZ El
- -1 1"2)]
Et c-d
= O
which also reduces to Eq. (5-61). For H, we ha.ve
[H pt - H p2],_ 4 = ; [ aª<J> (i1'1 - "12) ]_, = O

which reduces to
C1 cos k.id = C2 cos kd(a - d) (5-62)
Finally, for H. we ha.ve
[H•1 - H.211- d = - [!.op._ (1/t1 - "12)]

•- d
= O
which again reduces to Eq. (5-62). Division of Eq. (5-61) by Eq. (5-62)
yields
(5-63)
The k.i a.nd k.t are functions of kp according to Eq. (5-60); so Eq. (5-63)
is a. transcendental equation for determining possible k/s. Once kp is
evaluated, the ratio C1/ C2 may be obta.ined from either Eq. (5-61) or
Eq. (5-62).
For fields TE to z we can satisfy the condition EP = E 9 = O at z = a
by choosing
if1 = C1 sin k.1z cos nlj> HnC 2>(kpp)
(5-64)
1/t2 = C2 sin kd(a - z) cos nq, Hn< 2>(kPp)
where n = O, 1, 2, . • • ; and Eqs. (5-60) must a.gain be satisfied. The
field componen.ta are found from t hese 1/t's by Eqs. (5-19). Matching
tangential components of E and H at z = d yields
(5-65)
as the equation for determining k, for TE modes. It is interesting to

note that the characteristic equations for the partially filled radial wave-
guide [Eqs. (5-63) and (5-65)] are of the same form as those for the
partially filled rectangular waveguide [Eqs. (4-45) and (4-47)]. This we
could ha.ve anticipated, since at large p the Hankel functions reduce to
plane waves, as shown by Eqs. (D-13).
The modes of the partially :filled radial guide can be ordered in the
same manner as were the modes of the partially filled rectangular wave-
guide. The dominant mode is the lowest-order TM mode (logically
designated the TMoo mode). It reduces to the radial transmission-line
mode in the empty guide and has no cutoff frequency. For it can
be analyzed by conventional transmission-line concepts.
It should be apparent from our treatment of the waveguide of Fig. 5-9a
t hat the characteristic equations for the radial waveguides of Fig. 5-9b, e,
a.nd d will be of the same form as those for the pla.ne wa.veguides of Figs.
4-10, 4-13, a.nd 4-15. We need only to repla.ce the k.'s by k,'s. Hence,
for the dielectri<rslab radial wa.veguide of Fig. 5-9b, the characteristic
equations are
ua
- tanua -
Ed va 2 2
;-2= ua ua
(5-66)
0 - - cot -
2 2
¡
for modes TM to z, and
ua ua
- tan -
/.ld va 2 2
-2= ua ua
(5-67)
/.lo - - cot -
2 2
for modes TE to z. The u and v are rela.ted to k, by
ut + k , = kdt = w2Ed/.ld
2 (5-68)
-v2 + k,. = ko" = w2Eo/.lo
2
Possible solutions to these equations can be obtained graphically by the

method of Fig. 4-11. Justas in the plane-wa.ve case, the lowest TE and
TM modes ha.ve no cutoff frequencies. The cutoff frequencies of the
modes in general are given by Eq. (4-63).
The modes of the coated-conductor radial waveguide of Fig. 5-9c are
those of the slab wa.veguide ha.ving E, =E• =O over the mid-plane of
the slab. The dominant mode is the lowest TM mode, which has no
eutoff frequency. The cutoff frequencies of the modes in general are
given by Eq. (4-64). Finally, for the corruga.ted-conductor radial line
of Fig. 5-9d, the characteristic equation for the dominant mode is
k,. = ko yl + tan 2 kod (5-69)
This is analogous to Eq. (4-71) in the pla.ne-wa.ve ca.se.
The circular waveguide systems of Fig. 5-10 are interesting, beca.use,
exeept for rotationally symmetric fields, the modes are neither TE nor
TM to any cylindrical coordinate. The systems of Fig. 5-lOa, b, ande
have the common property that they are "two-dielectric 11 problems.
We can consider them all at once, as follows. Let region 1 be the inner
dielectric cylinder in case and region 2 the outer one. We then
choose electric and magnetic 1/l's as
1/1'" 1 = AB,.'"1(k,.1p) COS ntfJ e-;k,•
1/111 = BB,..i(k, 1p) sin ntfJ e-;1c•• (5-70)
in region 1, a.nd 1/1"'2 = CBn "'2 (k,2P) cos ntfJ e-;"',.
(5-71)
1/ld = DBn•2(k,.2p) sin ntfJ e-Jlr,•
220 TIME-BARMONIO ELECTRO:MAGNETIC FIELDS
X
z
(b)
(e) (el)
Fxo. 5-10. Some circular wa.veguides. (a) Partially filled; (b) dielectric slnb; (e)
coated conductor; (d) corrugated conductor.
in region 2. The t/I"' determine partial fields according to Eqs. (5-18)

a.nd the if;• determine partial fields according to Eqs. (5-19). The total
field is the sum of the two partial fields in each region. The B,.(k,p)
denote a.ppropriate solutions to Bessel's equation of order n, chosen so as
to satisfy all boundary conditions except those at the interface p = a.
In each region the t/l's must satisfy the separation relationships
k,1 2 + k, 2 = k1 2 = W2E1Jl1
(5-72)
k,21 + k, 2
= k22 = 2
W E!J'I
The requirements that H,, E,, H., and E• be continuous at p = alead to

ABn"' (k,1a) =
E2k,1 2 1 E1k,22CBnm (k,2a)
2
µ2k,1 BB,.- 1 (k,1a)

2
= µ.1kp2 DB,.-2(k,2a)
2
Ak,1B .."' 11 (k,1a) + Bk,n B,.•1(k,1a) = + Dk,n Bn-2(k,ia)

Ck,iB,."' 2'(k,.p.)
AK,n B,...1 (k, 1 a) + Bk, 1B,.• (k, 1a) =

11 Ck,n B,."' (k,ia) + Dk,iS,.ti'(k,ia)
2
Tbese equations ha.ve a. nontrivial solution only if the determinant of the

CYLINDRICA.L WAVE FUNCTIONS 221
coefficients of A, B, C, and D vanishes. Hence, defi.ning,
F1 =
Bnm 1(kp1a) F 2 = Bno1(kp1a)
(5-73)
Fa = Bn"'2 (k,,2a) F • = B,,.i(kp2a)
The characteristic equation in determinantal forro is
2
E2kp1 F1 o E1kp22Fa o
o o µ.1kp22F.
k.n F k.n F
-- 4 = 0 (5-74)
--
wµ1a 2 wµ2a
k.n F k.n F 3
- 1
WE1a WE2a
When n = O, the field separates into modes TE and TM to z, and the

cha.racteristic equation is much simpler. It is
- kp1FWa = O (5-75)
for TM modes (n = O), and
kpJí' - = O (5-76)
for TE modes (n = O).
We must now pick the proper F functions for the various cases. For
the partially filled circular waveguide (Fig. 5-lOa), the field must be
finite at p = O; hence
F1 = F2 = J,.(kp1a) (5-77)
To satisfy E. = O at p = b, we choose
Fa = J ,..(kp2a)N... (kp2b) - Nn(kp2a)Jn(kp2b) (5-78)
Furthermore, to satisfy E• = O at p = b, we choose
F. = - (5-79)
The dominant mode is the lowest-order n = 1 mode, which reduces to the
TEu mode of the empty guide. A solution for the k. of this dominant
mode is plotted in Fig. 5-11 for the case E1 = lÜEo, E2 = Eo, µ1 = µ2 = µo,
b = 0.4>.o.
For the dielectric-rod waveguide (Fig. 5-lOb), the .field must again
be finite at p = O; so Eqs. (5-77) still apply. However, externa! to the
rod, the field must deca.y exponentially above the cutoff frequency and
represent outward-tra.veling waves below the cutoff frequency. Hence,
we choose
(5-80)
Once again, the dominant mode is t he lowest n = 1 mode, a.nd its cutoff
222 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FlEL:OS
3
.--
/
/
/
---
@j-
I
1 V
I 1
2 -
1 1
'
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Flo. 5-11. Pbase constant for the pa.rtially filled circular wa.veguide, E1 = 10E1,
b "" 0.4>.2. (A/ter H. Seidel.)
frequency is zero. 1 Sorne solutions for the k. of the dominant mode are
shown in Fig. 5-12 for the case E2 = Eo and µ1 = µ2 = µo. Note that
ko < k. < k1, which is the same relationship that applies to tbe dielectric-
slab guide of Sec. 4-7.
For the coated conductor of Fig. 5-10.c we must again have exponential
decay of the field as p __. oo ; so Eqs. (5-80) still apply. However, to
1 S. A. Schelkunoff, "Electromagnetic Wa.ves," pp. 425-428,_D. Van Nostra.nd
Oompany, Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1943. )
1 •
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

a/'>.o
Fio. 5-12. Phase constant for the circular <iielectric rod. (After M. C. Gray.)
CYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNC'TIONS 223
sa.tisfy the condition E. = O at p = b1 we should choose
F1 = Jn(kp1a)N,.(kp1b) - N,.(kp1a)J,.(kp1b) (5-81)
and, to satisfy = O at p = b1
Fs = - (5-82)
For this guide t he dominant mode is the lowest n = OTM mode, which
has no cutoff frequency. (Compare it with the dominant mode of the
plane coa.ted conductor of Seo. 4-8.) Copper wire with an enamel coat-
ing can be used as an efficient waveguide for sorne applica.tions. 1
Finally, the corruga.ted wire of Fig. 5-lOd can be analyzed in a manner
similar to that used for the corrugated plane (Fig. 4-15). The field exter-
na! to the corruga.ted wire will be essentially the dominant TM (n =O)
mode of t he coa.ted wire. The field in the corrugations will be essentially
that of the shorted parallel-plate radial transmission line. The charac-
teristic equa.tion is obtained by matching wave impedances at the corru-
gated surface. As t he radius of the corrugated cylinder becomes large,
the solution approaches t hat for the corrugated pla.ne.
6-6. Sources of Cylindrical Waves. In this section we shall consider
two-dimensional sources of cylindrical waves, that is, sources independent
of the z coordinate. The extension to three dimensions can be effected
by a Fourier transformation with respect to z (see Sec. 5-11).
Suppose we have an infinitely long filament of consta.nt a-c current
e.long t he z axis, as shown in Fig. 5-13a. From the theory of Sec. 2-9,
we should expect the field to be TM to z, expressible in terms of an A
having only a z component ,¡,,. From symmetry, 1/1 should be independent
1
O. Gouba.u, Surface-wave Transmission Lines, Proc. I RE, vol. 39, no. 6, pp. 619-
624, J une, 1951.
X
(a) (b)
F10. 5-13. An infinitc file.ment of constant a-e current (a ) along the z axis and (b) dis-
placed pe.ralle! to the z axis.
224 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGN'ETIC FIELDS
of 4> and z. To represent outward-traveling waves, we choose

A. = ¡/I = CHo<2>(kp)
where C is a constant to be determined according to
lim ,,{.. p dq, = I

,,_.o 'f'
Evaluating H = V X A, we find
H,. = - {Jif¡ =
iJp
-e.!
dp
[Ho<2>(kp)] - i2º
l:i>->O 1rp
The preceding equation then yields

I
e= 4j
I
Hence, A. = 1/1 = 4j Ho< 2>(kp) (5-83)
is the desired solution. The line current is the elemental two-dimen-

sional source, justas the current element (Sec. 2-9) is the elemental three-
dimensional source.
The electromagnetic field is obtained from Eqs. (5-18), using the if¡ of
Eq. (5-83). The result is
-k2J
E. = - 4c.iE- H 0<2>(kp) (5-84)
Thus, lines of electric intensity run pa.rallel to the current, and lines of
magnetic intensity encircle it. Equiphase surfaces are cylinders, but E
Ec = -'Y/kl
= kl n-
/T e- ikp
'\j&JCP
'\j s;;cp e-lkp
l
and H are not Í!n general in phase. However, at large distances we have
(5-85)
which is essentially an outward-traveling plane wave. The amplitude of

the wave decreases as in contrast to the r-1 variation in t he three-
dimensional case. The outward-directed complex power crossing a cylin-
der of unit length and radius p is
P1 = 1fa E X H * · ds = - f0z.r EJI! p dt/>

= ';j lkl\ H o<2>(kp)[R o<2)1(kp))*
2 (5-86)
The real part of thís is the time-average power flow iP11 which, by virtue
OYLINDRICAL WAVE FUNCTI ONS 225
of the Wronskian [Eq. (D-17)], reduces to
r¡k
= Re (P1) = -
4
IIP' (5-87)
Hence, the time-average power is independent of the distance from the

source, as we should expect. It could be more simply obtained from
Eqs. (5-85).
If the current filament is not along the z axis but pa.rallel to it, we can
extend Eq. (5-83) by replacing p by the distance from the current to the
field point. In radius vector notation, we specify the field point by
p = UsX + U11Y
and the source point (current filament) by
e' ..,. UsX' + U11Y 1
as shown in Fig. 5-13b. The distance from the source point to the field
point is then
le - o'I = v(x - x') 2 +(y - y') 2
= v'p 2 + p 12 - 2pp' cos ("' - ')
We emph.asize that A. is evaluated a.t e by writing A,(9) and tha.t I is
located at p' by writing I (e'). We can now generalize Eq. (5-83) toread
(5-88)
This is our free-space Green's function for two-dimensional fields.

The solution for two or more fila.ments of z-directed current can be
represented by a summation of the A.'s from each current element. Sup-
pose we ha.ve two filaments of equa.l magnitude but opposite phase, as
represented by Fig. 5-14a. As the separation s.-. O and the magnitude
I __. oo such that I s remains constant, we have a two-dimensional dipole
y y
-1 + I
T. •
82
j_ •
¡+si +f
.
+ 1""-'---1--.L----X
-
(a) (b)
Fio. 5-14. Sources of higher-order waves. (a) Dipole source; (b} quadrupole source.
source. Note that A. at a point (x,y) due to a current filament at (x' ,O)
is the same as A. at (x - x',y) dueto a current filament at (0,0). Hence,
for Fig. 5-14a, the vector potential is
A, = A,t ( x - y) - A.1 ( x + y)
where A. 1 is that due to a single current filament at the origin [Eq.
(5-83)). In the limit s the above equa.tion becomes
aA.1 Is a
A,,___.
a-+O
-s -éJx º"'
- = - 4j .v [H0<2>(kp))
The differentiation yíelds
kls
A. = j H 1 <2>(kp) cos </> (5-89)
4
Thus, the vector potential of a dipole line source is a cylindrical wave
function of order n = l.
For the quadrupole source of Fig. 5-14b we ha.ve, by reasoning similar
to that a.hove,
where A.< 2> is the vector potential of the dipole source, given by Eq.
(5-89). Hence, '
A • = -kls1s2 i_
ay [H i Ct>(kP) cos ""]
..,,
4j
which reduces to A.= H 2<2>(kp) sin 2<P (5-90)
Thus, the vector potential of a quadrupole line source is a wave function

of order n = 2.
This procedure can be continued to obtain sources for the higber-order
wave functions. It can be shown (Prob. 5-29) that, when A, is a wave
f unction of order n, a possible source consists of 2n current filaments
equispaced on an infinitesimal cylinder. We shall call such a source a
multipole source of order n. The dual analysis applies to the ca.se of mag-
netic current filaments. It is merely necessa.ry to repla.ce I by K and
A by F in t he various vector-potential formulas of this section. For
exa.mple, from Eq. (5-88), the electric vector potential at e due to a
magnetic current filament at 9 1 is
(5-91)
Using both electric and magnetic multipoles, we can genera.te a.n arbi-
trary source-free field in homogeneous space (p > O).
CYLINDRlCAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 227
Flo. 5-15. A cylinder of

unüorm current.
y
The field due to a cylinder of currents can be obtained quite simply by

treating the problem as a. boundary-value problem. We shall consider
here only a cylinder of uniform z-directed surface current. (The general
case is considered in Prob. 5-30.) The geometry of the problem is illus-
trated by Fig. 5-15. Because of the rotational symmetry, we choose
1/1 _ { A.- = C1Jo(kp) p<a
- A.+ = C2H 0< 2>(kp) p>a
The boundary conditions to be satisfied are
E.+= E.-
-
where J. is the density of the z-directed current sheet. Using Eqs. (5-18)
with the above 1/1, and satisfying the boundary conditions, we obtain
.
l
.,,ka.J,H0< 2>(ka)Jo(kp) p <a
E -- · 2
1T
(5-92)
- 211ka.!,Jo(ka)Ho< 2>(kp) p >a
as the only component of E. Let us calcula.te an impedance per unit

length for this source, as we did for the ribbon of current in Sec. 4-12.
By definition.
p
z = J1Ti
where P is the complex power per unit length
p = - !02,, E,J:a de/> = -21ra.J:E. l,, _o

a.nd 1 is the total z-c;lirected current
Hence, the impedance per unit length is
Z = .,,k J o(ka)H o<'J·>(ka) (5-93)

4
Using small-argument formulas for Jo a.nd H om, we obtain
Z1:a-+o
- +2X - ( -J2log
. -'Y2kª)
'Ir (5-94)
where 'Y = 1.781. Compare this with the Z of a ribbon of current [Eq.
(4-127)). The resistances (real parts) are identical. The reactance of a.
cylinder of current of small día.meter d is approximately equal to the
reactance of a ribbon of current of width w = 2d. More generally, it
can be shown1 by a quasi-static approximation that the impedance per
unit length of a small elliptic cylinder of minor axis a and major axis b
is the same as that of a circular cylinder of diameter
d b) .)
A ribbon is the special case a = O and b = w.
6-7. Two-dimensional Radiation. We can construct the solution for
an arbitrary two-dimensional distribution of currents by dividing the
source into elemental filaments of current and summing the fields from
all elements. For example, if we have a Jz, independent of z, ea.ch ele-
ment J. ds' produces a vector potential
d.A. = Ho<2>(kle - e'I)
where ds' is an element of area perpendicular to z. Summing over the

entire source, we have
A .. = ¡j JJ J.(e')Ho< >(kle -
2
e'D ds'
where the integration extends over a cross section of the source. Since
the equations for A. due to J . and for Av due to J 11 are of the same
form as those for A. due to J,, the above equation also applies for z
replaced by x or y. Combining components, we ha.ve the vector equation
A(e) = ij JJ J (e')H 0<

2
>(kle - e'D ds' (5-95)
1 R. W. P. King, "The Theory of Linear Antennas," pp. 16-20, Ha.rva.rd Uni-
versity Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1956.

representing the solution for an arbitrary two-dimensiona.l distribution of
electric cu.rrents. The cases of surface currents a.nd current fila.ments
are included by implication. The electromagnetic field is obta.ined, as
usual, from H = V X A. The electric vector potentia.l due to two-
dimensiona.l magnetic currents M is given by the formula dual to Eq.
(5-95), or
F(e) = JJ M(e')Ho<2>(kle - e'D d8' (5-96)
The electromagnetic field in this case is given by E = - V X F.

When the field point is distant from the source, our formulas simplify
to a form similar to those for three-dimensional radia.tion (Sec. 3-13).
For kit> - e'I large, the Hankel function can be represented by the
asymptotic formula
H oº>(kle - e'D - f 2i e-i"lir.'I

'\Jrkle - e'I
Furthermore, when p » p', as shown in Fig. 5-16, we have
le - e'I -+ P - p' cos (q, - q,') (5-97)
The second term must be retained in the phase factor, exp (-jkle - e'D,
but not in the magnitude factor, le - Hence, the vector poten-
tials of Eqs. (5-95) a.nd (5-96) reduce to
A=
. V8J;fP
'kp ff J(e')eill" "°'c.-.·> ds'
F = e-ikp
V8J;fP
. ff M (e')ei"P' 00• <•-9'> ds'
(5-98)
provided p » These are the radiation-zone formulas corresponding

to Eqs. (3-95) in the three-dimeosional case.
Fto. 5-16. Geometry for

dctermining the radi&-
tion field.
X
We now have the p variation explicitly shown in Eqs. (5-98), and sim-
plified formulas for the radiation field can be obtained. As evidenced by
Eq. (5-85), the distant field of a single current filament is essentially an
outward-traveling plane wave¡ so the superposition of fields from ali cur-
rent elements should also be of this type. Hence, in the radiation zone,
E• = 11H, E. = -11H• (5-99)
which can be verified by direct expansion of Eqs. (3-4), using Eqs. (5-98).
To obtain the field components, let us again divide the field into that due
to J, given by H' =V X A, and that dueto M, given by E" = -V X F.
Retaining only the dominant terms (p-» variation), we obtain
= jkA. = -jkF,
= -jkA•
in the radiation zone. The corresponding and can be
determined from Eqs. (5-99). The total field is simply the sum of the
primed and double-primed components, or
E• = -jwµA • - jkF.
(5-100)
E.= -jwµAz + jkF.
in the radiation zone, with H given by Eqs. (5-99). These formulas
correspond to Eqs. (3-97) in t he three-dimensional case. Note that,
except for the contrasting and r- 1 dependences, the radiation fields
are of similar mathematical forros in two and three dimensions.
6-8. Wave Transformations. It is often convenient to express the
elementary wave functions of one coordinate system in terms of those of
another coordinate system. 1 We refer to expressions of t his type as
wave lransformations. Some representative wave transformations are
derived in this section. Others will be derived as they are needed.
Suppose we have the plane wave e-i"', wbicb we wish to express in terms
of cylindrical waves. (The conventional coordinate orientation of Fig.
5-1 is assumed.) This wave is finite at the origin and periodic in 211' on q,.
Hence, it must be expressible as
..
e-;s = e-ip• • • =
0
l
n- _.,
a ..J ,.(p)e;"•
where the a,. are constants. To evaluate the a,., multiply each side by
e-;...• a.nd integrate from O to 2n- on q,. This gives
J 0
2
.. e- 1,-•e-;"'•dq, = 2ra,,.J,,.(p)
1 Two coordine.te systems a.re considered to be distinct if their origina or oriente.·

tions are düferent, even tbough they me.y be geometrically the se.me.
The left-hand side is actually a. well-known integral, but we need not
recognize this. The mth derivative of the left-hand side with respcct to
p evalua.ted at p = O is
h
2.. 'lmj-
j- COS"' </> e-iM• d</> = - -
o 2"'
The mth derivative of the right-hand side evaluated at p = O is 'lnra.,,./2"'.
Hence,
a... =j-
and we have shown that
..
e- Is = 6-Jpco•f = ¿ j - "J ,.(p)ein• (5-101)
n--•
and also that
J ,.(p) = -j" lo2r g-IP-fe- inf d<J> (5-102)
2ir o
Equation (5-101) is the wave transformation expressing the plane wave
e-Js in terms of cylindrical wave functions. It is closely related to the
so-called "generating function" of Bessel f unctions. 1
Another wave transformation of interest is that which corresponds to
a traoslation of cylindrical coordinate origin. Consider the wave function
1/t = H 0<2>(le - e'D = H 0<2>[V p2 + p' 2 - 2pp' cos (q, - <P')1
where p and p' are as defined in Fig. 5-13b. We can think of i/l as the
field of a line source at p' in terms of a cylindrical wave function having
its origin at the source. ' We shall reexpress 1/¡ in terms of wave functions
referred \;o p = O. In the region p < p', permissible wave functions are
J,.(p)ei"•, n an integer, for i/¡ is finite at p = O and periodic in 2r on q,.
In the region p > p 1 1 permissible wave functions are H,.<2>(p)eM, n an
integer, for 1/¡ must represent outward-traveling waves. Also, 1/1 must be
symmetric in primed and unprimed coordina.tes (reciprocity). Hence1
1't is of the form
..
l b,.H,.<2>(p')J,. (p )el <•-•'>
11
p < p'
1/1 = ..
¿ b,.J,.(p')H,.<2>(p)eirt<f-•'> p > p'
ft---
where the b,. a.re constants. To cvaluate thc b,. 1 let p' - t oo and <// = 01
and use the asymptotic formulas for the Hankel functions. Our original
1 R. V. Churchill, "Fourier Series and Boundary Value Problema," p. 147, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1941.

232 TIME-BARMONI C ELECTROl\lAGNETIC FlELDS
expression for 1/¡ then becomes

1/¡ = Hom(¡p - p'I)---+ e-fp'eJP-•
··-o
p'-+•
and our constructéd expression for 1" becomes
These are now representations of a. pla.ne wa.ve, and, from Eq. (5-101),
it follows tha.t b,. = l. Thus,
..
l H ,.< (p')J,. (p)e1t><..-•'>
2> ¡; < p'
.. (5-103)
l
,. .. _.
J ,.(p')H,.<t> (p)efn<.-.'> p > p'
This equation is known as the addition theorem for Hankel functions.

It is also va.lid for superscripts (2) replaced by superscripts (1), since
H ,,,<1> = H,. <2>*. Adding t he a.ddition theorem for H 0<2>to that for H o<t>,
we obtain
..
J o(l9 - p'I) = l J ,.(p')J,.(p)eJn<..-•'> (5-104)
n.--·
which is the addition theorem for Bessel functions of the first kind. An
addition theorem for Bessel functions of the second kind is obtained by
subtracting that for H 0<2> from tha.t for H o<I).
6-9. Scattering by Cylinders. A source radiating in the presence of a.
conducting cylinder is one of t he simplest "wave-sca.tter" problema for
wbich an exact solution can be obtained. We shall at present consider
only two-dimensional cases. Extension to three-dimensiona.l ca.ses can
be effected by the method of Sec. 5-12.
Let us first consider a plane wa.ve incident upon a conducting cylinder,
as represented by Fig. 5-17. Take the incident wave to be z-pola.rized,
tha.t is,
(5-105)
Using the wa.ve tra.nsformation of Eq. (5-101), we can express the incident
field as
..
E.' = Eo l
n--•
j - "J ,.(kp)ei1'•
y
p
Fto. 15-17. A plane wave
incident upon a. conduct-
ing cylinder.
l ncident
wave
The total field with the conducting oylinder present is the sum of the
incident and scattered fields, tbat is,
E,= E,'+ E.•
To represent outward-traveling waves, the scattered field must be of the,
form
..
E/ = Eo l j -na,.H,.< 2>(kp)ei"• C5-106)
hence the total field is

..
E, = Eo l
n= -«>
j-[J.. (kp) + a..H ..<2>(kp)Jein• (5-107)
At the cylinder the boundary condition E. = O at p = a must be met.

It is evident from the above equation that this condition is met if
-J,.(ka)
a.. = H,.<2>(ka) (5-108)
which completes the solution.

The surface current on the cylinder ma.y be obtained froro
Using Eqs. (5-107) and (5-108), and simplifying the result by Eq. (D-17),
we obtain
(5-109)
In a thin wire the n = Oterm becomes dominant, and we ha.ve essentially

a filament of current. Using the small-a.rgument formula fox H 0(2>, we
234 TIME-HARMONI C ELECTROMAGNETI C FI ELDS
find t he total current as

2w 2rEo
I =
lc O
J ,a dt/> = JWµ
. 1Og ka (5-110)
Hence, the current in a t hin wire is 90º out of phase wit h the incident
field.
The pattern of the scattered field is also of intcrest. At large d istances
from the cylinder wo can use the asymptotic formulas for H n C2>1 and Eq.
(5-106) becomes
ft • -oo
where the an are given by Eq. (5-108). The ma.gnitude of t he ratio of

the scattered field to the incident field is therefore
(5-111)
T his is t he sca ttered-field pattern. For small ka, the n = Oterm becomes
domina.nt and
(5-112)
T he scattered-field pattern for a t hin wire is therefore a circle, wbich is

to be expected, since the wire is essentially a filament of clll'rent.
When the incident tield is polarized transversely to z, it can be expressed
as
..
H ,' = H oe- f""' = H o l j-J n(kp)ein•
n- - •
(5-113)
Again, the tot al tield is considered as the su.ro of t he incident and reftected
fields, t hat is,
H , = H ,' + H.'
r o represent outward-traveling waves, the scattered field is of the forro
..
H,• = Ho l j- "b,.H,.<2>(kp)eM
e.nd the total field is given by

..
H. -= Ho l
n- -•
j - 11 [Jn(kp) + b,.H ,.CS>(kp)]e1tt• (5-114)
This time our boundary condition is E• = O at p = a. From the field
equations
..
= jk Ho \ ' + bnHn(Z)l(kp)]e.in•
Wt L.¡
n•O
and the boundary condition is met if
bn = H n ('1.)1 (ka) (5-115)
An incident wave of arbitrary polarization can be treated as a super-

position of Eqs. (5-105) and (5-113).
When the incident wave is polarized transversely to z, the surface cur-
rent on the cylinder is
(5-116)
For small ka, the n = O term becomes dominant. However, the n = ± 1

terms radia.te more efficiently and cannot be neglected, as we shall now
show. At large distances from the cylinder, the scattered :field becomes
n• -oo
with bn given by Eq.. (5-115). The magnitude of the ratio of the scattered
to incident field is thus
(5-117)
For small ka we find

j7r(ka) 2
n=O
4
j7r(ka)2
Hn<2>1 (ka)
=
4
lnl = 1
jw(ka/2) 2Jnl
lnl l(lnl - 1) t lnl > 1
Hence, for thin wires the scattered-field pattern is

IH,•I 7r(ka)2 /2 (5-118)
II -
The n = O term of Eq. (5-116) is equivalent to a magnetfo
F10. 5-'18. A current fil&-

ment parallel to a con-
ducting cylinder.
current filament, while the n = ± 1 terms are equivalent to a y-directed

electric dipole.
A more general problem is that of a current 6.la.ment pa.ra.llel to a. con..
ducting cylinder, as shown in Fig. 5-18. {Plane-wave incidence is the
special case p'-+ oo .) When the filament is an electric current I, the
incident field is
-k2J
E.' = 4wE - (5-119)
For p < p' we have, by the addition theorem [Eq. (5-103)],

..
E.' = ¿ HnC2>(kp')J .. (kp)ei"<.-.·>
To this we must add a scattered field of the same form, but with the J,,
replaced by H,. <2>, namely,
..
E,.• = ¿
n- -oo
c,.Hn< 2>(kp')H11<Z>(kp)ein<•-.'> (5-120)
From the preceding two equations it is evident that

J n(ka)
e,. = - Hn<2>(ka) (5-121)
satisfies the boundary condition E. =E,'+ E,.• = O. Thus, our final
solution is
..
-k2J
4wE
¿ H,.<2>(kp')[Jn(kp) + CnHn< >(kp)]einCr-+'>
2
p < p'
E.= ..
n.•-IO
4
::[ 2:
n--•
Hn<2>(kp)(J ,.(kp') + c,.H,.<>(kp' )]einC.-.'>
2
p > p'
(5-122)
Note that our answer is symmetrical
in p, <P and p', q,' (reciprocity). Note
also that the "refiection coefficients"
of Eq. (5-121) are equal to those of
Eq. (5-108) and are, in general, in-
dependent of the incident field.
Specializing the second of Eqs.
{5-122) to the far zone, we have
..
E,¡;:;! f(p) ¿
n• -eo
j" [ J,.(kp')
- J,.(ka ) H C2>(k ')] efnC.-•'>

HnC2>(ka) n p
The magnitude of this is the radia-

tion field pattern. Figure 5-19 shows
the radiation pattern of a current fila-
ment 0.25X away from a conducting
cylinder of radius 3.75X. The radia-
tion pattern of a current filament
0.25X in front of a plane reflector is Fro. 5-19. Radiation pattern for a. cur-
rent fila.ment 0.25>. a.wa.y from a. cylin-
shown for comparison. The patterns drica.l reflector of radius 3.75>. (ple.ne
of Fig. 5-19 are also valid for current reflector case shown dashed).
elements of finite length as long as
the reflector is of infinite extent.
If the line source of Fig. 5-18 is a ma.gnetic current filament K, we have
instead of Eq. (5-119). The problem is dual to the electric current case,
except that the refiection coefficients at the conducting cylinder must be
those of Eq. (5-115) instead of those of Eq. (5-121). Therefore, the final
solution will be dual to Eq. (5-122), or
..
¿ H,.<2>(kp')[J,.(kp) + b,.H"< >(kp)]elnc.-.·>
2 p < p'
H,= ..
L
n•-•
H,.C 2>(kp)[Jn(kp') + bnH,.< >(kp')JelnC.-•'>
2 p > p'
(5-123)
where the b,. are given by Eq. (5-115). According to the equivalence
principie, the field of a na.rrow slot in

a conducting cylinder is the same as
the field of a magnetic current on the
surface of a conducting cylinder.
Specializing the second of Eqs. (5-123)
to tbe case p' = a, 4>' = O, p--. oo, we
have
\'
.. j"einf
H. = f(p) f_¡ H ..m'(ka)
n- -eo
The magnitude of this is the radiation

pattern of a "slitted cylinder." Fig-
ure 5-20 shows a slitted-cylinder pa.t-
tern for the case a = 2>... The pattern
for a slit in an infinite ground plane
is shown for comparison. The pat-
terns of Fig. 5-20 are also valid for
slits of finite length as long as the
conductor is of infinite extent.
F10. 5-20. Radiation pattern for a 5-10. Scattering by Wedges. A
slitted cylinder of radius 2>. (slit in a source radiating in the presence of a
ground plane shown dashed). conducting wedge is also a rela.tively
simple problem. 1 We again restrict
considera.tion to the two-dimensional ca.se at tbis time. We shall solve
for the field of current filaments in the vicinity of wedges and obtain
solutions for pla.ne-wave illumina.tion and aperture radia.tion as special
cases. A wedge of vanishingly small angle is the classical conducting
half-plane problem.
Consider first the case of a. fila.ment of electric current a.t p', 4>' adja-
cent to a conducting wedge defined by cp = a and cp = 211" - a (wedge
a.ngle = 2a). This is shown in Fig. 5-21. The incident field is given by
Eq. (5-119) a.nd has only a. z component of E. The total field a.lso will
ha.ve only a z component of E, since this is sufficient to satisfy the bound-
ary conditions. We construct
? a.•H.,C2>(kp')J.(kp) sin v(q,' - a) sin v(q, - a) <
!
p p'
E. =
l a.J.(kp')H,,<>(kp) sin v(q,' -
2 a) sin v(<f> - a) p > p'
•
(5-124)
1
Problema involving conductora over compuu coordina.te surfaces are usually easy
to solve. In this case the wedge covers two q, - constant coordinate surfaces.
CYLINDRICAL W A.VE FUNCTIONS 239
which satisfies reciprocity and insures continuity of E. at p = p'. To
satisfy the boundary conditions E. = O over cf> = a and cf> = 2n- - a, we
choose
mw-
v = --__,... m = ' 1, 2, 3, .. (5-125)
2('11" - a)
The a,, are determined by the nature of the source.
To evaluate the a v, we view the current element as a.o impulse of cur-
rent on the surface p = p'. The boundary condition to be satisfied at a
current sheet is
J, = H 9 (p'+) - H 9 (p'-)
Using the :field equations and Eq. (5-124), we find
J- L.¡
\'
Jwµ.
sin v(cf/ - a) sin v(cf> - a) p < p'
p > p'
•
Thus, using the Wronskian [Eq. (D-17)], we have the surface current
given by
2
J, = - , \ ' a. sin v(cf>' - a) sin v(cp - a)
wµ.7rp L¡
V
This is simply a Fourier series for the current on p = p'. The Fourier
sine series for an impulsive current of strength I at :f> = cf>' on p = p' is
= ( I ) ,. \ ' sin v(cp' - a) sin v(cp - a)

r-ap L.¡
V
By comparison of the preceding two

equations it is evident that
-wµ.7rl
(5-126)
ª" = 2(7r - a)
This completes the solution.

To obtain the ra-Oiation pattern of
a. current I near a wedge, use the
asymptotic formula for H"< 2>(kp) in
the second of Eqs. (5-124). This,
with Eq. (5-126), gives
E.¡;;: f(p) L l'J .,,(kp')
" Fto. 5-21. A current filament adjacent
sin v(cf>' - a) sin v(cf> - a) to a conducting wedge.
240 TIME· HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
Fto. 5-22. Radiation pa.tteroa for a.n electric current filament a.dja.cent to a. conducting
ha.lf pla.ne, p' =a, = w/4. (A/ter J. R. Wait.)
where v is given by Eq. (5-125). Figure 5-22 shows sorne radiation pat-
terns for the special ca.se a = O (the conducting half plane).
Another special ca.se of interest is that of pla.ne-wave illumination.
This is obtained by letting the source recede to infinity. In this case,
the incident field becomes
This is recognized as the plane-wave field
where E
=-
- wµl /2J e-;1:p'
'\}1JC(l (5-127)
o 4-
The total field in the vicinity of the wedge is obta.ined by specializing the
first of Eqs. (5-124) to large p'. This gives
E. kp'-+.. n; 2: e-i"P'
•
avi'J'O(kp) sin v(cf/ - a) sin v(cf> - a)
CYLINDRICAL WA.VE FUNCTIONS 241
Finally, substituting for a. from Eq. (5-126) and for I from Eq. (5-127),
we obtain
E. = '21r-Eo \ ' j''J v(kp) sin v(lj>' - a) sin v(4' - a) (5-128)

•
where v is given by Eq. (5-125). This is t he solution for a plane z-pola.r-
ized wa.ve incident a.t the a.ngle ' on a. wedge of angle 2a. For a = O
we ha.ve
..
E. = 2E 0
n•l
j"' 2J ,.12(kp) sin nt n
sin 4'
2
(5-129)
which is the solution for aplane wa.ve incident on a conducting ha.lf plane.
The "almost dual" problem (dual except for boundary conditions) is
lf
that of a magnetic-current fila.ment K at p', 4>' in Fig. 5-21. We con-
struct a solution
H, = b.,H.,<2>(kp')J .(kp) cos v(q,' - a) cos v(q, - a) p < p'

l bJ..(kp')H.,< >(kp) cos v(cf>' -
V
2
a) cos v(I/> - a) p > p'
(5-130)
which is similar to Eq. (5-124) except for the sines replaced by cosines.
The boundary conditions Ep = O at cf> = a and q, = 21r- - a can now be
satisfied by choosing
m?r
V = -.,.----__,.. m =O, 1, 2, .. . (5-131)
2(... - a)
The coefficients b,, are determined by the na.ture of the source, in a

ma.nner analogous. to that used to obtain Eq. (5-126). The result is
l
wE?rK
v= O
_ 4(?r - a)
b (5-132)
" - wetrK
2(?r - a)
v> O
which completes the solution.

The radiation pattern of a magnetíc current K near a wedge is obta.ined
from the second of Eqs. (5-130) by using the asymptotic expression for
H,,<t>(kp). The result is
H._. J(p)
kp-+•
'°' E..,j•J.,(kp') cos v(q,' -
'"'
a) cos v(q, - a)
•
where Neuma.nn's number E• is 1 for v == Oand 2 for v > O. Figure 5-23

shows sorne radiation pa.tterns for the specia.l case a = O. When q,' = a
we ha.ve the solution for a radiating slit in a conducting wedge.
Finally, for plane-wave incidence we can specialize the first of Eqs.
(5-130) to the case p'-+ oo. The procedure is ana.logous to that used to
establish Eq. (5-128), and the result is
H. = THo \ ' E.j'•J . (kp) cosv(cp' - a) cosv(cp - a) (5-133)

7r - a Í;;;¡
•
This is the field d\le to a plane wave polarized orthogonally to z incident
at an a.ngle <f>' on a wedge of a.ngle The case a = O gives
(5-134)
which is the solution for aplane wa.ve incident on a conducting balf plane.
6-11. Three-dimensional Radiation. A three-dímensional problem
having cylindrical boundaries can be reduced to a two-dimensional prob-
lem by applying a Fourier tra.nsformation with respect to z (the cylinder
Fia. 5-23. Radia.tion patterns for a magnetic ourrent filament adjaoent to a conductin.g
ha.lf ple.ne, p' • a, = 1f/ 4. (After J. R. Wail.)
z
--
axis). 1 For exa.mple, if t/l(x,y,z) is
a solution to the three-dimensional
wave equation
a2 a2 a2 )
( ax2 + ay2 + az2 + k" "' = o
then
Y,(x 1y,w) = J:.,, t/l(x,y,z)e-Ju>• dz y
will be a. solution to the two-dimen-
sional wave equation
(:;2 + ::2 + K2) y, = Q
where K2 = k2 - w2• Once the two-

dimensional problem for Y, is solved, Fro. 5-24. A filament of current along
the tbree-dimensional solution is ob- the z axis.
tained from the inversion
t/l(x,y 1z) = ;11" / _"'.,, {l(x,y,w)eiu>• dw
This is usua.lly a difficult opera.tion. Fortunately, in the radiation zone

the inversion becomes quite simple. We shall now obtain this far-zone
inversion formula.
Consider the problem of a filament of z-directed current along the z axis,
as illustra.ted by Fig. 5-24. The only restriction placed on the current
l(z) is that it be Fourier-transformable. In the usual way, we construct
a solution
H = VXA A = u.1/t (5-135)
where i/¡ is a wave funotion independent of q, and representing outward-
traveling waves at large p. Anticipating the need for Fourier trans-
forms, we construot
which is of tbegener.aJ form oí Eq. /!7-11). T.he Founer transform ofp .is
evidently
1/1 = f(w)H 0 <2>(p yk2 - w2)
The f (w) is determined by the nature of the source, according to

r n.
}o
2
,. p dq, __.. l(w)
p-+O
1
This applies to cylinders of arbitrary cross section as well as to circular cylinders.
244 T IME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
where and i a.re the transforms of

H9 and l. From the small-argu-
ment formula for Ho< 2>, we have
n. = a{!
- - __.. -2..¡(w)
op ,.-+O 1rP
2·
and the preceding equation yields
f(w) =
1 fj)
Hence, the "transform solution" to the problem of Fig. 5-24 is
Y, =
81rJ
f_.,"' i (w) H 0C2>(p v'k2 - w2)ef'o• dw (5-136)
where i (w) = ¡_·. l (z' )e-/ll" dz' (5-137)
The field is obtained from t/¡ according to Eqs. (5-135). Compare the
equations of this para.graph to those of the second paragraph of Sec. 5-6.
The transformed equations in the three-dimensional problem are of the
same formas the equations in the two-dimensional problem.
Another solution to the problem of Fig. 5-24 is the " potential integral
.
solution 11 o!f Sec. 2-9. This is
e-;kyp•+<•-s'>'
·'· =
y
!
_.,
l (z')
L v' p2 + (z - z')2
dz' (5-138)
with tbe field gíven by Eqs. (5-135). It can be shown that the r/' is unique
in this problem. Hence, Eqs. (5-136) and (5-138) are equal, giving us a
mathematical identity. For example, if l(z) is a short current element of
moment Il, then !(w) = Il and Eq. (5-136) becomes
"1 = -ll .
81rJ
f.
- .,
H oº>(p v'k2 - w 2)eiw• dw
n e-;tr
and Eq. (5-138) becomes "1 = 4rr
Equating t hese two Y,'s we have the identity

e-ikr
-
r
=-:
1
2J _,.
!. H 0 <'.)(p v'k 2 - w 2)eiv>• dw (5-139)
Many other identities can be established in a similar fa.shion.

It is conv.e nient to have two forms for if¡ because some operations are
easier to perform on one form t han on the other. For example, it is
simple to specialize Eq. (5-138) to the radiation zone, and we did so in
Sec. 2-10. In particular, the specialization is given by Eq. (2-122), which
CYLlNDRICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 24tt
can be written as
e-ll<r
1" -;::::;;: 41"" 1( -k cos 8) (5-140)
where l(w) is given by Eq. (5-137). By Eq. (3-97) we ha.ve
..
,._ -jwµ.A, = jwµ. sin 81/1
E,--+
e-fltr _
or E,--+ jwµ.
,.......
A-
'rlf1 .
sin 81( -k cos 8) (5-141)
Hence, the radia.tion field is simply rela.ted to tbe tra.nsform of the source
evaluated at w = -k cos 8. More important, the specialization of Eq.
(5-140) must also be the corresponding specialization of Eq. (5-136).
We therefore ha.ve the identity
¡_·. l (w) H 0 <s>(p yk 2 - wt) ei"• dw--;::-! 2j e-;'tr 1(-k cos 8) (5-142)
which holds for a.ny function J(w). Equation (5-142) can a.lso be estab-
lished by contour integration, using the method of steepest descent. 1
Fina.lly, we shall need a formula. similar to Eq. (5-142) va.lid for Hankel
functions of arbitra.ry order. The desired generaliza.tion can be effected
by considering the asymptotic expression
from which it is evident that
_. j"Ho< >(x)
H,.<t>(x)--+ 2
..
AB long as 8 -;& O or r, we ha.ve p-+ oo as r-+ oo 1 since p = r sin 8. Also,
ü k is complex (solne dissipation assumed), then yk 2 - w 2 is never zero
on the pa.th of integration. We are then justified in using the asymptotic
formula. for Hankel functions and can replace the H o< 2> of Eq. (5-142) by
;- ..H ,tz>. The result is
(5-143)
We sha.ll ha.ve use for this formula in the radiation problems that follow.
6-12. Apertures in Cylinders. 2 Consider a. conducting cylinder of
inñnite length in which one or more apertures exist. The geometry is
•A. Erdelyi, "Asymptotic Expansiona," pp. 26-27, Dover Publications, New York,
1956.
1 Silver and Saundcrs, Thc Externa! Field Produced by a Slot in an I nñnite Cir-
cular Cylinder, J. Appl. Phy., vol. 21, no. 5, pp. 153-158, February, 1950.
246 TIME-HARMONI C ELECTBOMAGNETIC FIELDS
Flo. S-25. An aperture in

a cooducting cylinder.
y
shown in Fig. 5-25. We seek a solution for tbe field external to the
cylinder in terms of tbe tangential components of E over the apertures.
Anticipating that we shall use transforms of the fields, let us define the
"cylindrical transforms" of the tangential components of E on the
cylinder as
1 J(o2r dq,
E,(n,w) = 21r f'- °.. dz
(5-144)
E.(n,w) = ;.. fo 2
" dq, ¡_·. dz E+(a,<1>,z)e-J,..e-1
1111
The inverse transformation is
¿ ¡_·.
to
E,(a,4>,z) = eJn• E,(n,w)e;..• dw
.. (5- 145)
E+(a,4',z) = ¿ ¡_·.ein+ E.(n,w)e;..• dw
Note t hat these are Fourier series on ti> and Fourier integrals on z. The
field external to the cylinder can be expressed as the sum of a TE com-
ponent and TM component. According to the concepts of Sec. 3-12, the
field is given by
E = -V X F - jwµ.A + jWE vv · A
(5-146)
H = V X A - jwEF + jWJJ
J_ VV • F
where A = u.A. F = u.F. (5-147)
We now construct the wave functions A. and F, as
..
A, = ¿
n- -•
eM /_.... f.,.(w)H11< 2>(p yk 2 - w2)ei"'• dw
(5-148)
which are of the forro of Eq. (5-11). We choose the Bessel functions as
H,.< 2> to represent outward-traveling wa.ves. We choose the cJ> a.nd z
functions such that the field will be of the same form as Eqs. (5-145).
To determine the f,.(w) and gn(w) in Eqs. (5-148), let us calcula.te E,
and E• a.ccording to Eqs. (5-146). The result is
..
E.(p,tf>,z) = \ ' ei"•
27rJWE f_¡
J.. -eo
(k 2 - w 2)f,.(w)H11 <2>(p yk2 - w2)eiw• dw
"'
E.(p,q,,z) = 21
7r
\ ' ein•
Í-¡
f'" [- "!'w f,.(w)H,.<t>(p vk2 -
-oo JWE
w2)
n• -•
+ g,.(w) yk2 - w 2 H,.<W(p yk 2 - w2)] eiw• dw
Since these equations specialized to p = a must equal Eqs. (5-145), we

ha.ve
fn(w) = jwEE,(n,w)
(k2 - w2)H,.C2>(a yk2 - wi)
g,.(io) = yk2 - w2 yk2 - w2) [ E•(n,w) (5-149)
+ a(kzn'::. w2) E.(n,w) ]

This completes the solution. .
The inversions of Eqs. (5-148) are diffi.cult except for t he far zone, in
which case we can use Eq. (5-143). Hence, we ha.ve
(.5-150)
n--•
248 TIM.E-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FI ELDS
z z
F10. 5-26. A conducting

cylinder and (a) an axial
slot, (b) a. circumferential
slot.
.,,-- - - -..... ,,...--- --- .......
(a) (b)
Finally, in the radiation zone Eqs. (3-97) apply; hence
(5-151)
n • -co
Thus, the radiation pattern of apertures in cylinders is relatively easy to

calculate. The only di:fficulty is that the number of significant termB in
the summation becomes very large for cylinders of large diameter.
To illustrate the theory, let us consider the thin rectangular slot in the
two orientations shown in Fig. 5-26. For the axial slot we shall assume
in t he aperture
- !!_<z<!!_
V n 2 2
E•= -cos-
aa L a a
(5-152)
l - -<
2 <P< -2
and E. = O. (This approximates the case of excitation by a rectangular

waveguide.) For a very narrow slot {a-t O) the transformB of Eq.
(5-144) become
E- • (n,w) = a
VL cos (wL/2)
11'2 - (Lw)2
and E.(n,w) = O. From Eqs. (5-149) we t hen have f ,.(w) = O and
g,.(w) = VL cos (wL/2)
[.,..s - (Lw)t]a yk2 - w2 H,.<W(a yk2 - w')
Finally, by Eqs. (5-151) we he.ve t be re.diation field given by E, = O and
y Le-1"kr [ j"ei,..
E• = 11"1ar
COS (
1-
(kL- cos 8)) ] COS
8
2
"- - •
H,.<W(ka sin 8) (5-l S3)
11'
which can be further simplified to a cosine series in f/>. T he radiation

pattern in tbe pla.ne 8 = 90º is identical to that of tbe slitted cylinder ; so
for a = 2>. tbe pattern is given in Fig. 5-20. The "vertical 11 pattern in
the f/> = Opla.ne is almost indistinguishable from the ra.diation pattern of
the sa.me slot in an in.finite ground plane. 1
For the circumferential slot of Fig. 5-26b, we assume in the aperture
- w<z<w
V 1r4' 2 2
E.= -cos- a a
(5-154)
W a
l - -<4><
2 -2
and E• = O. (Again this approx:ima.tes excitation by a rectangular wa.ve-
guide.) For a. narrow slot (W - t O) t he transforma of Eq. (5-144)
become
E- ( ) = V a cos (na/2}
• n,w ...' - (na)2
and 2.(n,w) = O. Then from Eqs. (5-149) and (5-151} we can ca.lculate
the re.diation field as
..
kVae- Jkr
E,= . . 8
3rr sm ¿
n.--· [?r1 -
j" cos (na/2) e/ti•
(na}2]H,.< 2>(ka sin 8)
E = _
-
Vae-ik' cot 8 \'
. nj" cos (na/2) el"•
(5-155)
• rrka sin 8 [1r 2 - (na)']H,.<W(ka sin 8)

"--·
In the principal planes 8 = T/2 a.nd ti> = O, the field is entirely 8-polarized.
However, in other directions, tbe cross-polarized component E• ma.y be
appreciable. The radiation patterns for circumferentia.l slots in reason-
ably large cylinders a.re very close to the radia.tion pa.tterns for the same
1 L. L. Bailin, The Radiation Field Produced by a Slot in a Large Circular Cylinder,
IRE Tram., vol. AP-3, no. 3, pp. 128-137._J uly, 1955.
250 TlME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FlELDS
Fra. 5-27. Radiation pa.t-

tem for a. circumforential
slot of length 0.65>. in a.
conducting cylinder of
diameter 3>. (same slot
in a. ground pis.ne shown
dashed).
slot in a.n infinite ground pla.ne. To illustrate this, Fig. 5-27 shows the
radia.tion pattern in the plane O = 7r/ 2 for a circumferential slot 0.65>..
long in a cylinder 3>.. in día.meter. The radiation pattern for the same
slot in an infinite ground plane is shown dashed.
6-13. Apertures in Wedges. The problem of diffraction by a con-
ductor is reciprocal to the problem of radiation by apertures in the con-
ductor. By this, we mean that a solution to one of tbese problems is
readily converted to a solution to the other by using thc reciprocity
theorem. We shall illustrate the procedure for the case of conducting
wedges.
Figure 5-28 shows the reciprocal problems of (a) a current element and
a conducting wedge and (b) an aperture in a conducting wedge. To keep
the theory simple, we shall consider only the case of a distant current ele-
ment and the radiation .field of the aperture. For the z-directed electric-
current element of Fig. 5-28a the field will be TM to z, expressible in terms
of a.n A = u,.¡.,. The incident field is
e-Jklr-r'I
l/ti = n 47rlr - r'I
which, when r » r', reduces to
(5-156)
This is simply a plane wave incident upon the wedge. The l/t in this
three-dimensional problem is subject to the same boundary condition
{w = O) on the wedge .as is E. in the two-dimensional problem of Sec.
5-10. Hence the solution must be of the same formas Eq. (5-128), that
is,
I/¡ = 21n/lo jvJ,.(kp' sin O) sin v(q,' - a) sin v(q, - a) (5-157)
7r-aÍ-(
11
e-fkr
where t/lo = Il - &"'' oo• 1
4irr
(5-158)
ffl11'
v=..,....,..------..,- m = 1, 2, 3,
2(11' - a)
In terms of 1/1, the field is given by Eqs. (5-18).
This completes the solu-
tion to Fig. 5-28a.
To obtain the solution to Fig. 5-28b, we apply reciprocity [Eq. (3-35)]
to the region bounded by the conducting wedge. Because of the bound-
ary conditions on E at the conductor, Eq. (3-35) reduces to
- ff E.bH/' ds = IlE.b
apert
(5-159)
where the superscripts a and b refer to the fields of Figs. 5-28a and b,
respectively. From Eqs. (5-18) and (5-157) we calculate
HPº = '(21n/lo ) vj'0 J.,(kp' sin 8) cos v(q,' - a) sin v(<P - a)

P 'Ir-a Í-(
'
z n z
(a) (b)
Fto. S-28. The reciprocal problems of (a) a. current element a.nd a conducting wedge
a.nd (b) a.n aperture in a conducting wedge.
Specializing this to the surface q/ = a, we can reduce Eq. (5-159) to
IlE, = - J-•• dz' { .. dp'

Jo p 1r a
\'f...t vj"J,,(kp' sin 8) sin v(q, - a)
•
Finally, Y, 0 is given by Eq. (5-158), and in the radiation zone
E,= - .E.
sm 8
Hence, the 8 component of E in the radiation zone is given by
E, =
2r
( e- 1"') .
a sm 8
)2 vjª sin v(cf> - a) f,,(k cos 8, k sin O) (5-160)
= .
1f' -
V
where f,,(w,u)
! -·
ei•,,. dz
o
J,,(up) dp-1 E,(p,a,z)
p
(5-161)
Note that f ,,(w,u) is of the forro of a. Fourier transform on z anda Fourier-

Bessel (or Hankel) transform on p. 1
In a similar manner, the component of the radiation field can be
obtained by applying reciprocity to Fig. 5-28a with Il replaced by Kl.
This z-directed magnetic-current element gives rise to a field TE to z,
expressible according to F = u.i/t. The incident field is t hen specified by
Eq. (5-156) with I replaced by K. Again tbe three-dimensional problem
is essentially the same as the two-dimensional problem of Sec. 5-10. The
solution is then of the form of Eq. (5-133), tha.t is,
1" = 7n/lo '\" e,,,j"J ,,(kp' sin 6) cos v(q,' - a) cos v(q, - a) (5-162)
e-J1cr
where !/lo= Kl -4'lr'T eft'-'
(5-163)
m?r
2(1r - a)
m = g, 1, 2,
The electromagnetic field is found from 1/1 according to Eqs. (5-19).

To relate this solution to the field from an aperture in a conducting
wedge, we again apply reciprocity [Eq. (3-35)}. This reduces to
jf (E,"H,4 - E,"H,•) ds = KlH," (5-164)

apen
where superscripts a and b refer to the fields of Fig. 5-28a with Il replaced
by Kl, and of Fig. 5-28b, respectively. From Eqs. (5-19) and (5-162) we
1
l. N. Sneddon, "Fourier Transforms," p. 6, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York, 1951.
calculate
H,a =
..-k1 sin 8 cos 8
(
wp. 'lf - a
) Y,o
¿. . sm 8) cos v(' - a) cos v(<f> - a)
Tk 1 sin2 8
H,• = . (
JWJI.
)
1(- Ct
1/!o ¿ •
E.,j•J ,,(kp' sin 8) cos v(' - a) cos v(</> - a)
•
Finally, we evalua.te Eq. (5-164) and use the radiation-zone relationship
E• = -.,,H, =
sm 8
The result is
ke- ikr '\'
E• = 4 r(ll" _ a) L¡ E.,j" cos v(</> - a)[cos 8 g.(k cos 8, k sin 8)
(5-165)
•
+j sin 8 h.,(k cos 8, k sin 8)}
where g.,(w,u) = f .. eJvi• dz Jo( .. dp E,(p,a,z)

-ao
(5-166)
h.,(w,u) = J_·. eJvi• dz J J .(up) dp EP (p,a,z)
0
..
We now ha.ve a complete solution for the radiation field from apertures in
conductíng wedges.
As an example, let us calcula.te the radíatíon from a narrow axial slot
of length L, as shown in Fig. 5-29. We shall assume that in the slot
1f'Z
Ep = V8(p - a) cos L (5-167)
is tbe only tangential component of E .

Tbe f, g, and h functions [Eqs. (5-161)
and (5-166)} are then found to be
J.= o g. = o
L = 21f'VL cos (wL/2) J ( )
,.. ,,.1 - (Lw)2 • ua
From Eq. (5-160) we see that E, = O,

a.nd from Eq. {5-165) we have
E• -_ f( r ) sm
. cos [k(L/2) cos 6)
0 irt - (kL cos 8) 2
L: E.,j 0 cosv(<1>- a)J. (kasin8) (5-168)

' Fw. 5-29. A narrow axial slot in a
where v = Jí, 1, %, . . . . Plots of conducting half pla.ne.
Fio. 5-30. Radiation patterns for axial slots in a conducting half plane (the slot in
an infinite ground plane is sbown dasbed).
the radiation pa.ttern in the plane 8 = 90º are shown in Fig. 5-30 for the
case a = O (half plane). The cases a = 0.16>.. anda = 0.96>.. are shown,
with the infinite ground-plane pattern shown dashed for comparison.
PR.OBLEMS
6-1. Show that Eq. (5-12) is a solution to the sea.lar Helmholtz equation.
5-2. Show that .¡, = (log p)e-tt. is a solution to the sea.lar Helmholtz equation.
Ddermine the TM ficld generated by this .¡, according to Eqs. (5-18). Sketch tbe
& and 3e lincs in a z - constant plane. What physical system supports this wa.veT
Repea.t for the TE case.
15-S. For two-dimensional fields (no z variation) show that an arbitrary ficld in a
source-free homogeneous region can be expresscd in terIIU1 oí two sea.lar wave func-
tions, "11 and .¡,,, according to Eqs. (3-79) whcro
A => U pp.¡,. F - UppiJ!z
Note that this corresponds to choosing
" ... - !!. _!

fJ ªP
(Ap)
P
<1>1 - - e_!
t éJp
(Fp)
p
instead oí Eqs. (3-80).
6-4. A circular waveguide has a. dominant mode cutofI frequcncy of 9000 mcga-
cycles. What is its inside die.meter if it is air-filled? Determine the cutoff frcqucn-
cies for the next ten lowest-order modes. R.epeat for tbe case fr - 4.
6-15. All the wa.veguides whose cross sections are shown in Fig. 5-4 are cbaracterized
by wave functions of the form
.¡, - B,.(kpp)h(n<ti)e*-111,•
where TM modes are determined by Eqs. (5-18) and T E modes by Eqs. (5-19). The
phase constant is given by
Let a denoto the inncr radius and b the outer radius of the coaxial waveguide of Fig.
6-44. Show tbat for TM modes
B,.(kpp) ... N .. (kpa)J.. (kpp) - J,.(kpa)N.,(kpp)
h(nq>) = sin n4> or cos nlf>
where n - O, 1, 2, . . . , and kp is a root of

J,.(k,a)N,.(k,b) - J,.(k,b)N,.(kpa) = O
Show that for TE modes

B,.(k,p) ... - J',.(kpa)N,.(k,p)
h(n4>) = sin n4> or cos n4>
whero n - O, 1, 2, . . . , and k, is a root of
- - O
&-6. Show that the modes of the coaxial waveguide with a baffle (Fig. 5-4b) a.re
characterized by the same B,.(kpp) functions as the coaxial guide (Prob. 5-5), but Cor
TM modes
.\(n4>) ... sin n4> n - 1, 2, •• •
and for TE modes
h (n.p) - cos nit> n - O, 1, %, ...
where t he baffle is at 4> = O. Tbe dominant mode is the lowest TE mode with
n•
&•7. Show that the wedge waveguide of Fig. 5-4e supports TM modes specified by
1/ITM ,_ J,.(k,p) sin n4> e*'"·•

where n - -1r. -2ir, -31r, ....
4>o .Po .Po
and kpa is a zero of J. (kpa). Show that it supports TE modes specified by
1/Jn - J,.(k,.p) cos n 4> e%ill,a
r 2r
where n ... o -, - ,···
' 4>o .Po
and kpa is a zero of Thc guides of Figs. 5-4c and d are the special cases
• 2r and r, respectively.
&-8. Show that the cutoff wavelength for the domioant mode of the circular wave-
guide with baffle (Fig. 5-4c) is
rí-9. Using the perturbationa.l method of Sec. 2-7, show that the attenuation con-
etants due to conductor losses in a circular waveguide are given by
Ol
ac - ---;:====,
"ª v' 1 - (f./!) t
for all TM modes, and by

1
Cl!o.., Ol [ n' + ( '·)
-
,,a yl - ]
(f.//)' (:r:,)• - n' f
256 TIME-BARMONIC ELECTBOMAGNETIC FIELDS
for ali TE modes. Note that for tbe "circular electric" modes (n - 0) the attenue.-
tion decreases without limit aa f-+ oo.
6-10. Consider the two-dimen11ional "circulating waveguide" formed of concentrio
conducting cylinders p -= a and p - b. Show that tbe wave function
1/1 =- (AJ,.(kp) + BN,.(kp)Je-1-.
specifies circulating modes TM to i according to Eqs. (5-18) if n ia a root of
B J,. (ka) J,.(kb)
- A= N,.(ka) - N,.(kh)
Show that tbe above wave function epecifies modes TE to i according to Eqs. (5-19) if
n ie a root of
B
- A - - N:(kb)
6- 11. For the TM radial wave specified by Eq. (5-33), show that tbe radial phaee
constant of E. is gjven by Eq. (5-36), while the radial pbase constant of H• ie
/J, - :P [1 -(k:p)'] [N:(k,p)]1
Show tbat Eq. (5-37) is also valid for this phase constant.
6-12. Consider the TM radial wave impedances of Eqs. (5-38) and (5-39). Show
tbat for large ra.dii
Z+,™ = z_,TM - " kpP...•
n - O
n>O
where .., -= 1.781.
6-13. Consider tbe radial parallel-plate waveguide of Fig. 5-5a. For the trans-
miesion-line mode (Eqs. (5-45)], one can define e. voltage and current aa
V(p) - -aE.
Show tbat V and I satisfy the transmission-line equations
-dV
dp
. Ll
where L and C are the "static" parameters
e- 2irfP
a
Why should we expect circuit concepta to apply for this mode?

6-14. Considel""the wedge guide of Fig. 5-5b. For the dominant mode [Eq. (5-49)),
one can define a voltage and current as
I(p) - H.a
Show that V and 1 aa.tisfy the t ransmission-line equation (Prob. 5-13) with
L =
a P4>o
6-16. Show tbat the resonant frequencies of the two-dimensional cylindrical cavity
(no z variation, conductor over p .. a) are equal to the cutoJJ frequencies of the
circular waveguide.
6-16. Following the perturbational method used to derive F.q. (5-58), show that the
Q due to conductor losses for the varioua modes in the circular cavity of Fig. 6-7 are
'IX..P
(Q ) Tlll
• ""º '"' 2<R(l + a/d)
.,, '\jIx.,.• + ( d
2"'ª) '
(Q.)!:! = _2_<R_(_l_+_2a.-./_d....
)-
(Q fB _ + - n')
• ""' 2<R [ ( nqra)
T ' + '• z., + -¡
2a ( d
2"'ª) ' (z.,.
, -
2
n 1} ]
6-17. The circular cavity of Fig. 5-7 haa dimensions a - d - 3 centimeters.

Determine the first ten resonant frequencies and the Q of the dominant mode if the
walls are copper.
6-18. Consider the dominant mode of the partially filled radial waveguide of Fig.
5-9a. Show that for small a and large p the phase constant is
fJ .,. k, _ /1 + (µ¡/µ, - l)d/a

,..., 1 + (tt/t1 - l)d/a
Compare thifl to the uniform transmissioo-line formula [Eq. {2-66)), using the static
approximations
6-19. Consider the dielectric-alab radial guide of Fig. 5-9b. Let •1 - 4co and
1'1 • "ºanda - >.o. Which modes can propagate unattenua.ted in the slab? Repeat
the problem for the coated-conductor guide of Fig. 5-Qc with t = a/2.
6-20. For the partially filled circular wo.veguide (Fig. 5-lOa), show that the cbarac-
teristic equation (Eq. (5-74)] for the n - 1 modes reduces to
(AN1(kp,b) + + BJ1(kp,b)] =O
where A - kp1J;(kp1a)J1(k,ia) - k,,J;(k,,a)J1(k,1a)
B - k,,N;(k,ia)J1(kp1a) -
6-21. Consider the dominant (n - 1) mode of tbe dielectric-rod waveguide of
Fig. 5-lOb. Show that for small a the cbaro.ctcristic equation becomes
where
Note that there is no cutofI frequency.
258 T!ME-RARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
5-22. The field externa! to a dielectric-rod waveguide varíes as K 1(vp). Using the
result3 of Prob. 5-21, show tbat for a sma.ll (a « >-1), nonma.gnetic (µ1 - µs) rod
l 2 1 ti + Et
og -yva""'
where 'Y = l . 781. Ta.lee e1 - 9t2 and a "" O.IX1, a.nd calculate the distance from the
axis for which the field is 10 per cent of its value a.t the surface of tbe rod.
5-23. Consider the circular cavity with concentric dielectric rod, as shown in Fig.
5-3la. Show tha.t the dominant resonant frequency is the smallest root of
1 J; (kc) 1 [ No(k 0a)J;(koe) - J o(koa)N;(koe) ]

; J o(kc) = io N o(koa)Jo(koe) - J o(koa)No(koe)
For sma.11 e/a, show tba.t resonant frequency w, is related to the empty-cavity resonance
Xo1
Xo1 = 2.405
according to w, - wo 'll' No(Xo1) (

- - - = -xo1-,-- t,
wo 4 J 0 (:i:o1)
- 1) - (c)
a
1
... - l.86(tr - 1) G) t
1f3t-a 1 l
(a) (b)
FIG. 5-31. Partially filled ca.vities.
5-24. Consider the circular cavity with a dielectric slab, as shown in Fig. 5-3lb.
Show tbat the cha.racteristic equation for the resonant frequency of the dominant
mode is
k,o tan k.o(d - b) =- k,b
e:·Y
fO E
where k.o 2 ... ko 1 - (aXo1)' k,t _ kf _
Show that when both d and b are small
- (1 - l/t,)b/d
"'' ""' "'º 1 + -
l)b/d
where "'ºis the cmpty-cavity resonant frequency, given in Prob. 5-23, and '• • e/to
a.nd µ/ µ 0 •
Fro. 5-32. Wedgein a cir-

cular cavity.
15-26. CoDsider thc circular cavity with a conducting wcdge, as shown in Fig. 5-32
Show that, for d small, the resonant frequcncy of the dominant mode is given by
tD
J. - Z..a
- -- y;;,.
where w is the first root of J .(w) - O and v .. r/(2T - 4'o). Some representative
values of w are
V
-
'ID 3 . 14 3 .28 3 .70 3 .83
6-26. Figure 5-33a shows a linear density of x-directed current elements along the
z o.icis. Show that the field is gíven by H "" V X A where
Show tbat tbe field is identical to that produced by the magnetic dipole íormed of
z-directed magnotic currents +K at y .. -8/2 and -K at y • s/2 in the limit s - O.
6-27. Show that the field of the magnetic-dipole source of Fig. 5-33b in thc limit
a-. O is given by E • - V X u,.¡, where
6-28. Consider the quadrupole source of Fig. 5-33c in the limit 81 _. O and 81 _. O.
Show tbat the field is given by H ... V X u,.¡, where
.¡, C2
k 1l818t
- - .-
83
(-Ho<t>(kp) + H 2<1>(kp) cos 24'1
15-29. Figure 5-33d represents a source of 2n current filameots, equal in amplitude

but alternatiog in sign, on a cylindcr of radius p = a. Show that, in tbe limit a-. O,
y y
T
8
+
J,,.l X ..i.. • - K X
(á) (b)
y y
- 1 +1
+ l • • • ·- 1
- 1'• a •+ 1
X + re •- 1 X
- ¡• • · +1
•
+1 - 1
(e) (d}
Fio. 5-33. Sorne two-dimemsional sources.
tbe field is given by H - V X U."1 where
·'·
" -- 2j(n.,,¡- 1) 1 (kª)"
2 H "<t>(k ) sm
· n</>
P
6-SO. Let the eylind er of current in Fig. 5-15 be an arbitrary function of l/t, but still
independent of z. Show that the field is given by H ""' V X u.Y, with
...a
..
2j L: AnJ,.(ka)H,.<1 >(kp)ei,.. p>a
.¡, -
...a
..
n--.o
2j L:
n•-•
AnH0 <t>(ka)J,.(kp)el,.. P <a
where 1
A,. = 2ir !c21t J. e-1-... di/>
0
A eylinder of z-directed magnetic currents is dual to this problem.

6-81. Show that the radiation field from a ribbon of uniform z-directed current
(Fig. 4-25) is given by
•
E._ -¡wµae -f•P J Sin (
_ __._ _COS
______ tP )
yg;;;p;¡, • (ka/2) cos lit
and H• - -E./.,,.
CYLINDRI CAL WA.VE FUNCTIONS 261
6-32. Consider the slot antenna of Fig. 4-21, and make the a.ssumption that tangen-
tial E in the slot is UsEo, a. constant. Show that tho radia.tion field is
_ • -flop
. (ka2
SlD COS .p )
H _ 1'-'«ae E
• - o (ka/2) cos ti>
and E• - .,,H•.
6-33. Derive the following wave transformations:
..
cos (p sin <P) = l tnJ in (p) cos Znq,
n-0
..
sin (p sin <P) =2 l
n•O
J 2,...,1(p) sin (?n + 1)4>
6-34. Let thc cylinder of Fig. 5-17 be dielcctric with pa.ra.meters t 4, µ 4 • For a T M
incident plano wave [Eq. (5-1 05)), show tbat tbo scattered .6eld is given by Eq. (5-106)
with
and tbat the field interna! to the cylinder is given by

.
E, = Eo l j"c,.J ,.(k4p)ei..+
with
Note that tbis solution reduces to the solution for the conducting cylinder when
f4-. co .
6-36. Repeat Prob. 5-34 for the opposite polarization, that is, when thc incideot
field is given by Eq. (5-113). Note that this p roblem is completely dual to Prob. 5-34¡
so the solution is obtaina.ble by using t he intcrchange of symbole of Ta.ble 3-2. Noto
that the solution reduces to the solution for a conducting cylinder 88 µ4 - O.
6-36. Show that the solution of Prob. 5-34 in the nonmagnetic case reduces to
-jrEo
E.• - - - (ka}l(t, - l)H0 Cfl(kp)
1:4-+0 4
where fr = t4/ <o. Repeat for the opposito polarization, using the result of Prob. 5-35.
6-37. Considor a conducting half plane covcring the <f> = O surface and a z-polarized
plane wa.ve of mll{Cnitude Eo incident at an angle tf>'. The solution is given by Eq.
(5-129). Show tha.t the current on the half ple.ne is
..
J. - ?-Eo \' njnllJ,.¡2(kp) sin n:'
]Wµp
n• l
Show t hat near the edge of the half ple.ne
2
J . - -Eo
kp-+O '1
i± . 4>'
-:--k sm-
Jr p 2
and E • f2iki, sin ti>' sin. !
--+
• kp-+ o 2Eo '1-=-;:- 2 2
Hence, E. vanishes as Vk,,, and J, becomes infinite a.a l / .../fi,. This is a general
characteristic of knife cdges.
6-38. Consider thc half planc of Prob. 5-37 witb tbe incident ple.ne wa.ve pola.rized
tra.nsverse to z. The solution is given by Eq. (5-134) Show that the current oo the
ha.lf planc is
..
'\' n<t>'
JP - 2Ho f.j•"J ..1t(kp) cos T
n- o
Show that nea.r the koife edge
J p ---. 2Ho
kp-+O
EP ---t - 11Ho
k¡r-+O
where .¡,' is the angle of incideocc and ti> the angle to the ficld point. Note tha.t J Pis
finite at p - O, while Ep becomes infinite as l /y'kp. T his is also a gener!\l charM:-
teristic of knife edges.
6- 39. Figuro 5-34a shows a conducting cylindor with an axially pointing magootic
dipole Kl on its surface at ti> ... O, z = O. Show that the radio.tion field is given by
E = _ Kte-;tr '\'
.. e,.j" cos nt/>
• 2r1ar H,.<W(ka sin 8)
n-0
where t., is Neumann's number.
z z
a a a
Kl n n
X X X
b-+j
---,
(a) (b) (e)
Fto. 5-34. Conducting cylinder with (a) axial magnetic dipole on its surfaee, (b) axial
electric dipole a. distance b from the axis, aod (e) radial dectric dipolo on its surface.
6-40. Consider the axially pointing electric dipole a di.stance b from the axis of a
conducting cylinder of ra.dius a, as shown in Fig. 5-34b. Show tbat tbc radiation field
is given by
..
E1 ""f(r) sin B ¿ J ,.(a)N,.(IJ) - N ,.(a)J ,.(IJ) .,.
H ,.Ct>(a) J e
1
_.
where a - ka sin 8 and fJ = kb sin 8.

CYLINDRICA.L WAVE FUNCTIONS 263
6-41. Consider the radially pointing electric dipole on a conducting cylinder of
radius a, as shown in Fig. 5-34c. Show that in the z = O plane (in which Il lies) the
radiation field is given by
.. nj" sin n'(ka)
n-1
The field in other directions has both 8 and et> components.

6-42. Figure 5-35a shows a conducting half ple.ne with a me.gnetic dipole para.lle!
to t he edge, a. distance a from it, and on the side 4> = O. Show that the ra.diation
field is
..
= j!!.l e- jkr sin (J l E,.j" 12Jna(ka s in O) cos n:¡
where E,. is Neumann's number.

6-43. Suppose that the magnetio dipole of Fig. 5-35a points in the x direction
instead of the z direction. Show that the radiation field is then given by
Eo =
Kle-fl<r
.
4?rar sin 8
l.. ni""Jn12(ka sin 8) sin -
ntl>
2
n-1
jkKl
= - - e-1·1;;'
4?rr
•
810 8 2: .""
"J'n/2 (ka sm
E,.Jn
. 8) cos -ncp
2
n-o
z X
Fw. 5-35. A conducting half plane with a. Fm. 1)...36. Electric current element on the
ma.gnetic dipole on the side 4> = O a dis- edge of a conducting wedge.
tance a from the edge.
&-44. Consider the x-directed electric dipole on the edge of a conducting wedge, as
shown in Fig. 5-36. Show that in the plane of the element the ra.dis.tion field is given
by
= / (p) sin - 7ít/>
211' - a
For a half plane, the pattern is a cardioid with a null in the ti> "" O direction.
CHAPTER 6
SPHERICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS
6-1. The Wave Functions. The spberical coordinate system is the

simplest one for which a coordinate surface (r = constant) is of finite
extent. Tbe usual definition of spherical coordinates is shown in Fig. 6-1.
Once again we must determine solutions to the scalar Helmholtz equation,
from which we may construct electromagnetic fields.
In spherical coordina.tes tbe Helmholtz equation is
:r (r' + r2 o:o (sin 9 + r2 k1if¡ = O (6 -l)
Again we use the method of separation of variables and let

1" = R(r)H(O)t'P() (6-2)
Substituting this into Eq. (6-1), dividing by 1/t, and multiplying by

r 2 sin 2 O, we o_,btain
sin
R
2
( 2 dR) +sinH dO ( sm
dr r dr
. 0 dH)
d8
+ d24i + kL. 2 • s 6 = 0
4> dq, 1 -, sin
Tbe dependence is now separated out, and we let

l d 2
- - = -mt (6-3)
ti> dq,2
where mis a constant. Substitution of this into t he preceding equation

and division by sin2 o yields
l d ( 2 dR)
Rdr r dr
1
+ Hsin d ( . dH)
OdO sm fJ dO
m
- sin2 9
2
+ kL.t
' -
_ O
This separa.tes the r and O dependence. An apparently stra.nge choice of

separation constant n is made according to
H o:o ( sin 8 O= -n(n + l ) (6-4)
beca.use the properties of tbe H f unctions depend upon whether or not n

264
SPHERICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 265
z
Fla. 6-1. The spherical

coordinate system.
is an integer. With this choice the prcceding equa.tion becomes
-1 -d ( r 2 -dR)
Rdr dr
- n(n + 1) + k r = O
2 2
(6-5)
which completes the separation procedure.

Collecting the a.hove resulta, we ha.ve the trio of separated equations
-d
dr
( r2 dR)
-
dr
+ [(kr) 1 - n(n + l )] R = O
1 d( sm. 9 do
sin 8 do
dH) + [n(n + l ) - J
mt o H = O (6-6)
-d24>
dt/>1 + m24> = O
Note that there is now no interrelationsbip between separation constants.

Tbe 4> equation is the familiar harmonic equation, giving rise to solutions
h(mtJ>). Tbe R equation is closely related to Bessel's equation. I ts solu-
tions are oalled spherical Bessel functions, denoted b,,(kr), which are
rela.ted to ordinary Bcssel f unctions by
b,,(kr) = & (6-7)
(see Appendix D). The Oequation is related to Legendre's equation, and

its solutions are called associated Legendre functions. We shall denote
solutions in general by L,,"'(cos 9). Commonly used solutions are
L,,"'(cos P,,"'(cos 8), Q,."'(cos O) (6-8)
where P,,"'(cos 8) are the associated Legendre functions of the first kind
and Q,,"'(cos O) are the associa.ted Legendre functions of the second kind.
These are considered in some detail in Appendix E. We can now form
266 Til\fE-HARMONIC ELECTROl'>lAGNETIC FIELDS
product solutíons to the Helmholtz equation as

1/1,,.,,.. = b,..(kr)L,..m(cos 8)h(mt/>) (6-9)
These are thc elementary wave functions for the spherical coordina.te
system.
Again we can -construct more general solutions to the Helmholtz equa-
tion by forming linear combinations of the elementary wave functions.
The most general form tha.t we shall ha.ve occasion to use is a. summation
over possible values of m and n
m n
= 2: 2: Cm,,..b,..(kr)Lnm(cos 8)h(m<J>)
m n
(6-10)
where the C,,.,n are constants. Integrations over m and n are also solu-
tions to the Helmholtz equa.tion, but such forms are not needed for our
purposes.
The harmonic functions h(mq,) ha.ve already been considered in Sec.
4-1. If a single-valued 1/t in the range O to 2ir on </> is desired, we must
choose h(mq,) to be a linear combination of sin (m<J>) and cos (m</>), or of
eJm• and e- ;m•, with m an integer. A study of solutions to t he associated
Legendre equation shows t hat all solutions bave singularities a.t 8 = O or
8 = 'R' except the P nm(cos 8) with n a.n integer. Thus, if 1/t is to be finite
in the range O to 7f on 81 then n must also be an integer and Ln"'(cos 8)
must be Pnm(cos 9). The spherical Bcssel functions behave qualitatively
in the same manner as do t he corresponding cylindrical Bessel functions.
Thus, for k real, j,.(kr) and n..(kr) represent standing waves, h,.Cl>(kr)
representa an inward-traveling wave, and h,.O>(kr) represents an outward-
traveling wave. Incidentally, it turns out that the spherical Bessel
functions are simpler in forro than the cylindrica.l Bessel functions. For
example, the zero-order functions are
. (k ) _ sin kr
Jo r - -¡;:r-
(6-11)
_ cos kr
no(kr) - - --¡¡;:-
The higher-order functions are polynomials in l / kr times sin (kr) and

cos (kr), which can be readily obtained from the recurrence formula.
The only spherical Bessel functions finite at r = O are tbe j,.(kr). Thus,
to representa finitc .field inside a sphere, the elementary wave functions
are
r = O included
SPHERICAL W AVE FUNCTIONS 267
with m and n integers. To representa finite field outside of a sphere, we
must choose outward-traveling waves (proper behavior at infinity).
Hence,
r --> oo included (6-13)
with m and n integers, are the desired elementary wave functions.
To represent electromagnetic fields in terms of the wave functions 1/1,
we can use the method of Sec. 3-12. This involve:S letting 1/1 be a rec-
tangular component of A or F. The z component is most simply related
to spherical components; hence the logical choice is
A = UzY, = u,1/1 cos 8 - ueY, sin 8 (6-14)
which genera.tes a field TM to z. Explicit expressions for the field com-
ponents in terms of .¡,are givcn in Prob. 6-1. The dual choice is
F = u.1/1 = u,Y, cos 6 - uBY, sin 8 (6-15)
which generates a field TE to z. Explicit expressions for the field com-
ponents are given in Prob. 6-1. An arbitrary electromagnetic neld in
terms of spherical wave functions can be constructed as a superposition
of its TM and TE parts.
An alternative, and somewhat simpler, representation of an arbitrary
electromagnetic field is also possible in spherical coordinates. Suppose
we attempt to construct the field as a superposition of two parts, one TM
to r and the other TE to r. For this we choose A = u,A, and F = u,F,,
with the field being given by Eq. (3-79). The A,. and F, are not solutions
to the scalar Helmholtz equation, because \7 2 A,. (V 2A),. To determine
the equations that A , and F, must satisfy, we return to the general equa-
tions for vector potentials [Eqs. (3-78)]. For the magnetic vector poten-
tial we let A = u,.A, and expand the first of Eqs. (3-78). The fJ and q,
components of the resulting equation are, respectively,
where <t>4 is an arbitrary scalar. Note that the a.hove two equations are
satisfied identically if we choose
-ycpa = oA,.. (6-16)

ar
Substituting this into the r-component equation obtained from the expan-
sion of Eq. (3-78), we bave
a2 A,2 2 1 a ( . 6 a A,)
1 a2 + k2A - o
or + r sin 6 ao sm ao + r2sin2 o aq,2 ' -
A, (6 17)
-
It readily can be shown tha.t this equa.tion is
(V2 + k2) Ar
r
= O (6-18)
so Ar/r is a solution to the sea.lar Helmholtz equation. A dual develop-

ment a.pplies to the electric vector potential. To be explicit, jf we take
F = u,.Fr, substitute into the second of Eqs. (3-78), and choose
-ziJ>b = oFr (6-19)

<Jr
we find that (Vª + leª) Fr
r
= O (6-20)
is t he equation for Thus, electromagnetic .6.elds can be constructed

by choosing
F = ri/t' (6-21)
where r = U rr is the radius vector from the origin and the i/t's are solu-
tions to the Helmholtz equation. The field is found from the above
vector potentials by Eq. (3-79), which is explicitly
E = - V X r"1' g X V X n/I°
(6-22)
H = V X rl/l"+j v X V X ri/t'
T hese we shall find sufficiently general to express a.ny a-e field in a source-
free homogeneous region of spa-ce.
The i/t's of Eqs. (6-22) are always multiplied by r, and, because of this,
it is convenient to introduce another type of spherical Bessel function,
defined as ·
A
n,.(kr) = krbn(kr) =
¡;¡e;.
'\/2 (6-23)
These are t he spherical Bessel f unctions used by Schelkunoff. 1 Their

qualitative behavior is the same as the corresponding cylindrical Bessel
function. The differential equation that they satisfy is
.!!!_
[ dr2
+ k2 - n(n +
r2
1) J13 n
=O (6-24)
which can be obtained by substituting for b,. in terms of 13,. in t he first of

Eqs. (6-6). General forms for the Ar and Fr in terro.s of the spherica.l
1 S. A. &helkunoff, "Electroma.gnetic Waves," pp. 51-52, D. Van Nostrand Com-
pany, Inc., Princeton, N.J ., 1943.

SPHERICAL WA. VE FUNCTIONS 269
Bessel functions of Eq. (6-23) are
l Cm...!3..(kr)L m(cos O)h(mq,)

m,n
11 (6-25)
where the C.,. ... are constants. T he considerations involved in choosing

specific forlllS for B,.(kr), Lnm(cos 8) 1 and h(mq,) are the same as those used
in Eqs. (6-12) and (6-13).
For f uture reference, let us tabula.te explicit formulas for finding t he
field components in terms of A, and Fr. Letting A = u.A. and F = u,.Fr,
a.nd expanding Eqs. (3-79), we obtain
a2 + k 2) Ar
:g1 ( ar
Er = 2
-1 aF, 1 a2 A,
Es = r sin 8 aq, + gr ar ao
E = ! aF. + 1 a A. 2
• r ªº gr sin 8 ar ª"' (6-26)

H, = "i1 ( ar2 + k2
()2 )
F,
H = _ 1_ aA, .!_ a2Fr
8
r sin o aq, + P.r ar ao
H = _ ! aA, + 1 o2Fr
• r éJO sin 8 ar aq,
When Fr = O, that is, when only Ar exists, we ha.ve a field TM to r.
Simila.rly, when A , = O, the ¡i.bove equations represent a field TE to r.
6-2. The Spherical Cavify. Figure 6-2 shows the spherical cavity,
formed of a conducting sphere of radius a enclosing a homogeneous dielec-
tric t, µ.. We shall find it possible to satisfy the boundary conditions
(tangential components of E vanish at r = a) using single wave functions.
For modes TE to r we choose
Fr = J..(kr)P..m(cos O) { c?s mt/>} z

Slll m</>
(6-27)
where m and n are integers. The J"
is chosen beca.use the field must be
finite at r =O; the P ..m is chosen be-
cause the field must be finite at 8 = O y
and 11". The field components are
then found from Eq. (6-26) with
A,= O and F. as given above. Note
that E, = E• = O at r = a if
Jn(ka) = O (6-28) Fm. 6-2. Tbe spherical cavity.
TABLE 6-1. 0RDERED ZE.nos u,.,, OI' J,.(u)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 4.493 5 .763 6.988 8 . 183 9.356 10.513 11 .657 12.791

2 7 .725 9.095 10.417 11 .705 12.967 14.207 15 .431 16.641
3 10.904 12.323 13.698 15 .040 16.355 17.648 18 .923 20 .182
4 14.066 15.515 16.924 18.301 19.653 20.983 22.295
5 17.221 18.689 20.122 21.525 22.905
6 20.371 21.854
Hence ka must be a zero of t he spherical Bessel function. The denumer-

ably infinite set of zeros of J,.(u) are ordlered as u,.,,. Table 6-1 gives the
lower-order zeros.
We now satisfy the boundary conditions by choosing
k = Unp
(6-29)
a
which is the condition for resonance. Hence, the TE to r mode functions

are
(F,.)mnp = r)p,,m(cos {cos

J.. ( U,,p a sin m<f>}
m<J>
O) (6-30)
where m = O, 1, 2, . . . ; n = 1, 2, 3, . . . ; and p = 1, 2, 3,
The field is given by Eqs. (6-26) with A,. = O.
If an A .. is chosen oí the forro of Eq. (6-27), we generate a field TM to r .
The boundary conditions Es = E• = O at r = a are then satisfied if
= O (6-31)
so ka must be a zero of the derivative of the spherical Bessel function for
TM modes. The denumerably infinite set of zeros of are ordered
as and the lower-order ones are given in Table 6-2.
TABLE 6-2. Oru>ERED ZEROS OF
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 2. 744 3.870 4.973 6 .062 7 .140 8.211 9.275 10 .335

2 6. 117 7.443 8.722 9.968 11 .189 12 .391 13 .579 14.753
3 9 .317 10.713 12 .064 13 .380 14.670 15 .939 17 .190 18.425
4 12 .486 13 .921 15 .314 16 .674 18.009 19 .321 20 .615 21.894
5 15.644 17. 103 18.524 19.915 21.281 22.626
6 18.796 20.272 21. 714 23.128
7 21 .946
Our bounda.ry conditions are now satisfied by choosing
'
k = u,.J> (6-32)
a
which is the condition for resonance. The TM to r mode f unctions are

therefore
(A.r)m 11,,
r) sin mcf>}
, a P,.m(cos 8) { cos
= J,. ( u,.p me/> (6-33)
where m = O, 1, 2, . . . ¡ n = 1, 2, 3, . . . ; and p = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
'The field is by Eqs. (6-26) with Fr = O.
The resonant frequencies of the TE and TM modes are found from
Eqs. (6-29) and (6-32) , respectively. Lett ing k = 'lnrfr v;, we ha.ve
(¡,) TE - Unp
r mnp - _/
2"Ira V Eµ
I (6-34)
T ll _ U,.p
(!r ) mnp - _¡ ·
2"Ira V Eµ
Note t ha.t there are numerous degeneracies (same resonant frequencies)

among the modes, since fr is independent of m. For example, the three
lowest.-order TE modes are defined by
(Fr) 0.1,1 = J1 ( 4.493 cos 8
= J i ( 4.493 8 cos e/>
(Fr)t.t.1 = J1 ( 4.493 8 sin cf>
where superscripts " even" and "odd" h a ve been added to denote the
choice cos m<j> and sin m<j>, respectively. These three modes ha ve the
same mode patterns except that they are rotated 90° in space from each
other. The next higher TE resonance has a fivefold degeneracy, the
modes being ordered (0,2,1}, (1,2, l } even, (1,2, l } odd, (2,2,1) even, and
(2,2,1) odd. In this case there are two characteristic mode patt erns.
For each integer increase in n, the degeneracy increases by two, since
P,.m(cos 8) exists only for m n. The situation for TM modes is anal-
ogous.
We see by Eqs. (6-34) t hat the resonant frequencies are proportional
to the u,.,, and Hence, from T ables 6-1 and 6-2 it is evident that the
modes in order of ascending resonant frequencies are TMm.1,1, TMm,2,1,
TE,,.,1,1, TMm,a,1, TE,,.,2,1, and so on, The lQwest-<;>rder modes
e----
.9(- - .... -
Fio. 6-3. Mode pattern for the dominant modes of the spherical cavity.
fore the three TM,,.,1. 1 modes. Except for a rotation in space, these three
modes ha.ve the same mode pattern, which is sketched in Fig. 6-3.
The Q of the lowest-order modes is also of interest. For t his calcula.-
tion, consider the TMo.i.1 mode. The magnetic field is giveo by
H9
Following the procedure of Sec. 2-8, we ca.lculatc the stored energy as
W = 2W,,. = JJJIHl dr
µ
2
= µ. Jz.. dq, j de Jº dr H" 9

2
r' sin 8
0 0 0
The 8 a.nd 4> integra.tions are easily performed, giving
'\V = 8; µfoª J 2
1 ( 2.744 dr
This last integral is evaluated as'
loªJ, (kr) dr =
2
[J12 (ka) - J o(ka)J 2 (ka)]
which, for ka = 2.744, is numerically equal to 1.14/k. Thus, tbe stored

energy is
&.-µ.
w = 3k (1.14) (6-35)
The power dissipated in the conducting walls is approximately
{Pd = <R 1f> IHl 2 ds = <R s; J (2.744)

12 (6-36)
Hence, the Q of the cavity is

_ Q = wW = wµ(l.14) = l.Ol .!! (6-37)
{Pd k<RJ 12 (2.744) <R
1
E. J ahnke and F. Emde, "Tablea of Functions," p. 146, Dover Publications, New
York, 1945 (reprint).
SPHERI CAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 273
Comparing this with Eqs. (5-58) and (2-102), we see that the spherical
cavity has a Q tha.t is 25 per cent higher than the Q of a circular cavity of
height equal to its diameter and 35 per cent higher t han t he Q of a cubic
ca.vity. The Q's of higher-order modes are given in Prob. 6-4.
6-3. Orthogonality Relationships. In many ways the Legendre poly-
nomials are qualitatively similar t o sinusoidal functions. For example,
the P,.(cos 8), sometimes called zonal harmonics, forro a complete orthog-
onal set in the interva.l O to .,.,. on 8. An arbitrary function can therefore
be expanded in a series of Legendre polynomials in t his interval, similar
to the Fourier series in sinusoidal functions. The functions P ,.m(cos 8)
cos me/> and P n"'(cos 8) sin mq,, sometimes called tesseral hamionics, form
a complete orthogonal set on t he surface of a sphere. Hence, an arbi-
trary f unction defined over the surfa.ce of a sphere can be expanded in a
series of tesseral harmonics. We shall, in this section, derive the neces-
sary orthogonality relationships.
For our proof it is convenient to use Green's t heorem [Eq. (3-44)),
which is
1/> ( Y,1 - Y,2 ds = fff (1/11'V2i/12 - 1/;2V2i/;1) dr (6-38)
The right-hand side va.nishes if 1/11 and 1/12 are well behaved solutions to
the same Helmholtz equation. Assuming this to be the case and applying
Eq. (6-38) to a sphere of radius r, we have
r2 fo 2
" dcp lo., dfJ sin fJ ( 1/11 ªf, 2
- 1/12 ªf,1) =O (6-39)
In particular, choose
1/11 = jn(kr)Pn(COS 8)
which are solutions to the H elmholtz equation. Equation (6-39) then
beco mes
- j; P nP 11 sin 8 dfJ = o
This must be va.lid for all r¡ so, if n q, the integral itself must vanish .
Hence,
/ "
0
Pn(cos 8)P0 (cos 9) sin 8 d8 = O n r! q (6-40)
When n = q, we have
lo"[Pn(cos 8)] 2
sin 8d8 =
2
n 1
(6-41)
which can be obtained by using Eq. (E-10) and integrating by parts.

To obtain a. Legendre polynomial representation of a function /(8) in

O to r on 8, we assume
.,
/(8) = l
n- 0
a,.P n(cos 8) (6-42)
Multiply each side by P 11 (cos 8) sin 8 a.nd integrate from O to 1r on 8.

..
J f(8)P (cos 8) sin 8d8 =
0
" 0 la,.
n-0
J Pn(cos 8)P (cos 8) sin 8d8
0
,,. 9
Ea.ch integral on the right vanishes by Eq. (6-40), cxcept the one n = p,
which is given by Eq. (6-41). The result is
ª" = 2n + 1 )[r f (8)Pn(cos 8) sin 0 d8 (6-43)

2 0
Equation (6-42) with the coefficients determined by Eq. (6-43) is callcd a

Fourier-Legendre series. It converges in the same scnse as the usual
Fourier series .
For a more general result, define the tesseral harmonics as
T "'""(8,4>) = P ,."'(cos O) cos mq,
(6-44)
T mnº(8,4>) = P n'"(cos 8) sin mq,
and a.ssume two solutions to thc Helmholtz equation as
T hese are well beba.ved within a sphere of radius r; hence Eq. (6-39) applies
and reduces to
2
- Jo ,,. dq, Jo,,. d8 T "'"'T.,,/ sin 8 d8 = O
The term outside the integral vanishes for arbitrary r only when n = q¡
hence
For the q, integration, we ha.ve the known orthogonality relationships
J0
2
,,. sin m4> sin p4> d4> = O
r
J0 2. sm
. •
m4> sm r
P d = J02... coa mq, cos pq, d 4> = { ro
(6-45)
H ence, the final orthogonality can be expressed as
lo2r dq, fo"' d8Tmnª(O,<P)T1'Q (8,<P) sin 8 = o 0
(6-4&)
J d</> J dfJ T,..,.i(fJ,<t>)Tpq'(fJ,<J>) sin fJ = O
0
27t
0
" m, n p, q
where i = e or o. When m, n = p, q, we have
z,,
Jo d<P /o d8 {Tmn'(8 <P)J2 sm 8 =
1t •
1
•
¡ 4ir
2n+ l
2rr (n
2n + 1 (n -
+ m) !
m) !
m = O, i =e
m
(6-47)
which can be obtained by using Eq. (E-16) for P,.m and integrating on O
by pa.rts.
A two-dimensional Fourier-Legendre series can now be obtained for a
function f(fJ,<P) on a spherical surface. For this we assume
.. ..
f(fJ,<P) = l l (a,,.,.T ,,.,.• + b,,.nTmnº)
.. ..
n • Om - 0
= l l
n - om - o
(amn cos m<P + bm,. sin mq,)P,.'"(cos 8) (6-48)
multiply each side by T M; sin fJ, and integrate over O to 271" on q, and O to
""on fJ. All terms except those having m, n = p, q vanish by Eqs. (6-46) ,
and by Eqs. (6-47)
a 0,. =
2
n;
1
foz,, d<f> lo" do f(O,<P) P,.(cos 9)
2n+l(n-m)! f2" (.,. .
am,. = +
211' (n m) 1 }o dq, }o dfJ f(O,q,)T,,.,."(9,q,) sm 9 (6-49)
2n + 1 (n - m) ! ( 2.r (" .
b,,.,. = 2 7r (n m) ! dq, } o+ dfJ Jo
f(fJ,</>) T ,,.,.
0
(8,<P) Slll 8
The series Eq. (6-48) with coefficients Eqs. (6-49) converges in the same
sense as the usual Fourier series.
Still another orthogonality relationship is oí interest when dealing with
vector fields. To establish the desired relationship, we start from the
Lorentz reciprocity theorem [Eq. (3-34)], which is
1f> (Eª X Hb - Eb x H ª) · ds = O (6-50)
valid when no sources are within tbe surface of integration. 1 For the
1 We could justas well use the vector Green's theorem, Eq. (3-46).
a and b fields, choose those obtained froro Eqs. (6-26) with Fr = O and
Arº= J,.(kr)T,,.,.'(8,</>) Arb = Jtz(kr)T,,/(O,</>)
respectively. Applying Eq. (6-50) to a sphere of radius r, we obtain
!cJ'J -J'J ) { 2"d<1> { "do ( . 0aT,,.,/aT,,i +-1_aTm,.•aT,,q')=o

y " q q " )o }o sm ªº ªº
sin o o</> o</>
For arbitrary r and n q this equation can be satisfied only if the inte-
gral va.nishes. Also, by the orthogona.lity rela.tionships oí Eqs. (6-45)
the integral vanishes if m p and i j . Thus,
{
2
" dq, {"do ( sin 0 aT,,.,.' aT,,/ + aT,,.,.' aT11/ ) = 0
Jo }o ao ao sm o o<J> aq,
m, n, i p, q, j (6-51)
When m, n, i = p, q, j, we have
2 2 2
f " d</> }o
}o
{" dO [sin O(ºTéJO"'"') + sm-.1 8 (ºTaq,"'"') ]
4-irn(n + 1)
l
m = O, i =e
2n + 1
(6-52)
= 2?rn(n + 1) (n + m) 1
2n + 1 (n - m)!
which can be obtained by integrating once by parts and using Eq. (6-47).
6-4. Space as a Waveguide. We ha.ve seen that in a complete
spherical-shell region (O 8 -rr, O </> 21r) only spherical wave func-
tions of integral m and n give a finite field. The fields specified by these
wave functions can be thought of as the "modes of free space." When
viewed in this manner, the space is often called a spherical waveguide,
even though there is no material guiding the waves.
The spherical coordina.te system is defined in Fig. 6-1. Tbcre exists a
set of modes TM to r, generated by
. . { {/,.<n(kr) } (6-53)
(Ar)mn' = T mn'(8,cp) f/.,< 2l(kr)
where n = 1, 2, 3, . .. ; m = O, 1, 2, . . . , n; and i = e or o. The

T functions are defined by Eqs. (6-44), and the field is given by
(6-54)
I nward-traveling waves are represented by the fl,.<n and outward-

traveling waves by tbe B,.< 2>. In the dual sense t bere exists a set of
modes TE to r, generated by
(6-55)
where n = 1, 2, 3, .. . ; m = O, 1, 2, .. . , n¡ and i = e or o. The

field is given by
HTEi = -
mn
_!_
jwµ.
V X E TEi
mn
(6-56)
The set of TM plus TE modes is complete, tha.t is, a. summation of them

can be used to representan arbitrary field in a source-free region. Mode
patterns for the TM01 and TE02 modes are sketcbed in Fig. 6-4. The
TM and TE modes are dual to each other; so an interchange of E by H
and H by - E in Fig. 6-4 gives the TE01 and TM02 mode patterns.
The spherical modes are qualitatively similar to the radial modes of
Sec. 5-3. There is no well-defined cutoff wavelength but rather a "cutoff
radius." To illustrate, consider the radially directed wave impedances
for the TM modes
(6-57)
where the superscripts + and - denote outward- and inward-traveling

waves, respectively. Note that, for real 'T/ and k, Z-rTM. = (Z+TTM)*. For
(a)
e---• 9(---- (b)
Fla. 6-4. Mode pa.tterns for the (a) TM01 and (b) TE01 modes oí free space.
the TE modes the radially directed wave impedances are
Z+rTE - E,+ E++ _ · Bn<t>(ll,T)

- - :X - - - -Jr¡ -=----:-
H.,+ H,+ 1l,.m'(kr)
(6-58)
z_ TE = - E,- = E.- = jr¡ fln<O(kr)
r H+- Hs- Bn<ll'(kr)
The behavior of these wave impedances is qualitatively similar to the

behavior of the two-dimensional wave impedances, illustrated by Fig.
5-6. In other words, the wave impedances of Eqs. (6-57) and (6-58) are
predominantly reactive when kr < n, and predominantly resistive when
kr > n. The value kr = n is the point of gradual cutoff. Note that
this cutoff is independent of the mode number m.
The frequency derivative of t he various wa.ve impedances is of interest
for determining the bandwidth of various devices (see Sec. 6-13). A
novel way of representing this frequency derivative, which a.lso illustrates
the above cutoff phenomenon, wa-s devised by Profcssor Chu. 1 He took
the wave impedances and, using the recurrence formulas for spherical
Bessel f unctions, obtained a partial fraction expansion. For example,
for the TM impedance of outward-tra.veling wa.ves
ZTM-
+r - 71 {n+
jkr " 1
""'2n--___,l,_..---l- -
jkr + 2n - 3 +
jkr
(6-59)
1
+-3- 1
-jkr + J_
-+ -
1
3kr
This can be interpreted as a ladder network of series capacitances and

shunt inductances, as shown in Fig. 6-5a. The equivalent circuit for the
TE"'" modes is shown in Fig. 6-5b. Those of us familiar with filter theory
will recognize the equivalent circuits as high-pass lilters. The dissipation
in t he resistive element at the end of the network representa the tra.ns-
mitted power in the field problem. It is therefore apparent that, for
fixed r, the higher the mode number n the less easily power is transmitted
by a spherica.l waveguide mode.
1 L. J . Chu, Phyeical Limitations of Omnjdirecti.onal Antennas, J . A.ppl. Phy., vol.
19, pp. 1163- 1175, December, 1948.
SPBERICAL WAVE Jl'UNCTIONB 279
e --!.!:...
n
·- - - -
µr µr
zTM--- L:--
mn 2n-I 2n-5
(O)
(f
2n-5
o-------------ll------1f- - - - -
µ.r µr
zTE-- L:-n- 2n-3
mn
(b)
Fm. C>-5. Equivalent circuits for the (a) TM.... and (b) TE.,.,. modes of free spaee.
A quality factor Qn for modes of order n can now be defined as
2w:•
Q,. =
l .rZ\
2ww ..
-@- w.. >W.
where W. and 'W,,. are the average electric and magnetic energies stored
(6-60)
in the C's and L's, and @ is the power dissipated in the resistance. In
TM wa.ves 'W• > W ..., while in TE WH.ves W... > W •. However1 the two
cases are dual to ea.ch other; so the Q's of TM waves are equal to the Q's
of the corresponding TE waves. An approxima.te calculation of the Q's
for Q > 1 is shown in Fig. 6-6. Note tha.t for kr > n the wa.ve imped-
ances a.re low Q and for kr < n they are high Q. This aga.in illustra.tes
the cutoff phenomenon that occurs at kr = n.
6-6. Other Radial Waveguides. A number of structures capa.ble of
supporting i-adially tra.veling waves can be obtained by covering 8 = con..
stant a.nd 4> = constant surfaces with conductors. Such "radial wave-
guides" are ahown in Fig. 6-7.
We can ha.ve waves outside or inside a. single conducting cone, as shown
in Fig. 6-7a and b. These two cases are actually a single problem with
two different values of 81. The fields must be periodic in 2..- on 4> and
;
280 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTRO:MAGNETIC FIELDS
kr
1"10. 6-6. Quality íactors Q" for the TM.u and TE... modes of free space.
finite at 8 = O. Hence, we choose the TM to r mode functions
(Ar),,.. = P .."'(cos 8) {cos

.
mq,} m
,,,. f/,<2>(Jcr) (6-61)
smm..,
wherc m = O, 1, 2, . . . . To satisfy the boundary condition Er = E• =O
at 8 = 01, the pararoeter v roust be a solution to
P ."'(cos 01) = O (6-62)
Also, wc choose the TE to r mode functions
(Fr),,.. = P.,"'(cos 8) { : : } .9..m(kr) (6-63)
where m = O, 1, 2, . . . . To satisfy the boundary condition E• = Oat

8 = 81, the parameter v must be a solution to
(a) (b) (e)
(d) (e) (f)

Flo. 6-7. Some epherica.lly radial waveguidee. (a) Conical (wa.ves external) ; (b)
conical (wavcs internal); (e) biconical; (d) coaxial; (e) wcdge; (f) hom.
Beca.use of a scarcity of tables for the eigenvalues v, it is difficult to obtain

numcrical values. The field components are, oí course, obtaioed from
the A, and F, by Eqs. (6-26).
The biconical and coaxial guides of Fig. 6-7c a.nd d a.re again a single
mathematical problem. N ow both 8 = O and 8 = w- are excluded kom
the region of field ; so two Legendre solutions, P ."'(cos 8) a.nd Q."'(cos 8),
or P."'(cos fJ) and Pv"'(- cos O), are needed. Choosing the la.tter two
solútions, we find modes TM to r dcfined by
(A,} .... = [P."'(cos 8) P."'(-cos 81} - P ...(-cos 8) P ...(cos 81))
{º?ª mq,}n.m(kr)
Slil mq,
(6-65)
where m = O, 1, 2, .. . , and the vare determined by the roots of

P .•(cos 82)P... (- cos 81) - P."'(- cos 82)P."'(cos 81) = O
1
Similarly, for the modes TE to r we have
(F) _
1 .. .... -
[p "'(oos
• 8) dPv"'(-
d81
cos 81) _ p "'(-
• cos 8
) dP,"'(cos 81)]
d81
{c?s mcp} fJ ,m(kr) (6-67)

smmcf>
where m = O, 1, 2 1 ••• , and the vare deterroined by the roots of
dP,"'(cos 82) dP,"'(- cos 81) _ dP,"'(- cos 82) dP;"(cos 81) = ( -6S)
0 6
d82 d81 d82 d81
Again the field components are found from 'the A,. and F,. of Eqs. (6-65)
and (6-67) according to Eqs. (6-26) .
The dominant mode of the biconical and coaxial guides is a TEM, or
transrnission-line, mode. The eigenvalues m = O, v = O sa.tisfy both
Eqs. (6-66) and (6-68) 1 but the A,. and F, of Eqs. (6-65) and (6-67) vanish.
We could redefine Eq. (6-65) such tbat the limit v __. O exists, but instead
let us separately define t he TEM mode as a TMoo mode defined by
(1) {}
(A,.)oo = Qo(cos 8) fJ 0<2>(kr) = log cot (6-69)
2
The field components of this mode, deterrnined from Eqs. (6-26) , are
I
Eir = 1.k. e±i"•
WET Slll 8
(6-70)
H
•
T = + -!-·- e±ikr
rsm e
where the upper signs refer to inward-traveling wa.ves a.nd the lower signa
to outward-traveling waves. The wa.ve impedance in the direction of
travel is
(6-71)
which is the same as for TEM waves on ordinary transmission lines.

The characteristic impeda.nce defined in terms of voltage and current is
of gres.ter intercst. Ata given r, the voltage is defined as
V = ( -r-e1 E 6 d8 = . l cot (81/2) *1"" (6-72)

} 0
1
r Jf'J og cot (82/2) e
and the current as

1= f 0'h H• r sin 8 dq, = :¡: 2?rje±Jl" (6-73)
At small r these are the usual circuit quantities. The characteristic
impeda.nce is
v+ v- 11 l cot (f]¡/2)
Z 0 = J+ = - J- = 2"" og cot (82/2) (6-74)
Note tha.t the va.rious equations are the same as for t he usual uniform
transmission lines. For this rea.son the biconical and coaxial radial lines
are called uniform radial transmission lines.
Spherical waves on the wedge waveguide of Fig. 6-7e exist for all 8
but only for restricted cp. Hence1 the wave functions will contain only
tbe P n"'(cos 8) with n an integer and w determined by t he boundary con-
ditions. We then find TM modes defined by
(1)
(Ar)ntD = Pn"'(cos 8) sin w<f> 1ln< 2>(kr) (6-75)
where n = 1, 21 31 ••• , and
p1r
w= - (6-76)
4>1
with p = 1, 2, 3, The TE modes are defined by
CFr)n.., = Pn"'(cos O) cos w<J> 11,.fü(kr) (6-77)

where n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , and w is given by Eq. (6-76) with p = O, 1,
2, . . . . There is no TEM spherical mode, the TEM mode being a
cylindrical wave defined by Eqs. (5-48) and (5-49) .
Finally1 thc spherical-horn wavcguidc of Fig. 6-7/ will require Legendre
functions L."'(cos O) of nonintegral v and w. The TM modes can be defined
by Eqs. (6-65) and (6-66) with m changed to w a.nd only the sin wq, func-
tions allowed. Tbe values of w are those of Eq. (6-76). Simila.rly, tbe
TE modes can be defined by Eqs. (6-67) and (6-68) with m changed to w
and only tbe cos w<f> functions allowed. Again 1 w is given by Eq. (6-76).
There will, of course1 be no TEM mode.
6- 6. Other Resonators. Resonators baving modes expressible in terms
of single spherical wave functions can be obtained by closing ea.ch of t he
radial waveguides of Fig. 6-7 by one or two conducting spheres. Sorne
examples are shown in Fig. 6-8. Tbe 6.elds in each case can be expressed
in terma of mode functions wbicb are the same as for the radial wave-
guides of the preceding section1 exccpt tbat tbe traveling-wave fu nctions
11n<1>(kr) and n,.< 2>(kr) are replaced by standing-wave functions Jn(kr)
and ti n(kr). Numerical calculations are hampered by a scarcity of tables
of eigenvalues.
Let us calculate the Q's for the dominant modes of the first three ca.vi-
ties of Fig. 6-8. For the bemispher ical ca.vity of Fig. 6-8a1 the dominant
mode is tbe dominant TM to r mode of the complete spherical cavity,
zJ ZN 92
(\V\
(a) (b) (e)
zl
</>1
(d) (e) (f)
Fto. 6-8. Somc cavities having modcs expressible in terma of single spherical we.ve
functions. (a) Hemispherical¡ (b) hemisphere wit.h cone; (e) biconical¡ (d) conical¡
(e) wedge; (f) segment.
considered in Sec. 6-2. The magnetic field is
=
a.nd the stored energy is one-half that for the complete spherical cavity
(Eq. (6-35)); hence
-hµ
w = 3k (l.14)
The power dissipated in the hemispherical part of the walls is one-half
tha.t dissipated in the wa.lls of the complete spherical cavity; hence
(@dhomlapbm = <Jl (1.13)
The power dissipated in the plane wa.ll is

(cT>.,)p1.... = <R2?r f ª H. 2
)0
¡ B- -r/2
r dr = <J\271"(0.571)
Tbus, the Q of the resonator is
w'W r¡
Q = <Yd = 0.573 <R (6-78)
lf we compare this with the Q of a rectangular cavity [Eq. (2-102)] and

with the Q of a circular cavity [Eq. (5-58)] we seo tha.t, for the same
height-to-diameter ratios, thc hemispherical cavity Q is only 3.2 per cent
higher than the rectangular cavity Q, and 4.5 per cent lower than the
circular cavity Q. The hemispherical cavity Q is 54 per cent less than
the spherical cavity Q, but we have removed the mode degeneracy.
From Tables 6-1 and 6-2 we find that the second resonant frequency is
1.41 times the lowest resonant frequency for the hemispherical cavity,
compared to approximately 1.58 for t he rectangular and circular cavities.
The cavities of Fig. 6-8b ande are thcoretically important beca.use they
ha.ve circuit termina.Is available. In other words, a voltage and currcnt
calculated at the cone tips have the usual circuit theory interpretation.
The dominant mode
H _ A cos k(a - r) Ee = . A sin k(a - r)
.¡.- rsinO JT'J r sin 8
will be excited if the cavity is fed a.cross the cone tips. The volts.ge
seen by the source is
v,D = lim r 81 Ee r do = 2?rjAZosin ka
,--.o J'•
where Z 0 is the characteristic impedance [Eq. (6-74)]. The current at
the source is
Hcnce, the input impedance seen by the source is
Z ,0 = = jZo tan ka (6-79)
which is tbe usual formula for the input impedance of a short-circuited

uniform transmission line. (We saw in the preceding section that the
TEM mode of the biconical guide is a uniform transmission-line mode.)
The resonances occur when ka = n?r/ 2, or
n?r
(6-80)
"'· = 2a VEµ
where n = 11 2, 3, . . . . In the loss-free case, thc input impedance is
infinite for n odd (antiresonance) and zero for n even. When small
losses are present, the input impedance is large for n odd and small for
neven,
286 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIE.LDS
Let us consider the lowest resonance (n = 1) in more detail. The

input conducta.nce at resonance can be determined from the power
loases as
Gia wW
= 1Villl2 = QIVtal 2
The energy stored W is simply calculated as
w = µ !!! IHlt :ª IAl

dr = 2
Zo
1r Zo
3
1r
Thus Gi .. = Q(2?1"Zo) 2 = 4ZoQ (6-81)
where Zo is given by Eq. (6-74) and Q can be calculated in the usual

manner as 1
11'11 {
1 ese 81 + ese 82 }-
1
Q = 4<R + 0 ·824 log [cot (01/ 2) tan (82/ 2)] (6-82)
T his Q is maximum when 81 = 1f - Oi = 33.5º, in which ca.se
Q = 0.350 !
Note t hat this is smaller t han t he Q's of other cavities that !Ne ha.ve con-
sidered beca.use of the introduction of the biconica.l feed system. In the
special case 82 = 90º, we ha.ve the conc-fed hemispherical cavity of Fig.
6-8b, for which
Q = 4ffi 1
1r11 [ 1 + ese 81
+ 0 ·824 log cot (81/ 2)
J-
1
(6-83)
This Q is maximum when 81 = 24.1º, in which case
Q = 0.276
T his is a lower Q than t hat for the hemispherical cavity without the cone
[Eq. (6-78)), beca.use of the feed system. The input conductance [Eq.
(6-81)] is not mínimum \Vhen Q is maximum, because Zo is also a function
of 81 a.nd 82. For tbe bieonical resonator (Fig. 6-8c), the input conduct-
ance is minimum when the cone angles are 81 = 7r - 82 = 9.2°. For the
cone-fed hemispherica.l cavity (Fig. 6-8b), the minimum conduct.ance is
obtained when 81 = 7.5°.
6-7. Sources of Spherical Waves. The sources of the lowest-order
spherical wa.ves are current elements, treated in Sec. 2-9. For exam-
1 S. A. ScbclkunofT, "Electroma.gnetio Wa.vcs," pp. 288-290, D. Van Uostrand
Company, Inc., Princeton, N.J ., 1943.

z z z
r
Kl
y y y
(a) (b) {e)
z z z
y
n
y
.+ y
X
(d) (e) (/)
Fio. 6-9. Some sources of spherical waves.
ple, the electric-curreot element of Fig. 6-9a radiates a field given by

H = V X A with
Il . kll
A.. = 47rr e-,kr = 4irj hoO>(kr) (6-84)
where Ji 0<2>is the spherical Hankel function of Eq. (6-11). Alternatively1

the field can be represented by a radially directed A given by
A., = jkll
-
4ir
(1 + 3kr
-.-
1) . cos 8
e_,,.,
·kn
= J_ B.1<2>(kr)P1(cos 8) (6-85)
41r
The field of the current element is discussed in detail in Sec. 2-9. The
dual source is the magnetic-current element oí Fig. 6-9b. The field of
this source is given by E = - V X F where F. or F, is the same as A. or
A, with I replaced by K .
The fields of the dipole and higher-multipole sources, represented by
Fig. 6-9c to f , can be obtained by the same method as used in Sec. 5-6.
For example, for tbe dipole source of Fig. 6-9c,
A.= A. 1 1 (x, y, z- A. 1 ( x, y, z+
288 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FII!lLDS
where A.1 is the potential from a single current element [Eq. (6-84)].
AB the separation $ is made small,
aA. 1 jkIZs a
az ho< >(kr)
- 8 -- = -- - 2
-o az 41F'
where r = v'x' + y 2 + z2• Also,
Hence for t he dipole of Fig. 6-9c
k 2 Il8
A. = 4:trj h1< 2>(kr)P1(cos 8) (6-86)
and H = V X A. Thus, the vector potential is a first-order spherical

wave function.
For the dipole source of Fig. 6-9d, we have
aA.1 jkIZs a
A.--+ -8 - - = - - - ho< 2>(kr)
-o ax 47r ax
"k lls
2
= 3- - ho<2>'(kr) sin 8 cos <J> I
47r
which can be written as
(6-87)
This is a first-order wave function of n = 1, m = l. Similarly, for the

dipole source of Fig. 6-9e, we .find
(6-88)
Thus, ali wave functions of order one can be interpreted as the A. of

dipole sources.
This proceduro can be extended to higher-multipole sources in a.
stra.ightforwa.rd manner. For example, for the qua.drupole source of
Fig. 6-9!, we ha.ve
a 2 A. 1 aA.<t>
A. = 8 182 - - =
ay az - 82 -
ay-
where A,C2> is for the dipole of Fig. 6-9c, given by Eq. (6-86). We also
SPBERICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 289
ha.ve
!...
ay [h1<2>(kr)P1(cos 8) ] = Y.
r ar
2-[h(2>(kr) r
1
= - h 2<2>(kr) = -kh2< 2>(kr) sin 8 cos 8 sin t/J
= h2< 2>(kr)P2 1 (cos O) sin (kr )P 2 1(cos o) sm
. 'Y'
""' (6-89)
12
In this manner we can identify each wave function of order n with t he
A, of a multipole source of 2n z-directed current elements.
6-8. Wave Transformations. Now that we have wave functions in
three ha.sic coordina.te geometries available, the number of possible wave
tra.nsformations becomes very large. We sha.11 here esta.blish only a few
representative transformations involving spherical wave functions. A
convenient method of obtaining the desired results is that of Seo. 5-8.
Let us first consider the plane wave eJ. and express it in terms of spheri-
cal wave functions. T his wave is finite at t he origin and independent
of 4>; hence an expansion of the form
..
e;' = &r- 9
= l
... o
a,.j"'(r)P,.(cos 8)
must be possible (see Fig. 6-1 for the coordina.te orientation). To evalu-
ate the a,., multiply ea.ch side by P q(cos 8) sin 8 and integra.te Irom O to
r on 8. Because of orthogonality (Eq. (6-40)], all terms except q = n
vanish, and by Eq. (6-41) we have
lo" eir•o.s P ..(cos O) sin() do = 1

j,.(r)
The nth dcrivative of the left-hand side with respect to r evaluated at

r =O is
. (" . j"2"+1(n!) 2
J" }o cos" oP ,.(cos O) sm 9 do = ( 2n + l ) 1
The nth dcrivative of the right-hand side evaluated at r = O is

2n+l(n!)2
(2n + 1)(2n + 1) 1a,,
Hence, equating the preceding two expressions, we obtain

a,. = j"(2n + 1)
290 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FllilLDS
which, substituted back into our sta.rting equation, gives
e;• = eJr 000

' = l•
n•O
jn(2n + l)jn(r)Pn(cos O) (6-90)
Note that we have also established the identity
j,.(r) = j; lo" eir COI' p n(COS O) sin o do (6-91)
Equation (6-90) is the desired transformation expressing aplane wave in

t erms of spherical wave f unctions.
Transformations from cylindrical waves to spherica.l waves can be
obtained in a similar fashion. For example, consider the cylindrical wave
J 0 (p), which is finite at r = O, independent of 4>, and symmetrical about
O = 1f'/2. Hence, there exists an expa.nsion
..
J o(p) = J o(rsinO) = l
n•O
bni2n(r)P2n(cosO)
As before, we multiply each side by Pa(cos O) sin O and integra.te from

O to 'Ir on O. The result is
lo" Jo(r sin 8)P2n(cos 8) sin OdO = 1

i2n(r)
1
To determine the b,., we differentiate each side 2n t imes with respect to r

and set r = O. This gives
b _ (-1)"(4n + 1)(2n - 1)!
" - 2 2n- tnt(n - 1) 1
Hence the desired wave transformation is

..
_ . _ (- l)n(4n + 1)(2n - l )l.
J o(p) - J o(r sm 8) - L.¡ 22,._1n !(n _ l) 1 J2,.(r)P,,.(cos 8)
n-0
(6-92)
Note also that the two equations preceding Eq. (6-92) establish an inte-
gral formula for j2,.(r).
Now let us consider wave transformations corresponding to changes
from one spherical coordina.te system to another. To illustra.te, consider
the field of a point source at r'
e-Jlr-r'I
ho<2>(jr - r' I) = -
BPHE.R ICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 291
z
source
Fto. 6-10. SphericaJ coor-

dina.tes of r and r'.
where r and r' are defined in Fig. 6-10. We desire to express this field in
terms of wave functions referred to r = O. The field has rotational sym-
metry about the r' axis; so let us express the wave functions in terms of
the angle where
cos = cos 8 cos 8' + sin 8 sin 8' cos ( q, - q,') (6-93)
Allowable wave functions in the region r < r' are j,.(r)P,.(cos a.nd
allowable wave functions r > r' are h,.(2)(r) P,.(cos Furthermore1 the
field is symmetric in r and r'; hence we construct
..
l c,.h,.<2>(r')jn(r)P.. (cos r < r'
...
n- 0
l c,..j,.(r')h,.C2>(r)P,.(cos r > r'
where the e,. are constants. If we let the source recede to infinity1 the
field in the vicinity of the origin is a. plane wave. Using the asymptotic
formula
we ha.ve for the left-ha.nd side of the preceding equation

je-ir'
ho<2>(1r - rl')--+
, ,_.. co
- -
r' efr•ool
6'-0
and for the right-hand side
r .... 00
6'-+0
r
2:-
n-0
c,.j"(r)P n(cos 9)
292 TlME-HARliONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
z
r
Fio. 6-11. A plane wa.ve

incideot oo a cooducting
sphere.
1 y
1
,1
X
t lncident plane wave
A comparison of these two expressions with Eq. (6-90) shows that

e,. = 2n + l; hence
..
l (2n + l )h,.<>(r')j,.(r)P,.(cos
2 r < r'
..
n- o (6-94)
l (2n + l )j,.(r')h,.< >(r)Pn(cos ü
2
r > r'
n-o I
This is the addition thwrem for spherical Hankel functions. Since
h,.(l) = h,.'2>*, Eq. (6-94) is also valid for superscripts (2) replaced by
(1) . The real part of Eq. (6-94) is a.n addition theorem for i o(lr - r'I),
and the imagina.ry pa.rt is an addition thcorem for no(lr - r'I).
Finally, one can express the zonal barmonics P ,.(cos in terms of the
tesseral harmonics P,."'(cos 8)h(m<J>). In other words, a wave function
referred to the = O axis of Fig. 6-10 can be expressed in terms of wave
functions reforred to the 8 = O axis. The identity is
n .
\' (n - m)I
P,.(cos n (n + m)i P,."'(cos 8)P,."'(cos 8') cosm(q, - q,') (6-95)
m- 1
where E,,. is Neuma.nn's number (1 for m = O and 2 for m > O). The
proof of Eq. (6-95), plus sorne other wave transformations that we ha.ve
not treated explicitly, can be found in Stratton's book. 1 Equation (6-95)
is an addition theorem for Lcgendre polynomials.
6-9. Scattering by Spheres. Figure 6-11 represents a conducting
sphere illuminated by an incident plane wa.ve. Take the incident wave
J. A. Stra.tton, "Electroma.gnetic Theory," pp. 406-414, McGraw-Hill Book Com-
1
pany, Inc., New York, 1941.

SPJIERICAL WA.VE FONCTIONS 293
to be x-polarized and z-traveling, that is,
Es' = Eoe-ik• = Eoe-fkrt1018
H,/ = E e-i"' = E e-fkr•o•' (6-96)
f1 f1
For convcnience in applying bounda.ry conditions, we express this incident

field as the sum of components TM a.nd TE to r, that is, in terms of an
Fr a.nd a.n Ar. From Eqs. (6-26) we see tbat Ar can be obtained from
Er, and Fr from Hr. The r component of E' is
Er' = cos q, sin oEtQ' = Eo e;:/ :8 (e-ik• 00

•')
Using Eq. (6-90), we ca.n write this as

..
Er' = Eo ¿
n- 0
j- "(2n + l )j,.(kr) :e P ,.(cos O)
Finally, using Eq. (6-23) and the rela.tionsbip aPn/ a8 = P,. 1, we obtain 1
..
Er' = - q, 2:
n- 1
j - n(2n + l )J,.(kr)P,. (cos 8)
1
N oting the forro of E,', we construct the magnetic vector potential as

..
Ar' = Eo cos </> \ ' a,.J ,.(kr)P,. 1 (cos 8) (6-97)
wµ L.¡
n•l
and evaluate Er' by Eqs. (6-26). Simplifying tbe result by Eq. (6-24),
we obtain
..
Er' = - </> L
n- 1
ann(n + 1)1,.(kr)P,. (cos O)
1
Comparing this expression with thc preceding formula for E/, we see that
j - "(2n + 1)
a,. = n(n + 1) (6-98)
A similar procedure using H,' and F,' gives
..
Fr' sin </> L
,l_ 1
a,.J,.(kr)P,. 1 (cos 8) (6-99)
where the a,. are again given by Eq. (6-98).

1 Note that the n = O term of the summation drops out becausc P 0 1 ... O.
N ow t hat the incident field is expresscd in terms of radially TE and

TM modcs, the rest of the solution parallels the cylinder problem (Sec.
5-9). The scattercd field will be gcnerated by an Ar and Fr of the sa.me
forro as the incident field with J,. replaced by B.,.<2>. Hence, we con-
struct scattercd potentials as
..
Ar'= Eocosq, \ ' b"B.,.<2>(kr )P,. 1 (cos8)
wµ L.¡
.. -1
(6-100)
L
DO
Fr• = sin q, cn fl.,. <'l>(kr)P,. 1(cos 8)

n-1
The total field is, of course, thc sum of t be incident and scattered fields.
Therefore E and H are given by Eqs. (6-26) where
(6-101)
¿
DO
Fr sin q, [a,.Jn(kr) + cnB.,.< >(kr)]P,. (cos 8)

2 1
n-1 I
The boundary conditions are E, = E• = O at r = a, which require that
b = - a -'--)-
" "B.,.<2l'(ka)
(6-102)
J,.(ka)
e =- a
" " fl,.O>(ka)
This completes the solution. Note that the problem can be viewed as
a short-circuited radial transmission line (Sec. 6-4) with many modes
superimposed.
The surface current on the sphere can be found accorcling to
J, = u, X H at r = a. T he result is
..
J =
'
i. E 0 cos q, \ '
.,, ka L.¡
a [ sin 8 P,. 1'(cos 8)
" fl ,.<2)1(ka)
+ jP,. 1(cos 8)
sin 8 B,.<2>(ka)
J
..
n- 1
(6-103)
J• = i. Eo sin q, \' a [ 1
P,. (cos 8)
1
_ sin 8 P,. '(cos 8) ]
.,, ka L.¡ n sin 8 B.,.<2>1 (ka) jJ1,.(ka )
..... 1
where the a,. are given by Eq. (6-98). The distant scattered field can be
found from the general expressions by using the asymptotic formula
íJ,.<'l>(kr) ¡;::::;"! j"+le-Jkr
and retaining only the terma varying as l /r. The result is

..
E,• = j!º e-f1tr cos q, ¿ j" [ b,. sin 8 P,. 1'(cos 8) - e"
9
)]
..
n-1
(6-104)
E0• -= j!º e-ikr sin q, ¿
n• 1
j" [ b,.
9) - e,. sin 8 P,. 11 (cos 8)]
where tbe b,. and Cn are given by Eqs. (6-102) . or particular interest is
tbe back-scattercd field
Es• = Ee· 1B•tr'= E••¡B-r
•• ,, ·--.,,/2
From this we can calcula.te the echo a.rea according to Eq. (3-30), which is
A . (A-2 IE.i:•l2)
• = l =ri IEol 2
Making use of the relationships

8) (-1)" n(n + l)
sm 8 0-.r 2
sin 8 P,. 1'(cos 8)--+ ,_.. <-2l)" n(n + 1)
a.nd the W ronskian of the spherical
Bessel functions, we find
>. 1
-
\' ( -1)"(2n + 1)
A, = 411" L¡ B,.< 2>(ka)íl,.<2)1(lca)
n•l
(6-105)
.........
A plot of A,/>. 2 is shown in Fig. 6-12.
For small ka, the n = 1 term of Eq.
(6-105) becomes dominant and
A --+ g>,t (ka)º (6-106)

• A:a-o 4ir
0.01 .........__.__ _.._____.._.....__,___
which is a good approximation when o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
a/>. < 0.1. Equation (6-106) is aj'>.
known as the Rayleigh scattering FIG. 6-12. Echo area. of a conducting
law. It states that the echo area of spbere of radius a (optical approxima-
small spheres varíes as x-• and was tion shown dashed).
first used to explain t he blueness of the sky. For large spheres

A. ka-+<0
11"a2 (6-107)
which is the physical optics solution. The region between the Rayleigh
and optical approximations is called the resonance region and is charac-
terized by oscillations of the echo area.
Let us now look at the field scattered by the small conducting sphere.
Using small-argument formulas for the spherical Bessel functions, we find
from Eq. (6-102) and (6-98) that
n +-1 e,. _... [2"(n - 1) ! ] 2 -'--.
b,.--+ - - (ka) 2
- ---"+1 (6-108)
ka-+O n ka-+O (2n) ! 1"+ 1
so the n = 1 terms of Eqs. (6-104) become dominant for small ka.
Hence, at large distances from small spheres,
e-fkr
Ee' _...
ka-+O
Eo -k r (ka)ª cos </> (cos 8 -
e-fkr
(6-109)
E0 • -
ka-> O
Eo -kr (ka) 3 sin </> (}i cos 8 - 1)
A comparison of t his result with the radiation field of dipoles shows that
t he scattered field is the field of an x-directed electric dipole
ll = Eo (ka) 3 (6-110)
plus the field of a y-directed magnetic dipole

271"
Kl = Eo jk 2 (ka) 8 (6-111}
The ratio of the magnetic to electric dipole moments is IKl/ lll .= TJ/2.
Figure 6-13 illustrates the origin of t hese two dipole moments. A surface
z z
X X
(a) (b)
F10. 6-13. Components oí surface current giving rise to the dipole moments of a con-
ducting sphere. (a) Electric moment; (b) magnetic moment.
current in the same direction on each side of the sphere gives rise to t he
electric moment, while a circula.ting current gives rise to the magnetic
moment. In general, the scattered field of any small body can be
expressed in terms of an electric dipole and a ma.gnetic dipole. For a
conducting body, the magnetic moment roa.y vanish, but the electric
moment must always exist.
N ow consider the case of a dielectric sphere, that is, let the region
r < a of Fig. 6-11 be characterized by Ed, 1.&d, a.nd tbe region r > a by
Eo, µ 0 • In addition to tbe field external to tbc sphere, speciñed by poten-
tials of the form of Eqs. (6-101), thore will be a field internal to the
sphere, specified by
..
Ar- = Eo COS </> \ ' dnJn(kp)Pn 1 (cos 8)
wµo
..
n•l
(6-112)
Fr- e,.J,.(kp)Pn 1(cos 8)

n-1
The superscripts - denote the region r < a, and superscripts + denote

the region r > a. Boundary conditions to be met at r = a are
E 0+ = E,- H o+ = I-Io-
E•+ =E.- H.+ = H.-
that is, ta.ngential components of E and H must be continuous. D eter-

mining the field coroponents by Eqs. (6-26), using Eqs. (6-101) for r > a
and Eqs. (6-112) for r < a, and imposing the a.hove boundary cooditions,
we find
b,. = - + a,.
flnC2>'(koa)Jn(kda) - VEW·d
- +y;;¡;
e,. = V EdJJO - VEol.ld 11,,.<2l'(koa)J,.(kaa) an
(6-113)
d - a
" - VEdl"O flnU>'(koa)l,.(ktJ<J) - VEOJld n
e - a
"- - VE0µ4 EJ,.<W(koa)J,.(kda) "
where a,. is given by Eq. (6-98). The conductiog sphere can be obtained
as the specialization "'"-+O, Ed-+ oo, such that kd remains finite. Note
that, in contrast to static-field problems, Ed-+ oo is not sufficient to
specia.lize to a conductor.
In the special case of a small dielectric sphere, the n = 1 coefficients
298 TIMh-HARMONIC ELECTROM.A.GNETIC FIELDS
are dominant a.nd reduce to

Er - 1
bi---+ - (koa)ª -
koa..... o Er +- 2
µ -1
(koa)ª
C1 -
koa-tO
-
+2
_ r_ _
µr
(6-114)
9
2jµ.,(2 + Er)
9
where E, = Ea/Eo and JJ.r = µd/ µo. A calculation of the scattered field
reveals that it is the field of the two dipoles
ll -- li' 4frj (k ) 3 Er
17k2 a Er + 21
-
(6-115)
Kl = u,,Eo 4:irj (ka) 3 P.r - 1
Jlr + 2
2
k
Note that the magnetic dipole vanishes if the dielectric is nonmagnetic,

that is, if µ., = l. Sirnilarly, a magnetic material with Er = 1 would
scatter no electrio dipole field. The field internal to the sphere is uni-
f orm in both E and H for the small sphere. In fa.et, the specialization
represented by Eqs. (6-114) is the "qua.si-sta.tic" solution. / It can be
obtained by taking the d-c electrio and magnetic polarizations and
a.ssuming that they vibra.te in pba.se quadrature with the incident field.
6-10. Dipole and Conducting Sphere. Figure 6-14a shows a radially
directed electric dipole near a conducting sphere. Figure 6-14b shows a
problem reciprocal to that of Fig. 6-14a in the following sense. The
component of E0 in the direction of Jlb equals the component of Eb in
z z
X X
(a)
F10. 6-14. The conducting sphere and a radially directed dipole. (a) Original prob-
lem; (b) reciprocal problem.
the direction of Il4 • (Superscripts refer to Fig. 6-14a and b.) If the
Il of Fig. 6-14b recedes to infinity, we have the planc-wave scatter prob-
lem treated in the preceding section. Hence, the radiation field of Fig.
6-14a can be simply obtained from the results of Sec. 6-9.
In particular, in tbe vicinity of the conducting sphere wc have
(Er')" __. -jwµ.Il e-tt•eitr' ..,. s•

,._... 4irr
which is a plane wave. Letting
Eo = - jwµIl e-ikr (6-116)

4?rr
we ha.ve the wave of Eq. (6-96). Hencc, the field of Fig. 6-14b is speci-
fied by Eqs. (6-101) with coordinates primed. To relate this solution to
tbat of Fig. 6-14a, we need thc r' component of E, which is
E,,b = -.1- ( !Ié)2i2 + k2) A,"'

JWE vT
..
= cos q,' ¿
n•l
n(n + l )[a,.J,.(kb) + b,.B ,.< >(kb)]P,. (cos O')
2 1
Finally, by reciprocity, E,P evaluated at r' = b, 81 = '1T - 81 q,' = O

equals -Ee4 at r, 8, q,. Hence,
..
Ee4 = L:
n- 1
n(n + l )[anJ..(kb) + b,..B,.<2>(kb)](-l)"P,. (cos O) 1 (6-117)
where a,., b,. 1 atid Eo are givcn by Eqs. (6-98), (6-102), and {6-116),
respectively. In the special case b = a, that is, when the current ele-
ment is on the surface of thc sphere, Eq. (6-117) reduces to
r¡Il
Ee = - .•,
- e-1"
4'1Tjkr
¿"'
j"(2n + 1) p 1(
f1,.<2>'(ka) n
cos 8) (6-118)
n-1
This is the radiation field of a. radially directed electric dipole on the

surfa.ce of a conducting sphere. Figure 6-15 shows the radiation patterns
for spheres of radii a = A/4 anda= 2>.. The pattern for the very small
sphere is the usual dipole pattern. For a very large sphere it approaches
the pattern of a dipole on a ground pin.ne but always with some diffrac-
tion around t he sphere. The radiation field for dipoles of other orienta-
tions, and also for magnetic dipoles, can be obtained in a similar manner.
The ficld in the entire region r > b can be determined from t he radiation
I
Frn. 6-15. Radiation patterns for the radially directed dipole on a conducting sphere
of radios a.
fi.eld as follows. From symmetry considerations (Fig. 6-14a) we conclude

that H = u9 H 9 , and therefore the field can be expressed in terms of an
A = u,A,. Also, A, must be independent of <f> a.nd represent outward
traveling waves; hence
..
A,= l
n• l
a..fl,.< 2l(kr)P,. (cos 9) r>b (6-119)
From this we can calcula.te Ee by Eqs. (6-26), obtaining
(6-120)
The a,. are then eva.luated by equa.ting this expression to the radiation
SPHERICAL WAVE FUNCTIONS 30 1
field previously determined. For ex- z
ample, in the special case b = a we r
equate Eq. (6-120) to Eq. (6-118) a.nd
obtain
a = Il(2n + 1) ( 2 )
n 4Trkfl,.C2)1(ka) 6-1 1
Tbe fiel d everywhcre can now be o b-
tained from Eqs. (6-26), (6-119), and
{6-121).
6-11. Apertures in Spheres. In X
Sec. 4-9 we saw how to express tho
field in a matched rectangular wave-
guide in terms of the field over a.
cross section of tbe guide. In Sec. Fio. 6-16. Slotted conducting sphero.
6-4 we saw that space could be viewed
as a spherical waveguide. A given sphere r = a is a cross section of tbe
spherical guide. If r > a contains only free space, then the guide is
matched, tbat is, there are no incomicg waves. By writing the general
oxpansion for outward-traveling waves and spccializing to r = a, we
obtain the field r > a. When apertures exists in a conducting sphere
of radius r = a, tbe tangential components of E are zero except in the
a.pertures. Our f9rmulas for the field r > a then reduce to ones
ooly the tangential components oí E over tbe aperturcs.
A general treatment of the problem is messy; so let us restrict con-
sideration to the rotationally symmetric TM case, tbat is, one ba.ving
only an H +. Tbe slotted conducting sphere of Fig. 6-16 gives rise to
sucb a field if there exists only an E, independent of q, in the slot. The
field is expressible in terms of an Ar of the form
..
Ar= l aJl,.< 2>(kr)P,.(cos O) (6-122)
From Eqs. (6-26) we calculate
(6-123)
Noting éJPn/éJ8 = Pn 1, we multiply each side of the above equation by

P,,. 1(cos 8) sin 8 and integra.te from O to 7r on 8. By the orthogonality
relationship [Eqs. (6-46) and (6-47)], we obtain
{ " .
}o E 1P,. 1(cos 8) sm 9 dO =
.,, tl
jr a,.n"<2)1(kr)
21!1l(n
Zn ++1 1)
302 TUdE-HARMONIC E LECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
FIG. 6-17. Ra.diation pa.tterns for the slotted sphere, 9o = 'lf'/2.
Specializing t his to r = a, we have the coefficients a,. determined as

_ ja(2n + 1) (.,, 1 .
an - ?12-irn(n + 1
l )Bn<z>'(ka) Jo Es r-a Pn (oos 8) sm 8 d8 (6-124)
The field simplifies to sorne extent in the radiation zone. Using the
asymptotic forros for Dnm in Eq. (6-123), we obtain
..
Es-.
L¡ a,.j»P,. (cos 8) (6-125)
-g__ e-ik• 1
kf---> .. r
n-1
This result could also be obtained from the plane-wave scatter result of
Sec. 6-91 using reciprocity.
For the slotted sphere of Fig. 6-16 1 let us assume a small slot width,
so that Ee is essentially an impulse function at r = a. Hence, we assume
Ee I r•a
= V o(O - 90)
a
(6-126)
SPHERICAL WAVE FUNCTI ONS 303
where V is the voltage across the slot. Then Eq. (6-124) reduces to
jV(2n + l)Pn 1(cos 80) sin 80
ª" = 71211"n(n + l )Bn<W(ka)
and the radia.tion field [Eq. (6-125)] becomes
E =
'
jVe-Jkr sm
2rr
. 8o L- jn(2n+ l)Pn 1(cos 80) P l(cos 8)
n(n + l )Bno>'(ka) n
(6-127)
n-1
Figure 6-17 shows radiation patterns for the case 80 = .,..¡2, that is, when
the conductor is into hemispheres. Patterns for spheres of radii
')../4 and 2>- are shown. Very small spheres produce a dipole pa.ttern,
wbile very large spheres produce a.n almost omnidirectiona.l pattern with
severe interference phenomena in the 8 == O and 8 = .,.. directions. In
the limit 80 - O we obtain the patterns of Fig. 6-15, whicb is to be
expected in view of the equivalence of a small magnetic current loop and
an electric current element.
The general problem of finding the field in terms of arbitrary tangential
components oí E overa sphere is treated in the literature. 1
6-12. Fields External to Cones.
The general trea.tment of the prob- z
lem of sources externa! to a conduct-
ing cone is a.lso messy but can be
found in the literature. 1 We shall
here restrict considera.tion to the
rotationally symmetric case oí ''ring-
source" excitation oí a conducting y
cone. The geometry of the problem
is shown in Fig. 6-18. The special
case of a magnetic current ring on
the conical surface gi ves t he field oí
a slotted cone. The limit as the
magnetic current ring approaches the
cone tip gives the field of an axially
directed electric current element 00 Fro. 6-18. Ring excitation oí a cooduct-
the tip. ing oooe.
Consider first the case of an electric current ring. From symmetry
considerations, it is evident that E will have only a component; so the
field is TE to r. The modes of the "conical waveguide" are considered
in Seo. 6-5, Eqs. (6-61) to (6-64). In the region r < a we have standing
waves, while in the region r > a we have outward-traveling waves.
1
L. Bailin aod S. Silver, Exterior Electromagnetic Bounda.ry Value Problerns
for Spheres and Cones, IRE Trana., vol. AP-4, no. 11 pp. 5-151 Jaouary, 1956.
304 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETI C F I ELDS
H ence, we construct
F, = lf 2
a ,,P,,(cos O)f1.,c >(kr)
l b.,P..(cos O)J.,(kr)
r>a
r<a
(6-128)
•
where the var e ordered solutions t o
[ : 0P.,(cos O) l-s, = O (6-129)
Continuity of E; at r = a requires thaf

a.,B ..<2>(Jca) = b..J .,(ka) (6-130)
Finally, Ho at r = a m ust be discontinuous by an amount equal to the
surface-current density (in our case it is an impulse function). Thus,
J; = -.k-
Jwµa
¿a !:lo P ,,(cos O)[a.,1iv<2l'(ka) -
v
-
"
which , using Eq. (6-130) and the Wronskian of the spherical Bessel func-
t ions, becomes
J 4> = l_ !_ p (CC).S"i.l) (6-131)
11a L¡ ao " J.,(ka) I
"
By the methods of Sec. 6-3 the following orthogonality relationship can
be derived:
Jr0 aoa P. ., ) ( aoa P"') sm_ Od8

01
(
= {o
N"
W
(6-132)
W =V
v(v + 1) [ . a2P .. ] (6-133)

where N" = - 2v + 1 sm Op" ao av o.o,
Hence, m ultiplying ea.ch side of Eq. (6-131) by Pw(cos O) sin O and inte-
grating from O to 01 on O, we obtain
{ º•
a., = N'1ª., J .,(ka) }o a .
J <> ao [P11(cos 8)] sm Odo (6-134)
This completes the solution for an arbitrary q,-directed current sheet at

r = a. For the current filament,
J 4> = !_ - 82) (6-135)
a
and Eq. (6-134) reduces to
a11 = 'J!.. J .,(ka) sin 02 P .,(cos 82) (6-136)

Numerical calculations are clifficult becauso of the problem of obtaining
the eigenvalues v and tbe eigenfunctions P v·
When the ring source of Fig. 6-18 is a magnetic current, the problem is
dual to the electric-current case, except for boundary conditions. Hence,
we construct
A, = ! c,.P .(cos O)íl."'(kr) r>a
(6-137)
l d.Y.. (cos 8)1..(kr)
u
r<a
where the u are ordcred solutions to

Pu(COS 81) = O (6-138)
in contrast to the v which were solutions to Eq. (6-129). Continuity of
H• at r = a requires that
c,.íl,,<2>(ka) = d,.].,(ka) (6-139)
At r = a we have Es discontinuous by an amount equal to the surface-
current density. Thus, analogous to Eq. (6-131), we have
M• = - .?'! \ ' 2_ P u(COS 8) (6-140)

a L.¡
u
()8 Ju(ka)
The orthogona.lity relationship for thc cigenvalues defined by Eq. (6-138)

18
(6-141)
W=U
M u -_ u(u + 1) [ . . 8 aP.. -
aP.. ]
where
2u + 1 Slll - ªº au s-s, (6-142)
Multiplying each side of Eq. (6-140) by P 111 (cos 8) sin 8 and integrating
from O to 81 on 8, we obtain
-a
Cu = ,,M,. J,..(ka) }o{º' M. a [P.,(cos 8)] sin 8 d8 (6-143)
88
This completes the solution for an a.rbitra.ry <P-directed magnetic current
sheet at r = a. For the magnetic current filament,
(6-144)
-KJ
Cu= ,,Mu ,.(ka) sin 82
a P..(cos 82) (6-145)
082
Fxo. 6-19. Radie.tion patterns. for the slotted conducting cone. (After Bailin and
Silver.)
Again a. calculation of the eigenvalues u a.nd the eigenfunctions Pu is

difficult.
If we now let 82 = 81 and set K = V in the magnetic current solution,
we bave the case of a cone slotted at r = a with a voltage V across the
slot. For r > a Eq. (6-137) becomes
Ar= : sin 2 81 (cos 81)P,.(cos 8)Ju(ka)flu<2>(kr)

u
Using the asymptotic form for fln< 2> and evaluating Ee by Eq. (6-26),
we find for the radiation meld
Eo = e-fkr " ju(2u + l)[aP.,(cos 8)/08] J.. (ka) (6-146)
u(u + l)[oPu(cos 81)/au]
Jr L,¡
..
Sorne radiation patterns for slotted eones with cone angle 30° are shown
in Fig. 6-19. A discussion of the problem of plane-wave scattering by a
cone is given by Mentzer. 1
1 J. R. Mentzer, "Scattering and Diffraction of Radio Wavea," pp. 81-93, Pergamon
Press, Inc., New York, 1955.

6-13. Maximum Antenna Gain. The general form of the field in a
spberical space externa! to a.U sources is Eqs. (6-26) with
Ar = La,,,JJn< >(kr)Pnm(cos
m.n
2 8) COS (mlf> + amn)
Fr = Lbm11l1,.<
m,n
2
>(kr)P,."'(cos 8) COS (mq, + fJmn)
(6-147)
Given an arbitrary field at r = r 1, the field can be projected backward

toward tbe origin as far as dcsired. At sorne sphere r = a we can deter-
mine sources by tho equivalence principle (Sec. 3-5), which will support
this field. Hence, it appea.rs that sources on an arbitraríly small sphcre
can support any desired radiation field.
The gain of an antenna. is defined by Eq. (2-130) in general. We shall
bere consider the largest gain
(6-148)
where (S,)mu: is the maxiroum power density in the radiation zone and
is the power radiated. By the discussion of tbe preceding paragraph,
it a.ppears that arbitrarily high gain can be obtained, regardless of antenna
size. I n practice, however, t he gain of a dircctive antenna is found to be
relatcd to its size. A uniformly illuminated aperture 1 type of antenna is
found to give the highest practical gain. This apparent discrepancy
betwecn theory and practice can be resolved if t he concepts of cutoff
and Q of spherical waves are properly applied.
Let us orient our spherical coordinate system so that maximum radi-
atfon is in the 8 = O direction. The radially directed power flux in this
dircction is t hen
(S,).,..,. = E.H: - E11H! (6-149)
From Eqs. (6-147) and (6-26) we fi.nd
e-ikr \ "
E.s = 2jr L.¡ n(n + l )j"(71 a1n cos CX1n - bin sin IJ1n)
fl
(6-150)
1 )
H = 2jr
% 4
e- Jkr \ "
n(n + l )j" (
a1,. sin a1,. - bi,, cos fj 1,.
..
1 . )
H11 = e-ikr
2jr 4
\"
n(n + l )J" a1,. cos a1n + b1,. 810 {3 1,.
. (
1 The term. "uniformly illuminated aperture" is used to describe antennas for which
t be source (primary or secondary) i.s consta.nt in amplitude a.nd phase overa given area
on a plane, and zero elsewhere.
in the 8 = O direction of the radiation zone. The total radiated power is

found by integrating the Poynting vector over a large sphere. The
result is
.:r.
IT/
= A_ \' n(n + l )(n + m)! ( 1 12 +!lb 12
L¡ tm(2n + l )(n - m) ! 11 a,,.n 71 ..n
) (6-151)
m,n
where em = 1 for m = O and Em = 2 for m > O. We used the orthog-

ona.lity relationships of Eqs. (6-51) in the derivation of Eq. (6-151).
Equations (6-148) to (6-151) give a general formula. for gain in terms
of spherical waves. We shall now consider under what conditions g is a
maximum. Note that the numerator of Eq. (6-148) involves only the
a1n and b1n coefficients. Hence, the denominator can be decreased witb-
out changing the numerator, by setting
amn = bmn =o m r! 1 (6-152)
Also, both numerator and denominator of (} are indepcndent of a1n and
f31n; so they may be chosen for convenience without loss of generality.
In particular, let a1n = 11" and {J 1,. = 11"/2, and t he ga.in formula reduces to
(6-153)
where Bn = j"n(n + l )b 1,. (6-154)
The denominator of Eq. (6-153) is independent of the phases of An and

B,.; so we can maximize the numerator by choosing A,. and B,. real.
Furthermore, gis symmetric in An and B,.; hence the maximum exists when
A,.= B,. =real (6-155)
The maximum gain therefore will be found among thosc specified by
(6-156)
where An is real. As long as nis unrestricted, this gis unbounded, as we

anticipa.ted earlier.
If the field, specifi.ed by Eqs. (6-147), contains only wave functions of
order n N, then a.n upper limit to g exists. Setting éJg/<JA; = O for
SP:aElUCAL WAVE FUNCTJONS 309
all A,, we find
N
g,,,..,. =
11•1
l (2n + 1) = N2 + 2N
and also A,.= 2n + 1 A1 (6-158)
3
Equation (6-157) represents the highest possible gain using spherical
waveguide roodes of order n N. A similar limitation to tho near-
zone gain also exists. 1
To relate gain to antenna size, we define the radius a of an antenna as
the radius of the smallest sphere tb at can conta.in the antenna. We saw
in Sec. 6-4 that spherical modes of order n were rapidly cut off when
ka < n. Hence, it is rea.sonable to assuroe that modes of order n > ka
are not normally ·present to any significant extent in the fiold of an
antenna of radius a. We define the normal gain of an antenna of radius
a as
(6-159)
which is obtained by setting N = ka in Eq. (6-157). Hence, the normal

gain is maximum gain obtainable whcn only uncuto.ff modes are present.
It is interesting to note that, for large ka, a circular, uniformly illumi-
nated aperture of radius a has tbc saroe gain as the above-defined normal
gain. 2 It is thercfore not surprising that the uniformly illuminated
aperture gives the highest antenna gain in practice.
The normal gain is not an absolute upper limit to the gain of an
antenna. Antennas having higher gain are a distinct possibility and
will be called supe-rgain antennas. We shall use the Q concept of Sec. 6-4
to show that (1) supergain antennas roust necessarily be narrow-band
devices, and (2) supergain techniques yicld only a small increase in gain
over normal ga.in for large antennas. Other characteristics which we
shall not demonstrate here are (3) supcrgain antennas have high field
intensities at the antenna structure and (4) they tend to have excessive
power loss in thc antenna structure.
The Q of a loss-free antenna is defined as
2wW.
'W. > 'Wm
Q = ij>!__ (6-160)
2wW,,,
\
1 R. F. Harrington, Effect of Alltenoa Sfae on Gaín, Bandwidth, and Etliciency,
J. Research NBS, vol. 640, no. 1, pp. 1-12, J anua.ry, 1960.

2 S. Ramo a.nd J. R. Whinnery, "Fields a.od Waves in Modern Radio," 2d ed., p. 533,
Job.u Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1963.

310 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROl\lAGNETIC FIELDS
104
F10. 6-20. Quality factora

O' for ideal loss-free anten-
nas adjusted for ma.xi-
mum gain using modes of
order n N.
5 10 15 20 25
ka
where 'W. and 'W m are the time-average electric and magnetic energies
and i91 is the power radiated. We shall define an ideal loss-free antenna
of raclius a as one having no energy storage r < a. The Q of this ideal
antenna must be less than or equal to the Q of any other loss-free antenna
of radius a having tbe same field r > a, since fields r < a can only add to
energy storage. If the Q of an antenna is large, it can be interpreted as
the reciprocal of the fractional bandwidih of the input impedance. If
the Q is small, t he antenna has broadband potentialities.
Antennas adjusted for maximum gain accorcling to Eq. (5-158) have
equal excitation of TM and TE modes. The Qn of spherical modes,
defined by Eq. (6-60) and plotted in Fig. 6-6, involve 'W. for TM modes
alld Wm for TE modes. We need Q's defined in terms of the same energy
for all modes, and it is convenient to deal with Q's for equal TM and
T E modes. T he Q for equal TMn and TEn modes is
ka< N (6-161)
because the 'W. is essentially that oí the TMn mode alone and the <P1 is
twice t hat of the TMn mode alone. When Qn < I , we take itas unity.
Because of the orthogonality of energy and power in the spherical
modes, t he total encrgy and power in a ny field is the sum of the modal
energies and powers. Hence, the Q of our ideal loss-free antenna is
Q=
¿ PnQnTM+TE ¿ An2 (
2
n
1
) Qn
= ---'--"""--- - ' - -
¿n
P
BPHERICAL WAVE FUNCTIONB 311
wbere P. is the transmitted power in the TM. and TE,. modes. Using
Eq. (6-158), this becomes
Q = ft-1
l (2n + 1) Q.,(ka)
2_N_2 _+_4N
.;.__;__ __ (6-162)
where the Q,. a.re given in Fig. 6-6. Curves of antenna Q far severa! N
are shown in Fig. 6-20. Note that t he Q rises sharply for ka < N, show-
ing that supergain n.ntennas must necessarily be high Q, or frequency
sensitive .. ·
The Q of Fig. 6-20 is a. lower bound to the Q of any loss-free antenna
of radius a. By picking a Q, we can calculate an upper bound to the
ga.in oían antenna of radius a. Figure 6-21 shows the ratio of this upper
bound to the normal gain. Note that for la.rge ka the increase in gain
over normal gain possible by supergain techniques is small. For small
ka supergain can give considerable improvement over normal ge.in. In
fa.et, as ka - O the supergain conditíon is unavoida.ble. Ali very small
antennas are supergain antennas by our definition. The problema of
narrow ba.ndwidth and high losses a.ssocia.ted with small antenna.s are
well-k.nown in practica! antenna. work.
10
9
\
111
8
\\
7
\\
V
6
\,
E
t 5
\ ..\
" -
\ l"'.....Q = 10 6
4
f'....1c))- f"'....... r----... ,.__
1111 3 -........__
- --
J2 102...........r-.. t-- t--- t---
o.... 2
1
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Fio. Ma.ximum poasib le increa.ee in ga.in over normal gain for a given Q.
312 TIME-HARMONIC E LECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
PROBLEMS
6-1. Use Eqs. (3-85) and the wave poteotial oí Eq. (6-14) to show t hat a. general
expression for fields TM to z is
.
E, ... -JwµY, coa 6 + JwE
-:--
1 -éJ [ --
éJr
coso -éJ (r'Y,)
r 2 éJr
- - .1 - -a (.¡, sm
r sm 6 éJ6
. 2 6) J
E8 .
= JCJJ¡.t.,Y . ., + 1 a [ cos 6 a ( 1..'·) - - 1.- - a (,Y SID
SlD 11 -. - - -- -
. 1 6) J
= jwET 1sin 6 o<f>

JwET iJO
a [coa 6 a
rt 0-r
1
r sm 6 iJ6
a .
--;:¡-ar (rt.¡,) - r sin 6 ao (.¡, sm• 6)
1
H. =.!a.¡,
r éJ<f>
H B = cot 6 a.¡,
r aq,
... [ sin 6 ! (r.¡,) + aª (.¡, cos J
6
6)
where .¡,is a. solution to the scalar Helmholtz equa.tion.

6-2. Veriíy that Eqs. (6-17} a.nd (6-18) a.re identic11l.
6-S. Consider a.n air-filled ·Spherical resonator oí radius ó centimeters bounded by
copper wa.lls. Determine the first ten resonant írequencies a.nd the Q of the domioa.nt
mode.
6 -4. For the spherical ca.vity of Fig. 6-2, show t hat the Q due to conductor losses is,
for TM modes,
(Q• ) Tll
m"JI
== ...!..
2"'
[ u,.p
, _ n(n + 1) J
,
U\ un,,
where the a.re giveo in Table 6-2, a.nd, for TE modes,
(Q ) TE = "ltLnp
• mnJI 2<R
where the Unp are given in Table 6-1.

6-5. Consider the ca.vity lying between coneentric conducting spheres r = a a.nd
r ... b, with b > a. Show t bat the cba.racteristic equation for modes TM 'to r is
a.nd for modes TE to r it is

J,.(kb) G,.(kb)
J ,.(ka) = Í/ .(ka)
6-6. In the concentric-sphere ca.vity of Prob. 6-5 let a « b, a.nd show tha.t the
resona.nt frequency w is rela.ted to the empty ca.vity resona.nt frequency "'º by
"'- _- "'º %(2.744)2 J" c2.144) b n:

"'º - l (2.744)
where "'º 2.744/b y;µ. [Hint: Express the cha.racteristic equa.tion in the form
f (k,a) = O, and expand in a Taylor series a.bout k 0 = "'º -v;;.J
6-'1. Consider tbe pa.rtiaUy filÍed spherical cavity formed by a conductor covering
r oz b and containing a dielectric t1, µ ¡ for r < a and a dielectric e2, µ1 for a < r < b.
Show that tbe characteristic equation for the dominant mode is
- 111
- =; 1 (k1a}1
where k 1 .,. w and kt - w v;;;;;.

6-8. In t be partially filled epherical cavity of Prob. 6-7, let a « b and e1 = eo and
,.,., = µ 0 • By ex:panding the cbaracteristic equation in a Taylor series about t he
emp_jy-cavity resonant frequenoy "'º' show that the resonant frequency w is given by
W -
CIJO
Wo "" _%( 2.744)2
JI (2.744)
Er -+ 21
Er b
where e, = e¡/e0 and "'º = 2.744/b Compare this with the answer to Prob.
6-6.
6-9. Consider the function
1
f(O,ef>) -
{ 0
and determine the coefficients a,,.,. and for the two-dimensional Fourier-Legendre
series of the form of Eq. (6-48).
6-10. Let A and B be two vectors and 8 be the angle between them.. Define
C = A - B and show that, for B > A,
..
_e
l ... 1 = _Bl \' (An_) " 9)
v At + B 2 - 2AB coa 9 L.;
n-o
6-11. Consider the characteristic impedances of the spherical modes of spa.ce [Eqe.
(6-57)}. Show that
Z +rTM = Z _,.TM + ¡ ..
,.,.....
--+17
--111 -
kr-+O
. n
kr
and zrE = t¡1/ZTM. Show also that the change from primnrily resistive to primarily
reactive wave impedances occurs at kr ""' n.
6-12. Show that the field of an electric current element ll is the dominant T M
spherical mode of spa.ce, and the field of a magnetic-current element Kl is the domi-
nant TE mode.
6-13. Using the usual perturbational method, show that the attenuation constan t
due to conductor losses for the TEM mode of the biconical or coaxial radial guide
(Fig. 6-7c and d) is given by
<R ese 91 + ese o,
°' ... -2t¡T ----,.-=-
cot Oi/2
1og cot o,¡2
6-14. Show that the dominant spberica.l TE mode of the wedge guide (Fig. 6-7e)
is the free-space field of a z-directed magnetic-current element.
314 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FI ELDS
6-16. Use tbe qua\itative bebavior of tbe spherical Rankel functions to )ustify tbe
statement that tbe spherical-horn guide oí Fig. 6-7f has a "cutoff radius" approxi-
mately equal to that radius for which the cross section is the same as a rectangular
guide at cutoff.
6-16. Consider a. bemispberica.l cavity (Fig. 6-8a) constructed of copper with
a = 10 centimeters, and a.ir-filled. Determine the first ten resonant Crequencics and
tbe Q o{ the dominant mode.
6-17. Considcr tbe second resonance In ... 2 in Eq. (6-80)) oí the biconical ca.vity of
Fig. 6-8c. Ca.lculate the Q oí the mode and the input resistance seen at the cone tips.
6-18. Consider the conical ca.vity oí Fig. 6-8d. Show that modes TM t o r are given
by H .. V X u,.A. where
(A,),,..p ... P,:(cos 9) cos mt/> J. ( w:P

where w:,
is the pth zero of J :(w) and vis a. solution to Eq. (6-62).
tbat modes TE to r are given by E ... - V X u,.F, where
Sim ilarly, show
(F,) ... P .,. P ."'(cos 9) cos mtl> J. ( w0
wbere w.P is the pth zero of J . (w) a.nd vis a. solutio'l to Eq. (6-64). For a. complete
set of modes the sin mt/> variation must also be included.
6-19. Lct tho current elements of Fig. 6-9c be replaced by magnetic-current ele.
ments Kl. Show tha.t, in the limit s-+ O, the field is given by E ... - v X u,fl, where
k 1 Kla
F. • 4-trj h1<1>(kr)P 1 (cos B)
/
z
6-20. Consider the quadrupole sourcc of
Fig. 6-22 wbere eacb element is an elec-
tric current Il. Show that, in the limit
&1 -+ O and a2 -+ O, the ficld is given by
H - V X u,A, where
y
kJll8181
A. - 4rj {h2<1 >(kr)P1(cos B) -
2
Fxo. 6-22. A quadrupole source.

6- 21. Derive t hc following wave transforma.tion:
r::--::;¡I
tr - I 1
- -. 1
-,
JTT
l.. (2n + l)f.(r')B,.cs>(r)P,.(cos , > r'
n- 0
where the angle bctween r and r'.
6-22. Derive the following wa.ve transforma.tion :
..
J ,.(p) "" l
m- 0
A ..j,,,.+,.(r)P2m+n"(cos B)
where
A ... ( - l )"'+..(4m + 2n + 1)(2m)t
• 2'"""' (m+ n)lml
6-23. Derive the following formula:
l ( 2jo(r')ho'''(r) r > r'

_
/_
1
ho<2>(Jr - r'/) d(cos f) = 2jo(r)hoO>(r') r' > r
where t is the angle between r and r'.

6-24. Consider the scatteriog of a plane-polarfaed wave by a small conducting
sphere (Fig. 6-ll). Show that the distant scattered field is plane polarized in the
direction o a 60º.
6-26. Consider an :t-polarized, z traveling plane wave incident on a cond ucting
sphere enea.sed in a concentric dielectric r
coa.ting, as showo in Fig. 6-23. Show Z
that the field is given by Eqs. {6-26),
where for r > b the A, a.nd F, are given
by Eqs. (6-101), a.nd for a < r l
n-1
6n[1Vn(ka)Í,.(kr)
-Ín(ka)fi,.(kr)JPn 1 (cos 8)
Impose boundary conditions on the ta.n-

lncident
wave t
gential components of E a.t H at r = b, ... •O. 6-23 • A p¡ane wave mc1 · "den.t on a
a.nd obtain expressions for bn, e,,, d,., and coa.ted conductíng sphere.
e,. in terma of a,,, given by Eq. (6-98).
6-26. Consider a radially directed magnetic dipole Kl adjacent to a conducting
sphere (Fig. 6-14 with ll replaced by Kl). Show that the radia.tion field is given by
= -T/H e a.nd
..
He l
n• l
n(n + l)(a..J,.(kb) + cnb,.< >(kb)](-l)"Pn1(cos 8)
2
where a,. is given by Eq. (6-98) and c.. by Eq. (6-102).

6-27. Consider a radia.lly directed electric dipoJe adja.cent to a dielectric sphere
(Fig. 6-14 with the sphere now dielectric). Show that tbe radia.tion field is tben
given by Eq. (6-117) if b,. is given by Eq. (6-113) instead of Eq. (6-102).
6-28. Consider a loop of uniform curreot 1 of radius a, as shown in Fig. 2-26.
Show that the radia.tion .field is given by
..
E• = J! e-;1cr l
n• l
1
1
) j"A,.P..l(Q)P,.t(cos 9)
where A,. = J,.(ka.)
and .,,H,
316 T IME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
6-29. Figure 6-24 shows a conducting spbcre oí radius R concentric with a loop of
uniform current I oí radius a. Show that the radiation field is oí tho same forro as
given in Prob. 6-28 except tha.t
A,.-1 = fl,.<W(ka) - Ín(kR)JÍt:(ka) - JÍt,. (k R)f:(ka.) h ,.<2>(ka)

],.(k R )JÍt,.(ka) - íV,.(kR)f,.(ka.)
Show tha.t tbis reduces to the answer for Prob. 6-28 as R O.
z
z
r
F10. 6-24. A conducting sphere with a F10. 6-25. Current element at the tip of a
concentric ring of electric current. conducting conc.
6-30. Figure 6-25 shows a current element lt at the tip of a conducting cone.
Show tbat the radiation field is given by
Es = f (r) sin 8 P:(cos 8)
where 'U is the first root of p u(COS 81) = 0. Some approxima.te eigenvalues a.re
7f - 81 1 1o 1 10º 1 24o 1 37º 1 49° 1 60º 1 69º 1 77º 1 84o 1 90º

'U 0.1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4 0 .5 0.6 0.7 0 .8 0.9 1.0
6-31. By considering the equivalont oircuit of Fig. 6-5 and the definition of Eq.
(6-60) for Q, show that the Q of the n - 1 spherical mode is
1 1
Q1 = kr + (kr)'
If equ.a.l TE and TM waves are present, tbe total Q is approxima.tely one-half this
v alue. A small antenna (say ka < 1) will ha.ve mínimum Q if only the n - 1 modes
are present in ita field. Hence, tbe mínimum possible Q for a small loss-free antenna is
Qmin ""' 21 [ ka
1
+ 1 ]
(ka) 1
where a is the radius of the sma.llest sphere that can conta.in thc antcnna..
CHAPTER 7
PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNIQUES
7-1. Introduction. T he differential equation approach of thc preced-

ing thrce chapters leads toan exact solution of the mathema.tical problem.
However, many problems cannot be trcated by this method. We saw in
Sec. 3-11 that elcctromagnetic field problema can be expressed in integral
equation forro. This forro is particularly useíul for (1) obtaining approxi-
mate solutions and (2) for general expositions of theory. In this chapter,
we shall consider two techniques useful for integral equations arising in
electromagnetic theory.
Perturbational M ethods. The word "perturb" mea.ns to disturb or to
change slightly. The perturbational methods are useful for calcula.ting
changes in somo quantity due to small changes in the problem. Usually
two problema are in volved: the "unperturbed " problem, for which the
solution is known, and the "perturbed" problem, which is slightly differ-
ent from the unperturbed one. We ha.ve already used perturbational
methods for calculating resonator quality factora and waveguide attenu-
ation constants. Further uses are given in Secs. 7-2 to 7-4.
Variational M ethods. The variational methods are usef ul for deter-
mining characteristic quantities, such as resonant frequencies, imped-
ances, and so on. I n contrast to the perturbationa.l procedure, tbe
variational procedure gives an approximation to the desired qua.ntity
itself, rather than to changes in the quantity. The variational pro-
cedure differs from other approximation methods in that the formula is
11
stationary" about the correct solution. This mea.ns that the formula
is relatively iosensitive to variations in an assumed field about the cor-
rect field. If the desired quantity is real, the variational formula may
be an upper or lower bound to the quantity. Furthermore, if an assumed
field is expressed as a series of fu nctions with undetermined coefficients,
then the coefficients can be adjusted by the Ritz procedure (Sec. 7-6).
In fac t, if a complete set of functions is used for the assumed field, the
exact solution can sometimes be obtained, at least in principie.
7-2. Perturbations of Cavity Walls. Figure 7-Ia represents a resona.nt
cavity formed by a conductor covering S and enclosing the loss-free
region T. Figure 7-lb representa a deformation of the original cavity
317
n n
E o, H o
(a) (b)
Fio. 7-1. Perturbation of cavity walls. (a) Original ca.vity; (b) perturbed cavity.
such that the conductor covers S' = S - tiS and encloses r' =,,. - !ir.
We wish t o determine tbe change in t he resonant frequency due to the
change of the cavity wall.
Let Eo, H o, wo represent the field and resonant frequency of the original
ca.vity, a.nd let E, H, w represent the corresponding quantities of the
perturbed ca.vity. In both cases the .field equations must be satisfied,
t hat is,
- V X Eo = jwoµH o -V X E =jwµH
(7- 1)
V X H o = jwoeEo V X H = jweE
We scalarly multiply the last equation by and the conjugate of the

first equation by H. The resul ting two equations are
Eó · V X H = jwEE • Eó
- H · V X Eó = - jwoµH ó · H
Adding these and applying the identity
V · (A X B) = B · V X A - A · V X B
we have
V • (H X Eó) = jwEE • Eó - jwoµH ó • H
By analogous operations on the second and third of Eqs. (7-1), we obtain
V · (H ó X E) = jwµH · H ó - jwotEó · E
These last two equations are now added, and t he sum integrated through-
out the volume of t he perturbed cavity. The divergence theorem is
applied to the lef t-hand terms, one of which vanishes, because n X E = O
on S'. The resulting equation is
cffi H
8'
X E ó • ds = j(w - wo) fff (EE • E ó + µH · H ó) d-r (7-2)
Finally, since n X E o = O on S, we have
cffi H X Eó · ds =O
s
PERTURBATIONAL AND TECHNIQUES 319
and the left-hand side of Eq. (7-2) can be written as
1fa H X
r
Et · ds =
s-s
1f H X Et • ds = - 1f H X E: • ds
The last term is taken as negative, to conform to the convention that

as points outward. We can now rcwrite Eq. (7-2) as
i1f H X Et •ds
AS
"' - "'º = fJf (tE ·Et + µ.H •

T'
d-r
(7-3)
This is an exact formula for the change in resonant frequency dueto an

inward perturba.tion of the cavity walls. Note that our development
assumes tha.t E and µare real, tbat is, wc have assumed no losses. Prob-
lem 7-1 gives the general formulation in the lossy case.
The crudest approximation to be made in Eq. (7-3) is tha.t of replacing
E, H by the unperturbed field Eo, H o. For small perturbations this is
certainly reasonable in the denominator and should be va.lid in the
numerator if thc deformation is sha.llow and smooth. With this a.pproxi-
mation the integral in the numerator of Eq. (7-3) becomes
1P H X Et · ds 1fi (H o X Et) · ds
AS
= jwo jj j (EIEol 2 - µIHol 2) d.,.

AT
The last equality follows from the conserva.tion of complex power [Eq.
(1-62)}. Substit.uting this into Eq. (7-3), and also substituting Eo, R o
for E, H in the denominator, we have
W - WQ
JjJ(µlllol EIEol d.,.
2
-
2
)
-¡¡-¡- (µ-jH-ol- -+-t-IE-o-li-)d-.,.

AT
(7-4)
"'º 2 1
Note tbat the terms in the numerator are proportional to the electric and
magnetic energies "removed,, by the perturbation, while the denominator
is proportional to the total energy stored. Hence, Eq. (7-4) can be
written as
w - wo,..., A'Wm - AW. (7-5)
"'º - w
where A'W,,. and AW. are time-average electric and magnetic energies
originally contained in Ar and VI is the total energy stored in the original
320 TIME--HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
cavity. Finally, if l::.:r is of small extent, we can approximate the t:..'W's

by l::..r times the energy densities at the position of Ar. Furthermore,
W can be written as r times a space-average energy density U!. Thus,
Eq. (7-5) can be written as
w - wo (w,,. -:: w 0) í::..r = C í::..r (7-6)
Wo Wr T
where C depends only on the cavity geometry and the position of the
perturbation.
It is evident from the preceding equations that an inward perturbation
will raise the resonant frequency if it is made at a point of large H (high
wm), and will lower the resonant frequency if it is made at a point of
large E (high w,) . The opposite behavior results from an outward pertur-
bation. It is also evident that the greatest changes in resonant frequency
will occur when the perturbation is at a position of maximum E and zero
H, or vice versa.
Numerical calculations using Eqs. (7-4) to (7-6) are easy for the cavi-
ties treated previously, because we calculated W when we determined the
Q's. For the dominant mode of the rectangular cavity of Fig. 2-19, W is
given by Eq. (2-98) , or
Far l::..r located at the mid-point of the base (maximum E) we use Eqs.
(2-96) to find A'Wm = O, and
E
t:..w. = 2 IEol2 6.r
Hence, from Eq. (7-5) we find
(7-7)
If the perturbation occurs at the mid-point of the longer side wall (maxi-
mum H), we have 6.W, = O and
EjEol2
t:..Wm = 2(1 + c2¡ b2) 6.r
Hence, from Eq. (7-5) we find
w - wo 2 í::..r
(7-8)
"'º 1 + (c/b)2-:¡:
Note that for a square-base cavity (b = e) the change in resonant fre-
quency due to A,,,. at maximum H is only one-half as great (and in the
opposite direction) as that due to 1::..,,. at maximum E.
PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNIQUES 321
'fABL!l 7-1. T BE PARAMETER C OF EQ. (7-6) FOR DEFORMATIONS (a) AT MAxnfUM
E AND (b) AT MAXrMUM B OF TBE DoMlNANT MoDE
Ca.vity Geometry e
(a) -2
Rectangular
2
(a$ b $e)
(b) 1 + (cfb)2
Short cylinder (a) -1.85

(d < 2a) (b) 0.5
(a) -0.843
Long cylinder
b 2.86
(d
( ) 1 + (1.7la/d)'
(a) -0.361
Spherica.1
(b) 0.680
(a) -2.02
Remispherica.l
(b) 0.680
Table 7-1 gives the va.lue of C in Eqs. (7-6) for ca.vities of several
geometries for fl-r located at (a) maximum E and (b) maximum H. These
values ha.ve been obtained using the crude approximations of replacing
E, H by E 0, H o in Eq. (7-3). They are therefore va.lid only for smooth,
shallow deformations. In general, the frequency shift depends on the
shape of the deformatíon as well as on the shape of the cavity. The
formulas for deformations of the form of small spheres or small cylinders
can be obtained from the results of the next section by letting E -... oo
and µ.- O.
7-3. Cavity-material Perturbations. Let us now investiga.te the change
in the resonant frequency of a cavity dueto a perturbation of the material
within the cavity. Figure 7-2a represents the original cavity containing
matter E, µ.. Figure 7-Zb represents the same cavity but with the matter
changed to E+ AE, µ.+Aµ..
D D
FIG. 7-2. Perturbation of

Eo, Ho ma.tter in a cavity. (a)
Original cavity; (b) per-
turbed cavity.
(4) (b)
Let Eo, H o, "'º represent the field a.nd resonant frequency of the original
ca.vity, a.nd let E, H , "' represent the corresponding quantities of the
perturbed cavity. Within S the field equa.tions apply, tha.t is,
- V X Eo = jwoµH o -V X E = jw(µ + .1µ) H (7-9)
V X H 0 = jw0eEo VXH = jw(e + .1e)E
As in the preceding section, we scala.rly multiply the last equation by
Et a.nd the conjugate of the first equa.tion by H , and add thc resulting
two equa.tions. This gives
V· (H X Eó) = jw(e + .1e)E · Eó - jwoµHó • H
Analogous operation on the second and tbird of Eqs. (7-9) gives
V · (H ó X E) = jw(µ + .1µ) H • H ó - jwoeEó • E
The sum of the preceding two equations is integrated throughout the
cavity, a.nd the divergence t heorem is a.pplied to the left-hand terms.
The left-hand terms then vanish, beca.use both n X E = O on S and
n X Eo = O on S. The result is
O= JJJ {[w(e + .1e) - woe]E · Eó + [w(µ +Aµ) - woµ]H · H ó} dT
Finally, this can be rearranged as
W - Wo
=
fff (.1eE · E? + t!..µH • H ó) dT (7-10)
fff (eE • Eó + dT
µH •
This is an exact formula for thc cbange in resonant frequency, due to a

change in e and/ or µ. within a cavity. Once again our development has
assumed the loss-free case, tbat is, e and µ are real. The general formu-
lation when losses are present is given in Prob. 7-5.
In the limit, as .1e --4 O and tl.µ. --4 O, we can approximate E, H , w by
E o, H o, w0 and obtain
w- Wo JJJ (AE!Eol2 + AµIHol2) d,,. (7-11)

"'º ::: - fJf (E!Eol 2
+ µI H ol 2) d.,
This statcs that any small increase in E and/ or µ. can only decrease t he
resonant frequency. Any largo change in e .a.nd/ or µ. can be considered
as a succession of many small changes. Hence, any increase in e and/or µ.
within a cavity can only decrease fhe resonant frequency.
We can recognize the various terms of Eq. (7-11) a,g energy expressions
and rewrite itas
(7-12)
whcre 'W is the total energy contained in the original cavity. Now if
the change in e and µ occupies only a small region fir, we can further
approximate Eq. (7-12) by
w - Wo - l ( fiE w. + tiµ. w...) ÁT

W W E µ. T
= _ (c 1
ÁE
E
+ 02 tiµ)
µ.
tir
T
(7-13)
where w is the spacc average of 'W. The parameters C1 and C2 depend

only on the cavity geometry and the position of fir. Note that a small
change in E ata point of zero E ora small change inµ ata point of zero H
does not chango the resonant frcquency. If we compare Eq. (7-13) with
Eq. (7-6), it is cvident that C = C2 - C1. For the cases considered .in
Table 7-1, fir is either ata point of zero H, in which case C2 = O, or ata
point of zero E, in which case C1 = O. To be explicit, for a material
perturbation at (a) of Table 7-1 we ha.ve C1 = -C and C2 = O, while for
a. material perturbation at (b) of Table 7-1 we ha.ve C1 = O and C2 = C.
Tho preceding approximations require tbat ÁE, tiµ., a.nd fi.,. all be small.
We shall now coosider a procedure for removing these restrictions on AE
n.nd tiµ. This introduces the further complication that the change in
frequency depends on the sbape of fir, a.s well as on its location. The
modification is accomplished by using a quasi-static approximation to the
field interna! to ÁT. This assumes that the field internal to fir is related
to the field externa} to ÁT in the sa.me ma.nner as for static fields. Tbe
procedure is justifiable, beca.use, in a region small compared to wa.ve-
length, the Helmholtz equation can be approximated by Laplace's
equation.
There are four types of samples for which this quasi-static modification
to the perturbational solution is very simply accomplished. These are
shown in Fig. 7-3 for the dielectric case. For the magnctic case, it is
merely necessary to replace E by H and E byµ. For the thin slab with
E normal to it (Fig. 7-3a), we must have continuity of the normal com-
324 TIME-HA.RMONIC E LECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
() o
te)
Fxo. 7-3. Sorne sma.11 dielectric objects for which the quasi-sta.tic solutions a.re simple.
ponent of D, so tbat
(7-14)
This approximation is valid regardless of the cross-sectional shape of the

cylinder. For the long thin cylinder with E tangential to it (Fig. 7-3b),
we must ha.ve continuity of the tangential component of E, so that
(7-15)
Again tbis approximation is independent of the cross-sectional shape of

the cylinder. For E normal to a long thin circular cyliuder (Fig. 7-3c),
we can use the static solution,1 whlch is
(7-16)
Finally, for E normal to a small sphere (Fig. 7-3d), we can use the static
solution,2 which is
(7-17)
The static solution for a. dielectric ellipsoid in a. uniform field is also

known but is not very simple in form. 2
T o use the above quasi-static approximations, we approximate E (and
H in the magnetic case) in tbe numerator of Eq. (7-10) by E1ot of the
preceding equations. In the denominator we can still use the approxi-
mations E = Eo and H = H 0 , beca.use the contribution from Ar is small
compared to that from the rest of r . Hence, our quasi-static correction
to the perturbational formula is
"' - "'º fff l1fE1nt · Et dr

(7-18)
"'º 2 JJJ EjEol 2
dr
1
W. R. Smytb, "Sta.tic and Dyna.mic Electricity," pp. 67- 68, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1950.
1
J. A. Stratton, "Electroma.gnetic Theory," pp . 205-213, McGra.w-Hill Book Com-
pany, Inc., New York, 1941.
PERTORBATIONAL ANO VARIATIONAL TECHNIQUES 325
(e)
Fro. 7-4. Ca.vitics uscd to illustrate the pcrturbational formulas.
for the case !:.µ = O. (The denominator has been simplifi.ed by equating
Wm to 'W •. ) The corresponding formula for the frequency shift due to
a magoetic material would be of same forro, but with E replaced by H
a.nd E byµ throughout.
Equation (7-18) is, of course, most valuable for problems for which
the exact solution is not known. However, so that wo may gain confi-
dence in the results as well as practice in the procedure, let us apply
Eq. (7-18) to problems for which we bave the exact solution. These are
illustrated in Fig. 7-4. For a dielectric slab on t he base of a rectangular
cavity (Fig. 7-4a), we have E 10i given by Eq. (7-14). The field and energy
expressions for the unperturbed cavity are given in Sec. 2-8. Appli-
cation of Eq. (7-18) t hen yields
1 E, - 1d
W -
Wo
Wo
- 2- E-, - a (7-19)
where d is the slab thickness and a is the cavity height. A comparison

of this with the result of Prob. 4-17 for µi = µ2 = µo and E2 = Eo shows
that our answer is identical to the first term of the expansion for w in
powers of d/a. fact, if t:.µ is also nonzero and we treat it to the same
degree of approxima.tion (match tangential H ), we again get the correct
first term of the expansion. To illustrate the improvement obtained by
using the quasi-static fi.eld, we can compare Eq. (7-19) to the result
obtained from Eq. (7-11), which is
w - wo
_ W
_O_ :::; -
1
2 (Er - l) ad
It is apparent that tbe a.hove formula is accura.te only for Er :::; 1, that is,
when !:.E is small.
A nonmagnetic dielectric sla.b at a side wall of the rectangular cavity
(Fig. 7-4b) has but little effcct on the resonant frequency, because E is
zero at the wall. In t his case E is tangential to the air-dielectric inter-
face; so Eq. (7-15) should apply. Note t hat Eqs. (7-18) and (7-11) give
identical approximations in this case. In particular, we obtain

W - Wo - r
(e,. - 1) d sint 11"X dx
wo a Jo a
- ( Er - 1) ( (7-20)
A comparison of tbis with the answer to Prob. 4-18 shows that we again
have the correct first term of the expansion when llµ. = O.
As a final example, consider the spherical cavity with a concentric
dielectric sphere (Fig. 7-4c). The field of the unperturbed cavity is
defined by
H • =¿J1 ( 2.744&) sin8
and the stored energy is given by Eq. (6-35). Applying Eq. (7-18),
using the quasi-static Eq. (7-17), we obtain
w- Wo -0.291 Er - l ( 2.744
wo Er +2 b
where a is the radius of the small dielectric sphere a.nd b is the radius of
the conductor. This we can compare to the exact solution (Prob. 6-8),
which is the sa.me. The perturbational method used in conjunction with
the quasi-static approximation gives excellent accuracy when properly
used. This shift in resonant frequency caused by the introduction of a
dielectric sa.mple into a resonant cavity can be used to measure the
constitutive pa.rameters of matter.
7- 4. Waveguide Perturbations. We shall n.ow consider wa.veguides
cylindrical in the general sense, tha.t is, ali z = consta.nt cross sections
are identical. Figure 7-5a represents a cross section of the unperturbed
wavegU.ide, Fig. 7-5b represents a wall perturbation, and Fig. 7-5c repre-
.sents a material perturbation. All perturbations must, of course, be
independent of z. The guide boundary is taken as perfectly conducting
in all cases.
n n n
E,H
Eo, Bo E,H
e + Ae,
•, I'
s t.C
I' + 614
e (J e
(a) (b) (e)
Fio. 7-5. Perturba.tions of cylindrica.1 wa.veguides. (a) Original cross section;

(b) wall (e) material perturba.tiQn.
PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNTQUES 327
At the cutoff frequency a cylindrical waveguide is a two-dimensional
resonator. We should therefore expect formulas similar to those for
perturbations of cavities to apply to waveguides at cutoff. In fa.et, we
can apply tbe ca.vity deriva.tions directly to the region formed by the
oyundrical waveguide bounded by two z = constant planes, cha.nging
only sorne of the explana.tions. For example, in deriving Eq. (7-2), the
lef t-hand side results from the integral
1f> (H X E:+ H; X E) · ds
taken over the perturbed surface. For a length of a cylindrica.l wave-

guide at cutoff, the fields are independent of z; so the suda.ce integra.Is
over the two z = consta.nt cross sections cancel each other. This lea.ves
only the surface inLegral on the left-hand side of Eq. (7-2) taken over the
wall of the waveguide. Following tbe derivation further, we find that
Eq. (7-3) applies directly for calculating the change in waveguide cutoff
frequency. But both numerator and denomina.tor involve an integration
with respect to z, which reduces to the length of the segment of the cylindri-
cal waveguide. Hence, from Eq. (7-3) we obtain the change in cutoff
frequency !:lw,, due to an inward perturbation of the waveguide wall aa
flwc=
j f,,c H X Eó • n dl
(7-21)
¡s/ (EE • E: + µH • Hó) ds
where ó.C is the contour about the volume of the perturbation and S' is
the cross section of the perturbed waveguide (see Fig. 7-5b).
The crude a.pproximation of replacing the perturbed fields E, H by the
unperturbed fields E o, H o in Eq. (7-21) gives good results for smooth,
shallow perturba.tions. This lea.ds to
flwe
Jf (µIH ol
A
2
EIEol 2) ds
-
¡-=--(µ_j_
H_ol-2 _
+_E
_IE-o-l2)_ ds
_ (7-22)
s
which is a.na.logous to Eq. (7-4). Hence, an inward perturbation of the
wa.veguide wa.lls ata position of high E will lower the cutoff frequency,
while one at a position of high H wil1 raise the cutoff frequency. For
perturbations not shallow and smooth, we can obtain a better a.pproxi-
mation to by using a quasi-static approxima.tion for H in the numer-
ator of Eq. (7-21). An exa.mple of the perturbation of waveguide walle
is the 11 ridge wnveguide," formed from the rectangular waveguide by
328 TIME-H.ARMON1C ELECTROMAONETI C FIELDS
adding ridges along the center of the top and bottom walls. 1 Such ridges
will lower the cutoff frequency of t he dominant mode and will raise t he
cutoff frequency of the next higher mode (see Prob. 7-12). Hence, a
greater range of single-mode operation can be obtained. The ridges a.lso
decrease the characteristic impedance of the guide; hence, they are used
for impedance m atching.
T he formulas for material perturbations in cavities can also be special-
ized to the case of materi al pert urbations in waveguides at cutoff. T he
reasoning is essentially the sa.me as t hat used for the wall-perturbation
case. Hence, from E q. (7-10) we ca.n obtain the exact formula for t he
change in cutofI frequency duo to a change of mat ter with t he waveguide.
It is
ff (AEE • Eó + AµH • H ó) ds (7-23)
ff ( Eó + µH • H ó) ds
EE •
where t he integra.Is are taken over t he guide cross section. Note t hat
an increase in either E or µ can only decrease t he cutoff frequency of a.
waveguide. If AE and Aµ. are small, we can replace E, H by Eo, H o and
obtain
JJ (AEIEol + AµIH oJ ds
2 2
)
(7-24)
j j (EIEol + µIHol ds
2 2
)
T his is analogous to E q. (7-11). If AE and 6µ. are large, but of small

spatial extent, we can improve our a.pproximation by using t he quasi-
st atic method of Sec. 7-3. For exa.mple, analogous to Eq. (7-18) we ha.ve
in t he nonmagnetic case
JJ 6EE1D1 • Eó ds
(7-25)
2 JJ EIEol 2
ds
where E 1nt is given by the appropriate one of Eqs. (7-14) to (7-16).
As long as the perturbed guide is homogeneous in E and µ, we can
determine t he propagation constant at any frequency from t he cutoff
frequency according to
(7-26)
1S. B. Cohn, Propertics of Ridgc Wa.veguide, Proc. IRE, vol. 35, no. 8, pp. 783-788,
August , 1947.
PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATJONAL TECHNIQUES 329
(This is proved in Sec. 8-1.) If the perturbed guide is inhomogeneous,
no such simple relationship exists. In such cases we can obtain pertur-
bational formulas for the change in 'Y· In the loss-free case we can express
the unperturbed fields as
Eo = Eo(x,y)e-i/Jo•
(7-27)
H0 = 1!0 (x,y)e-illo•
and t he perturbed fields as
E = E (x,y)e-i/Ja (7-28)
H = 1I(x,y)e-i/J•
The perturbational formulas are t hen
J. (Et X H) · n dl
R R • 'f ti.C (7-29)
-J
Js/ .
(Et X H + E X Ht) · u. ds
in the case of a wall perturbation, and
ff (LiEE ·Et + Liµ.:A: • 1It) ds

fJ - fJo = w (7-30)
JJ (Et X H + E X Ht) · u. ds
s
in the case of a material perturbation. The perturbational formulas in t1ie
lossy case are given in Probs. 7-15 and 7-16.
To illustrate the derivation of the above formulas, consider a material
perturba.tion. The unperturbed a.nd perturbed fields satisfy Eqs. (7-9)
with w = wo, for the frequency is kept unchanged. The two equations
following Eqs. (7-9) are still va.lid, and, with w 0 = w, their sum becomes
V · (H X Et + Ht X E) = jw(AeE · Et + AµH · H t)
Integrating this equation throughout a region and applying the diver-
gence t heorem to the left-hand term, we obtain
1P (H X E: + Ht X E) · ds = jw fff (LiEE •Et+ LiµH • H t) dr (7-31)

This is an identity for any two fields of the
same frequency in a region for which e: and D
µ are changed to e: + Lle: and µ. + Liµ.. For

material perturbations in a cylindrical wave- dzI
guide, we express t he fields according to Eqs.
(7-27) and (7-28) and apply Eq. (7-31) to Fto. 7-6. DifJerential slice of a
the differential slice of Fig. 7-6. On the cylinder.
waveguide walls both n X E a.nd n X E 0 vanish; so thjs part of the surface

integral varushes. Also, since the thickness of the slice is a differential
distance,
JJ + JJ = dz :z JJ = - j(fJ -
top bott.om 8
fJo) dz fJ
8
The right-hand side of Eq. (7-31) can be expressed as the integral ovcr
the cross section times dz; hence Eq. (7-31) reduces to
-j(/) - fJo) JJ (1t X + ílt X • u, ds

s
= jw JJ 8
• Et + 6µft • :A::) ds
Rearra.ngement of this equation gives Eq. (7-30). In the derivation of
Eq. (7-29), tbe right-ha.nd side of Eq. (7-31) is zero, and the left-hand
side equated to zero lea.da to the desired rcsult.
Equations (7-29) and (7-30) as they stand are exact. To use them,
we must make various approximations for E and H, just as we did in
the cavity problems of Secs. 7-3 and 7-4. For example, in the case of
shallow, smooth deformations of waveguide walls, we can approximate
E, :ft by Eo, Hoin Eq. (7-29). Using tbe conservation of complex powcr
[Eq. (1-62)), we arrive at the result
fJ - fJo W _ ,__A
Jj (µIB ol
_ _ __
2
- El2olt) ds
_ __ __ __
(7-32)
JJ X fto + Eo X íi:t) · u. ds
s
(The denominator is twice the time-average power flow in the unper-
turbed guide.) If t he perturbation is not shallow and smooth , better
resulta can be obtained using a quasi-static morufication. Similarly, for
small AE and 6µ we ha.ve the approximation for material perturbations
8
JJ (AEl2ol 2
+ 6µ111 ol 2) ds
fJ - f3o w - -- - - - - - - - - - (7-33)
JJ X Éto + Eo X íió) · ds
s
For large AE and Aµ we can obtain better results by using t he quasi-sta.tic
approximation f or the fields within AE and Aµ.
AB an example of the perturbational a.pproacb applied to a wa.veguide
problem, consider a circular wa.veguide of radius b containing a concen-
tric dielectric rod of radius a. The exact solution to this problem was
0.9
F10. 7-7. Comparison of
the perturbationa.l solu-
t ion with the exa.ct so-
lution for the pa.rtia.lly 0.7 t::==t=-F--t--
fillcd circular waveguide,
e c:o 10Ee1 b = 0.6
o 0.1 0.2 0.3

a/ b
considered in Sec. 5-5, and a numerical cxample is shown in Fig. 5-11.

For the perturbational solution we shall use Eq. (7-30) with Aµ = O. In
the numerator we make the quasi-static approximation of Eq. (7-16),
and in the dcnominator we approximate E, H by E o, H0• The unper-
turbed field oí t be dominant T Eu mode for the circular waveguide is
E.
.
J 1 (i.841 q, H, = - Zo
_E,.
E• = ( 1.841 cos q, H - -
Zo
where Z 0 is thc characteristic impedancc (Eq. (5-32)). The denominator
of Eq. (7-30) then becomes
io fo lb 2
" dq, dp p(E, 2 + E. 2

) = 0.7892 - (:"Y
where w., is the cutoff frequency. The numerator is easily evaluated as
:: + Eo (i.841
(3 - {3 0
ko = y
2. 146
1 - (w./ w) 2
E, -
E, +
1
1
(ª)b 2
(7-34)
Figure 7-7 compares this solution to tbe exact solution of Fig. 5-11. Our
approximations give good results for small a/ b. At frequencies near the
unperturbed cutoff frequency, the w. in Eq. (7-34) may be ta.ken as that
of t he perturbed guide.
7-5. Stationary Formulas for Cavities. Suppose we ha.ve a resonant
cavity formcd by a pcrfect conductor enclosing a dielectric, possibly in-
homogeneous. The "wave equo.tions" are
V X µ - 1v X E - w, 2EE =o (7-35)
V X E- 1v X H - w, 2µ.H =o
where w, is the resonant frequency. Tbese reduce to the usual Helmholtz

equations when E and µare constants. lf tbe first of Eqs. (7-35) is scalarly
multiplied by E and the resulting equation integrated t broughout the
ca.vity, we obtain
(7-36)
Similarly, multiplying the second of Eqs. (7-35) scalarly by H a.nd inte-

grating tbroughout the cavity, we obta.in
(7-37)
Equations (7-36) and (7-37) are idcntities, but, even more importa.nt,
they are usef ul for approximating w, by assuming field distributions in a
cavity. Thcy are particularly well-suited for this latter application
beca.use of their '-'stationary" character, which we shall now discuss.
We take Eq. (7-36) and substitute for tbe true field E a. trial field
Et,1.1 = E + 6E = E + pe (7-38)
where pisan arbitrary parameter. This procedure gives
w2(p) JJJ (E + pe) · V X 1r v X (E + pe) dr

1
= ;;....;;...;:;,___...,.....,,.._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
(7-39)
JJJ E(E +pe) -(E+ pe) dr
where we show w 2 a"8 a function of p for fixed e. The Maclaurin expan-
sion of w 1 is
w2(p) = w,2 + p -aw2 ¡ + -p22! -éPwt
op p•O éJp
2
Ip• O
+ ... (7-40)
Note that the first term is the true resonant frequency, beca.use
= w,2 • In the variational notation1 the above expansion is written
w1 (0)
as
p'
w'(p) = w,2 + pow 2 + 21 o2w2 + . . . (7-41)
By definition, each term of Eq. (7-41) equals the corresponding term of

Eq. (7-40). The term ow 2 is called the first variation of w21 the term o2w 2
is called the second variation, a.nd so on. A formula for w2 is said to be
t F. B. Hildebrand, "Metbodsof Applied Mathematics," p.130, Prentice-Hall, lnc.,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1952.
stationary if the first variation of w2 vanishes. This is equivalent to
awi '
- = O (7-42)
dp p•O
The extension to more tha.n one p para.meter is straightforward.

We now wish to show that Eq. (7-39) is s'tationa.ry. The derivative
of the numerator N(p) evalua.ted at p = O is
N' (O) = JJJ (E • V X µ-1v X e + e •V X µ-1v X E) d-r
It is a. vector identity that
!!! E·V X µ-
1
v X edT = !!! µ - 1v X e·V X Edr
+ cffi ((µ- 1V X e) X E]· ds
The last term vanishes, beca.use n X E = O on S. A similar identity

states
JJJ µ- v
1
X !; V X E dT = JJJ e • V X µ- 1
v X E dr
- cffi ((µ- V1 X E) X e]. ds
Using these two identities a.nd the first of Eqs. (7-35), we obtain
N'(O) = 2wr2 JJJ Ee •E dr - cffi ((µ- 1V X E) X e] · ds

The deriva.tive of tbe denominator D(p) of Eq. (7-39) is, for p = O,
D'(O) = 2 fff te· E dr

We then obta.in
aw2 ¡ = D(O)N'(O) - N(O)D'(O)

ap 1,,-o D 2 (0)
1fi [(µ-1V X E) X e] • ds (7-43)
= - JJJ eE 2 dr
which has been simplified, using Eq. (7-36). The above equation van-
ishes if n X e = O on S, which requires n X E.,1..i = O on S. Hence, Eq.
(7-36) is a sta.tionary formula for the resonant frequency if the tangential
components of the trial E vaniEJh on the cavity wall.IJ,
334 TIME-H.A.RMONIO EL EOTROMA.GNETIC FIELDS
Equa.tion (7-36) can be put into a more symmetrica.l forro by a.pplying

the identity
!!JE. V X µ- v
1
X E dT = !!J µ- 1v X E. V X E dT
+ 1P [(¡.C V 1
X E) X E] • ds
The last term va.nishes, beca.use n X E = O on S. Substituting this

identity into Eq. (7-36), we obta.in
(7-44)
This formula. proves to be sta.tionary, provided n X E ..1.1 = O on S. If

we look ca.refully at the first varia.tion of Eq. (7-44), it is evident that the
requirement n X ELrW = O on S can be relaxed if the term
21f> ((µ- 1V X E) X E] · ds
is added to the numerator. This gives
Wr
2
= JJJ µ- (v 1
X E)
2
d'T + 2 {f> [(µ- 1
V X E) X E]• ds
JIf EE2dT
(7-45)
whicb is stationary, even if n X r6 O on S. This is an importa.nt

modification, beca.use it is not always easy to find a tris.l field with vanish-
ing tangential components on the ca.vity walls, especia.By if the geometry
is complicated. Still furtber modifications in our formulas a.re required
if n X E or n X (µ- 1v X E) are discontinuous over sorne surface within
the cavity. All such modifications can be quite simply effected by the
reaction concept of Sec. 7-7.
A similar procedure shows that Eq. (7-37) is a sta.tionary formula. in
terms of H , provided n X (E- 1V X H ) = O on S. The H-field formula.
corresponding to Eq. (7-44) is
!!f c
= ---='""'"-=---
1
{V X H ) dT
---
2
(7-46)
!!f
Wr2
µlJ2 d'T
which t urns out to be stationary subject to no boundary conditions on S.
Further modifications to accouñt for discontinuities in n X H or n X
(c 1v X H ) over surfaces within the cavity can be made. These modifi-
cations again follow directly from the methods of Sec. 7-7.
PERTURDATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL T EOHNIQUES 335
0 Pi p O Pi p
(a) (b)
FtG. 7-8. lllustra.tion- of w2 ve.rsus p for (a) a stationary formula and (b) a nonstationary
formula.
Let us now briefly consider the advanta.ges of a stationary formula

over a nonstationary one. Figure 7-8 shows pictorally the primary
advantage. Given a class of trial fields of the forro of Eq. (7-38), t he
para.meter w 2 (p) determined from a stationary formula such as Eq. (7-39)
will have a minimum or rnaximum at p = 0. 1 This is shown in Fig.
7-8a. The parameter w 2 determined frorn a nonstationary formula must
ha.ve sorne definite slope a.t p = O, as shown in Fig. 7-8b. For a given
error in tbe assumed field, say aE = pie, the corresponding error in t be
resonant frequency is w12 - w. 2 • It is evident tbat for sma.ll p1 the sta-
tiona.ry formula gives a smaller error in w2 tban does the nonstationary
formula. This property is sometimes summarized as follows: "A para.m-
eter determined by a stationary formula is insensitive to small variations
of the field about the true field." An error of the order of 10 per cent
in the assumcd field gives an error of the order of only 1 per cent in t he
pammeter. In some cases the true field can be shown to yield an abso-
lute mínimum or maximum for the parameter. The stationary formula
then gives upper or lower bounds to tbe para.meter. Our formulas for w2
give upper bounds, as we shall show later.
We might also inquire about thc general procedure of establishing
stationary formulas. One characteristic of ali such formulas is that the
numerator and denominator contain squares of the trial field. This
insures that amplitude of the trial field will ha.ve no effect on the calcu-
lation. Classically, the method of establishing stationary formulas is to
construct formulas of the proper form a.nd then separa.te the stationary
ones from the nonstationary ones by testing the first variation. In Sec.
7-7 we shall give a general procedure which lea.da directly to the various
stationary formulas.
1
A complex para.meter would have a saddle point at p - O.
N ow let us apply sorne oí our stationary formulas t o a problem for

whlch we bave an exact answe;:, so t hat we may get an idea oí the accu-
racy obtainable. Consider the dominant mode of the circular ca.vity
(Fig. 5-7), for t he case d < 2a. The TM010 mode is dominant and the
exact resonant frequency is
2.4048
"'' = - -- (7-47)
ªVEµ.
The field is sketched in Fig. 5-8 and is given mathematically by
E.= J = ·!º
2 5
Substit ution of this true :field into any of our stationary formulas must,
of course, give us Eq. (7-47).
Suppose we fust try a formula that requires no boundary conditions:
[Eq. fl-46)]. as a trial field
H =
Equation (7-46) then becomes
loº 4 dp
P 8
"'2 = Eµ.loª pVdp = Eµ.a2
and our approximation is

2.818
w,::::::aw (7-48)
This is 16 per cent t oo high, which is a relatively poor result. This sug-
gests that our trial field was too crude an approximation. We can
improve our trial field by assuming
H (p-
= V X H (1 -
= Us2
which is chosen to satisfy the condition n X E = O on S. Equation

(7-46) then yields
q.nd our approximation is now

2.410 (7-49)
"'' a VEP
PERTURBATIONAL AND VARI ATIONAL TECHNIQUES 337
This is only 0.2 per cent in error. Even though a formula is stationary,
we must use care in choosing trial fields. It is a.dvisable to meet the
physical boundary conditions as closely as possible, for this will hclp to
obtain a tria! field close to the true field. If the same tria! .field is used in
Eq. (7-37), we aga.in get Eq. (7-49), since n X E = O on S.
Now consider a stationary E-field formula, say Eq. (7-44). This
form ula requires n X E = O on S; hence we choose
1
VX E= u• -
a
Substituting this into Eq. (7-44), we obtain
[º.E_ dp 6
}o a2
wt = ___,,_....[º = eµa'
Eµ }o 1- p dp
Our approximation is therefore

2.449
Wr::.: a Vtµ (7-50)
which is 1.8 per cent too high. U we ha.d chosen a trial E .field not
satisfying n X E = O on S, we would bave had to use Eq. (7-45).
Note that all our approximations are too high. This suggests that the
true resonant frequency is an absolute mínimum, which we shall now
show. For example, take Eq. (7-39), and, by means of various identities,
put it into the form
(7-51)
It is known that the eigenfunctions, that is, the fields of the various
modes, forro a complete set of orthogonal functions in tbe cavity space. 1
Hence, tbe error field pe can be expanded in a series
pe = LA,E,
•
where the A, are constants and the E, are the various mode fields. Sub-
stituting the a.hove equation into Eq. (7-51), mak.ing use of the wave
1 Philip
M. Morse and Herman Feshbach, "Methods of Thcoretical Physics," part I,
Chap. 6, McGra.w-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1953.
a.nd the orthogona.lity rela.tionships, we obta.in
I (w,2 - w,2)A,2 JJJ dJ;2 d,,.

w2 - w,2 = i JJf E(Etrlal)2 dT (7-52)
where the w, are the resonant frequencies of the ith modes. Since we
ha.ve chosen w, as the lowest eigenvalue, Eq. (7-52) is a.lwa.ys positive.
Hence, a.ny w calcula.ted from Eq. (7-36) will be an upper bound to the
true resonant frequency. Also, if we choose a trial field orthogona.l to
the field of tbe lowest mode, we ha.vean upper bound to the next higher
resonant frequeucy, a.nd so on. This, of course, requires tha.t the domi-
na.nt roode be known exa.ctly, which is seldom the case for complica.tea
geometries. ·
Look now at Eq. (7-46). The trial field H = constant vector is a
permissible trial field, since no bounda.ry conditions are required. The
result is w, = O, which is less than the true resonant írcquency (Eq.
(7-47)]. Why do we not have an upper bound in this case? The answer
lies in tbe fact that we ha.ve overlookcd the "ata.tic mode." A static
magnetic field (w, = O) can exist in a. cavity bounded by a perfect electric
conductor. Fortunately, it is easy to insure that our trial field is or thogo-
nal to all static fields, thereby obta.ining an upper bound to t he dominant
a.-c mode. Any tri al field sa.tisfying
V·µ.H =O µH" = O on S (7-53)
is orthogona.l to a.U static fields, as we sha.11 now prove. Tbe desired

orthogonality is
fJf µH • H ,latlc dT =O
where, in general, H,,,u. = - V U. By virtuc of the idcntity
V • (UµH) = ¡.JI • V U + UV • µH
the preceding equa.tion becomes
JJf Uv • µH dT -1/> uµH . ds = o

This requirement is met for a.ll U by the conditions of Eq. (7-53). Our
choices for H in the foregoing exa.mples sa.tisfied Eq. (7-53); so we
obtained upper bounds to the dominant TM010 mode, as desired.
7-6. The Ritz Procedure. A further advantage of the variationa.l
formulation is that one can choose the bcst approximation to a stationa.ry
quantity obtainable from a given cla.ss of tria.l fields. This is done by
PERTURBATI ONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNIQUES 339
including adjustable constants, or uariational parameters, in the definition
of the trial .field and then choosing those parameters which will give a
minimum or maximum of the stationary quantity. For example, if we
choose
(7-54)
where the Ai are variational parameters, and substitute into the station-
ary formula Eq. (7-36) 1 we obtain
(7-55)
The best approximation to w, 2 will be the minimum value of w2 , which
can be chosen by requiring
ow2 =O
- i = 11 2, . . . 1 n (7-56)
aA,
This general method is known as the Ritz procedure. 1
The most common way to include variational parameters is to express
the trial field as a linear combination of functions
(7-57)
Since the labor of the calculations increases a.pproximately as the squa.re
oí the number of terms in Eq. (7-57), it is desirable to keep n small.
However 1 it is also necessary that sorne choice of the Ai will give a
reasonably close approximation to the true .6.eld. When a complete set
of functions E; is used, the metbod may, in principle, lead to an exact
solution. It is also sometimes convenient to choose the E, asan orthog-
onal set.
For an example of the Ritz method, let us again consider the circular
cavity of Fig. 5-7 and trial .fields of the form
H = u4>(P + Ap2) V X H == Ua(2 + 3Ap) (7-58)
where .A is a variational parameter. Note that H satisfies no boundary

conditions on S¡ so we choose Eq. (7-46) as the stationary formula.
Substituting the trial field into Eq. (7-46), we obtain
Jo" (2 + 3.Ap)2p dp
w2 = -=---------
Eµ Jo" (p + Ap2)2p dp
15 8 + 16Aa + 9(Aa) 2
(7-59)
= a2Eµ 15 + 24Aa + 10(Aa) 2
'The method is also referred to as the "Rayleigh-Ritz procedure."
Note tha.t the approxima.tion of Eq. (7-49) is the specia.l case Aa = -%.
To determine A by the Ritz method, we set
éJw1
aA = O
and obtain 24 + 55Aa + 28(Aa) = O 2
This can be solved for Aa as
A = -55 ± v337 = { - 1.3100 (7-60)

ª 56 -0.6543
A substitution of t he second of these values into Eq. (7-59) gives
2.4087
w =-- (7-61)
a y;µ
which is smaller tba.n wbat the first of Eq. (7-60) gives. Hence, Eq.
(7-61) is the desired "best" approximation to the true resonant fre-
q uency [Eq. (7-47)]. The solution Aa = -1.31 gives ka= 7.191 1 which
is an approxima.tion to the next higher eigenvalue 5.520. If the trial
field has two variational parameters, we obtain approximations to the
lowest three eigenvalues, and so on. The Ritz procedure also gives us
an approximation to the true field, but it is difficult to esta.blish the
na.ture of tbe a.pproxima.tion.
7-7. The Reaction Concept. 1 A general procedure for establishing
stationary formulas can be obtained, using the concept of reaction as
defined in Sec. 3-8. T o reitera.te, the reaction of field a on source bis
(a,b) = f (Eº · dJ" - H 0

• dM") (7-62)
If a.U sources can be contained in a finite volume, the reciprocity t heorem

[Eq. (3-36)] is
(a,b) = (b,a) (7-63)
The linearity of the field equations is refiected in the identities
(a,b +e) = (a,b} + (a,c)
(7--64)
(Aa,b) = A(a,b) = (a,Ab)
where the notation Aa mea.ns the a field and source are multiplied by
the number A.
Ma.ny of the parameters of interest in electroroagnetic engineering are
proportional to reactions. For exa.mple, the impcda.nce pa.ra.meters of a
1 V. H. Rumsey, The Reaction Concept in Electroma.gnctio Thcory, Phya. Re11., ser.
2, vol. 94, no. 6, pp. 1483-1491, J une 16, 1954.

PERTURBATIONAL AND VARlATIONAL TECllNlQUES 341
multiport "network" are proportional to reactions, as shown by Eqs.
(3-41). Approximations to the desired reactions can be obtained by
assuming tria.l fields (or sources) to approximate the true fields (or
sources). It is then argued that the best approximation to a desired
reaction is that obtained by equating reactions between trial fields to
the corresponding reactions betwecn trial and true fields. To be specific,
suppose we want an approximation to the reaction (ca,Cb). (The symbol
e stands for "correct.") The approximation (a,b) is tben best if we
subject it to
(7-65)
because we ha.ve imposed all possible constraihts. Equation (7-66) can
be thought of as the statement that all trial sources look the sa.me to
themselves as to the correct sources.
The reaction (a,b) obtained from Eq. (7-65) is also stationary for small
variations of a and b about Ca and cb. This we can prove by letting
and sbowing that

a(a,b)
OPo
l
pa-pb-0 -
_ ¡ a(a,b)
apb
_0
'P•-Pb-0 -
(7-66)
Substituting for a and b into Eqs. (7-65), we ha.ve the three relationships
(a,b) = (co,cb) + Po(eo,C1>) + p,,(ca,e6) + PoP1>(ea,e1»
= (ca,Cb) + p,,(ca,eb)
= (co 1C11) + Pa(ea1C11)
Using thé la.st two equations in the first equation, we obtain
(a,b) = (Ca C11) - PaP6(ea,e6)
1
It is now evident that Eqs. (7-66) are satisfied, proving the stationary
character of (a,b).
We have a slightly clifferent case when the reaction concept is used to
determine resonant frequencies of cavities. The true field at resonance
is a source-free field ¡ so the reaction of any field with the true source is
zero. Hence, if we let a = b represent a trial field and associated source,
Eq. (7-65) reduces to
(a,a) = O (7-67)
We ca.u think of this as stating tbat the resonant frequencies a.re zeros
of the input impeda.nce.
To apply Eq. (7-67), we assume a trial field and determine its sources
from the field equations. For example, an a.ssumcd E field can be sup-
(e)
Fro. 7-9. Sources needed to support (a) a trial E field, (b) a tria.l H field, and (e) both a
trial E field and a tr ial H field.
ported by the electric currents
J = -jwEE - .;._V X ür 1v X E) (7-68)

JW '
However1 if the trial field does not satisfy n X E = O on 8 1 we need the
additional magnetic surface currents
M, = n X E onS (7-69)
to support the discontinuity in E at S. This is illustrated by Fig. 7-9a.
We now substitute from Eqs. (7-68) and (7-69) into Eq. (7-67) and obtain
O = (a,a) = fJf J · E dr + 1f M. · V X E) ds
= -jw fff c:E ·E dr + fff E· V X (µ.-IV X E) dr
- 1f (n X E) · (µ.- 1V X E) ds
If n X E = O on S, this reduces directly to Eq. (7-36). If n X O

on S, the above equation reduces to Eq. (7-45) .
If a stationary formula. in terms of the H field is desired, we consider
the trial field to be supported by the sources
M = -jwµ}I - J:_. V X (E- 1V X H)

JW (7-70)
M, = n X (!-
JWE
V X H) on S
as represented by Fig. 7-9b. Application of Eq. (7-67) now lea.da to Eq.

(7-46), orto Eq. (7-37) ü M, = O.
Stationá.ry formulas in term.s of both E and H are also possíble. This
time we consider both electric and magnetic currents, as shown in Fig.
7-9c. They are found from the trial fields according to
J = -jwEE +V X H
M = -jwµ.H - V X E (7-71)
M, = n X E on S
PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONA.L TECHNIQUES 343
Equation (7-67) then gives
O= fff (E • J - H · M ) dr - iffo H · M , ds
= fff (-jwtE + E · H + H · E + jwµ.H2) d-r
2
V X V X
-cffiExH · ds
which can be rearranged to
w = J
.fff (E · V X H +H ·V X E) dr - 1fa E X H • ds
(7-72)
JJJ (µ. H 2
- eE'-) dr
This is sometí mes ca.lled a u mixed-field,, stationary formula. The minus

sign in the denomina.tor might seem strange, but it is easily shown that
E a.nd 11 are 90º out of phase in the loss-free case (see Sec. 8-4). Hence,
the denomina.tor is twice the stored energy in the ca.vity.
Finally, if the trial fields ha.ve discontinuities in n X E or n X H over
surfaces within the cavity, we must add the a.ppropriate surface currents
to support the discontinuities. This proccdure leads to additional sur-
face integra.Is in the stationary formulas, as shown in Proba. 7-27 and
7-28.
Earlier we showed tha.t reactions constrained according to Eq. (7-65)
were sta.tionary. But in the a.hove cavity formulas we calculated w by
forcing the rcaction to vanish. We shall now prove tbat the w so deter-
mined is stationary about the true resonant frequency. In the usual
manner, we let the trial field be the true field plus a para.meter times an
error field, represented by
a=c+pe
For .fixed e the reaction (a,a) is a function of both w a.nd p. Equation
(7-67) constrains (a,a) to vanish; hence, as w and pare viuied, we have
éJ(a,a) 1 8w + éJ(a,a) p = O
éJw ,.. • .,. éJp ., ...,
p-0 p-0
The second term of this equation vanishes beca.use (a,a) is stationary

about p = O. The coefficient of the first term is not in general zero; so
ow = o
Thus, the first variation of w vanishes, and all formulas for w derived
from Eq. (7-67) are stationary.
The reaction concept also provides us with an alternative way of
viewing the Ritz procedure for improving the trial field or source. We
assume the tria! field or source to be a linear combina.tion of functions,

represented by
a= Uu + Vv + ··· (7-73)
where U, V, ... are numbers to be determined. According to the
reaction concept, all trial fields should look the same to themselves as
to the true source; hence we should enforce the conditions
(a,u) = (c,u)
(a,v) = (c,v) (7-74)
Substituting from Eq. (7-73), we obtain the set of equations

U(u,u) + V(v,u) + ··· = (c,u)
U(u,v) + V(v,v) + ··· = (c,v) (7-75)
which can be solved for the parameters U, V, . . . The solution so

obtained is identical to that obtained by the Ritz procedure.
To illustrate, let us reconsider the example of Sec. 7-6, wbich was the
Ritz procedure applied to the circular ca.vity (Fig. 5-7). Our trial field
was Eq. (7-58); so for the same approximation by the reaction concept
we choose
(7-76)
The sources oí these fields, according to Eq. (7-70), are
2·
M" = M ," = -2.
WE
M" = - u. ( jwµ.p2 + M .
., _ 3ja
-
WE
(7-77)
Calculating t he various reactions according to Eq. (7-62), we obtain
(u,u) = 211'da 2 ( jwµ.

a2
4 + jwE2)
(u,v) = (v,u) = 211'da 3 ( jwµ.
a2
5
2)
+ jwE (7-78)
(v,v) = 2?rda4 ( jwµ.

a2 9 )
+ jwE4
6
All reactions with the correct source are zero, beca.use the true field is
source-free. Hence, (c,u) = (c,v) = O and Eqs. (7-75) reduce to
U(u,u) + V(v,u) = O
U(u,v) + V(v,v) =O
These equa.tions can ha.ve a Jl.Ontrivia.l solut ion only if the determina.nt
of the coefficients of U a.nd V va.nishes. Hence,
(u,u)(v,v) - (u,v) 2 =O (7-79)
is the equa.tion from which w is to be found. The solution of Eq. (7-79),
with the reactions of Eqs. (7-78), yields Eq. (7-61).
7-8. Stationary Formulas for Waveguides. At cutoff, a. wa.veguide is
a two-dimensiona.l resona.tor; so we should expect sta.tiona.ry formulas
for the cutoff frequencies to be of tbe sa.me forro as those for tbe resonant
frequencies of cavities. We must, of course, be careful in applying t he
reciprocity t beorem, beca.use tbe sources of our trial fields are not of
finite extent. However, if we ta.ke a slice of t he waveguide, as was done
in Sec. 7-4, surface integra.la over the top and bottom just cancel a.t
resonance. The height of the slice is common to a.11 terms and t herefore
cancels. Starting from Eq. (7-67), we arrive at stationary formulas dif-
fering from our ca.vity formulas only in that volume integra.la are replaced
by surface integra.is and surface integra.Is by line integra.Is. Hence, t he
E-field formula. corresponding to Eq. (7-45) is
ff J.C
1
(V X E) 2 ds +2 [(µ- 1V X E) X E)· n dl
Wc
2
= JJ eE 2 ds
(7.-80)
where n is t he outward-pointing unit vector normal to the waveguide

walls. The H-field formula corresponding to Eq. (7-46) is
fJ
c 1 (V X H )2ds
jf
w2- ::....=------ - (7-81)
ª - µH2 ds
a.nd the mixed-field formula corresponding to E q. (7-72) is
"'º
.ff (E · V X H +H ·V X E) ds - E X H · n dl
= J
JJ(µll 2
- eE 2) ds
(7-82)
None of the above formulas require boundary conditions on the trial

fields. Corrections for discontinuous tria.l fields can be made as out-
lined in the preceding section.
As an example, consider the partia.lly filled rectangular waveguide of
Fig. 4-Sa. In Sec. 4-6 we obtained a transcendental equation for the
cutoff frequency [Eq. (4-51)]. For a. variationa.l solution, let us use Eq.
and a tria.l field
. 11'%
E = U11 81Il-
a
346 TlME-IIARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
which is the empty-guide field. The result is'
(7-83)
Note that this is an explicit formula. for w. 1 in contrast to the exact equa-
tion, wbich is transcendental. Ta.ble 7-2 compares the a.hove result with
the exact solution for the case Ei = 2.45Eo and E2 = Eo. We should expect
the a.pproxima.tion to become worse as Ei/Et becomes larger, since the
field tben tends to concentra.te more in the dielectric.
TABLE 7-2. RATIO O!' WAVEOUIDE WlDTH TO CUTOJl'F WAVELENGTB FOB TBE
RECTANOULÁll w A.VEGUIDE WITB DIELECTRIO SLA.B
("Exact" valucs rcad from curves by Frank)
d/a af>.c (exact) a/>... (approximate)
o 0.500 0 .500
0.167 0 .485 0 .486
0 .286 0 .450 0 .453
·o .5oo 0 .375 0 .383
0 .600 0 .350 0 .352
1 .000 0 .319 0 .319
A knowledge of the cutoff frequency of a waveguide homogeneous in

E and µ.is sufficient to determine the propagation constant a.t a.ny otber
frequcncy a.ccording to Eq. (7-26). If the guide is inhomogeneously
filled, as for example the above-treated rectangular waveguide with
dielectric slab, there is no simple relationsbip betwcen tbe cutoiI frc-
quency and the propagation constant. We therefore ha.ve need of sta-
tionary formulas Cor propagation constants.
In ali of the previous examples, the field equations were given by an
operator which was self-adjoint with respect to the desired integration. 2
For inhomogeneously filled wa.veguides, the field equations lead to an
opera.tor which is not self-adjoint. Hence, an a.ppropriate adjoint opera-
tor must be found and the derivatfon of the stationary formulas suitably
modificd. It turna out tha.t the opera.tor for waves tra.veling in the -z
direction is the adjoint of the operator Cor waves traveHng in the +z
direction, and the deriva.tion proceeds as follows.
Define +z traveling waves as
E+ = E+(x,y)e- iP• = (E, + u.2.)e-;6•
(7-84)
H + = :8+(x,y)e-i6• = (H 1 + uJl.)e-i6•
1 A. D. Berk, Va.ria.tional Principies for Electromagnetic Rceonators a.nd Wave-
guides, !RE Trans., vol. AP-4, no. 2, pp. 104-110, April, 1956.
1 B. Friedman, "Principies and Techniques oí Applied Mathematics," John Wiley
Sons, Inc., New York, 1956, p. 44,

PERTURBA.TIONAL AND VARIA.TIONAL TECHNIQUES 347
Subsiituting these into the field equations, we obtain
V X E+ +
jwµ'Ít.+ = jf)u. X E+
V X 'Ít.+ - jwEE+ = jf)u. X H+
Using analogous definitions for -z traveling waves, we find
V X E-+ jwµ.'Ít.- = -j{Ju. X E-
V X H- - jwtE- = -jpu. X H-
By direct substitution, it can be shown that for any +z traveling wave
solution there exists a - z t raveling wave solution given by
E- = E-(x,y)e;p. = (E, -
(7-85)
H - = H -(x,y)eiP• = (- :A:, + u.B.)eiP•
where the E,, 1!,, S., and D. of Eqs. (7-84) and (7-85) are the same
functions.
Now multiply the first of the +z wave equations scala.rly by íi-, and
the second of the -z wave equations by E+, and add thc two resultant
equations. This gives
H:- . V X t + + E+ . V x ·:8:- + jwµ.'Ít.- . ít+ - . E-
= - 2j{JE, X Ílt . u.
which, when i ntegrated over the guide cross section and rearranged, yields
JJ (wEE+ • t- - wµH + . a- + jH- . V X E+ + j E+. V X :A:-) ds
=
2 ff E, X íI, · u. ds
(7-86)
This is a mixed-field formula, stationary if n x E = O on C.
For the E-field formulation, elimina.te Íi from the +z and -z wave
equations, and proceed as in the dcrivatiou of Eq. (7-86). The resultant
formula is
fj 2 ff µ.- Ei'1· ds -
1
j2{3 ff µ.- 1E, · V E. ds
+ JJ [µ.- 1(v X E +) · (V X E-) - • E-J ds = O (7-87)
st.a.tionary if n x E = Oon C. The H-field formula. is given by Eq. (7-87)

with E, µ., E replaced by µ, E, H , and it is stationary with no boundary
conditions on H . Equations (7-86) and (7-87) rema.in stationary in the
lossy case, for which jf) should be replaced by 'Y = a + jf).
For an example of the calculation of propagation constants, consider
the centered dielectric slab in a rectangular waveguide, as shown in the
insert of Fig. 7-10. As a tria! field, take
"" . -n
.r.. = nvsm
a
1.6
Yf -J di+-
1.4
SE[
t---a-J X
d/ a = 1.0
- = - -0.5
f = 2.45 f-0 0.3
Exact - -
Approximate ----
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

a/ >.. 0
Fto. 7-10. Comparison of approximate and exact propagation constants for tbe
rectangular wavcguide with centered diclcctrio elab, E = 2.<i5e0 • (Aftt r Btrk. )
and use Eq. (7-87). The result is 1

fJ =
-ko [1 + -E-Eo- Eo(d
-a + -}sin .--
'lf'd ) - (-
a
1f' koa
1f' (7-88)
The exact solution is given in Prob. 4-19 and requires the solutioo of a
transcendental equa.tion. A comparison of a va.lues obtained from Eq.
(7-88) with the exact values for (3/ ko is shown in Fig. 7-10 for the case
E = 2.45Eo.
7-9. Stationary Formulas for Impedance. A formula for impeda.nce
in terms of reaction is given by Eq. (3-41). Such a formula, when con-
strained according to Eq. (7-65) 1 is a stationary formula for impeda.nce.
Figure 7-11 representa a perfectly conducting antenna excited by a
current source. The resultant current on the antenna will distribute
itself so tha.t tangential components of the total electric field vanish on
the conductor. The antenna termina.Is are close together; so the reaction
of any field with the current source is of the form - VI. If a trial-current
distribution J." is assumed on the antenna1 the formula. for input i mped-
ance [Eq. (3-41)) is
(a,a)
Z in = - -[ -
2 -1 <jf> Eª · J •ª ds
= - J2 (7-89)
1
Berk, op. e#.
P ERTURBA.TIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNIQUES 349
where 1 is the input current. The impedance as calcu-
lated by Eq. (7-89) is stationary about the true current,
as we shall now show. On the antenna surface, the tan-
gential components of the true field Eª are zero except at
the input; hence
(c,a) = - Ve! = - J 2Z1D = (a,a)
Also, (c,a) = (a,c) by reciprocity; so the constraints of

Eq. (7-65) have been met, and Eq. (7-89) is a stationary
formula.
Equation (7-89) was used to calculate impedance be-
fore its stationary character was noticed. 1 This method
should not be confused with the irui:uced emf method Fxo. 7-11. An
antenna excited
(7-90) by a current
source.
which is based on tbe conservation of complex power.
Equation (7-90) is not stationary unless both the true current and the
tria! current are real. When the trial current is assumed real, we get
the same answer from Eqs. (7-89) a.nd (7-90). Hence, the input imped-
ances for waveguide feeds calculated in Seo. 4-10 are also variational
solutions to the same problems.
If we have two sets of input terminals, as, for example, in the case of
the two linear antennas shown in Fig. 7-12, the variational formula for
mutual impedance is
(7-91)
where lo. and [¡,are the input currents at terminals a and b, respectively.
The demonstration that the coostraints of Eq. (7-65) are met is similar
to that for self-impedance. Note that Eq. (7-91) involves the assump-
tion of currents due to both sources, since E0 is the field of J.ª. The
extension to N sets of termina.Is is straightforward.
The calculation of mutual impedance is usually simpler than the calcu-
lation of self-impedance because the source and fi.eld points are separated.
Let us therefore take a mutual-impedance problem as our first example.
Consider the parallel linear antennas of length X/2 as shown in the insert
of Fig. 7-12. No appreciable error will be incurred by assuming the cur-
rents as filamentary, as long as the antenna diameters are small compared
to wavelength and compared to antenna separation. Let the z axis lle
1 P. S. Carter, Ciicuit Relations in Radiating Systems and Applications to Antenna
Problema. Proc. !RE, vol. 20, no. 6, pp. 1004-1041, J une, 1932.
-40'----""----'----'----'--- --'------'
Fio. 7-12. Mutual impedance Z.6 = Ra6 + jX•• between parallel X/ 2 linea.r antenna.s in
free epa.ce.
a.long antenna a, and assume

/o - J 21rZ 27rZ
- º cos T J" - J,,cos - (7-92)
>.
Our formula for mutual impeda.nce [Eq. (7-91)] becomes, in this case,
1
Za,,= - J l E. f'> dz
f)./4 0
o I> - >./4
By the usual vcctor-potential method we ha.ve
+ k2) A,
2
E,0 = .}__ ( : 0
}Wt vil 2
f
where, at antenna b,
1 >./ 4 e-i"'v'd•+(z-a')•
A º =- J 0 (z') dz'
• 4ir ->./4 V d 2 + (z - z') 2
Substituting for E." and J" in our cxpression for Z®, we obtain
f 1
z,.,, =
f ""°" cos
>./ 4 >./4 27rZ 27rZ
- dz dz' cos G(z,z') (7-93)
- >./4 ->.¡4 (\ (\
1 ( a2
where G(zz')
1 = -- - 2
hjwE OZ
+ k ) ye-ikv'd•+c%-r>•
2
d + (z - z')2 2
(7-94)
PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNIQUF.S 351
The integrations of Eq. (7-93) can be expressed in terms of sine integrals
and cosine integrals. The deta.ils of t he integration can be found in the
literatura. 1 Letting
we obtain Cor the result
Ro1i = ¿_ {2 Ci(kd) - Ci[V(kd) 2 + ""2 + ""2) - Ci[V(kd) 2 + ""2 - T JI

2
xab = ""irr.,, {2Si(kd) - Si[V(kd) 2 +7rt+11"2] - Si[V(kd)2 + "" 2 - 2

"" ]}
(7-95)
where Ci(x) and Si(x) are as defincd in Prob. 2-44. Figure 7-12 shows a
plot of Eqs. (7-95). The mutual impcdance between linear antennas of
other lengths and orientations can be found in the literature.1 •2
The evaluation of the self-impedance of a linear antenna is more diffi-
cult beca.use of the singular integra.nds encountered. Let us use this
problem to illustra.te the use of a.djusta.ble pa.rameters in the trial cur-
rent. The geometry of the center-íed linear antenna. is shown in the
insert of Fig. 7-13. Let the current on the a.ntenna be represented by
two functions, according to Eq. (7-73). Our trial current is then a sur-
face current of the form
J. = U] ." + V]." (7-96)
\Vbere U a.nd V a.re adjustable para.meters. According to the reaction
concept, tbe trial functions should look the same to the assumed current
as to the true current; hence we enforce tbe cooditions
(a,u) = U('u,u) + V(v,u) = (c,u)
(a,v) = U(u,v) + V(v,v) = (c,v)
where (c,u) a.nd (c,v) can be calculated, as we shall later show. Solving
for U a.nd V, we ha.ve in matrix nota.tion
[Vu] = [<u,u) (v,u> J- l [<c,u>]

(u,v) (v,v) (c,v)
(7-97)
Substituting for U and V into Eq. (7-96) a.nd calculating the self-reaction,
we obtain
1
( a,a) = ((c,u) ( c,v)] [ (
(u,u)) ((v,u)]-
) [ (<c,u)]
) (7-98)
u,v v,v c,v
1 P. S. Ca.rter, Circuit Rela.tíons in Radiating Systems and Applicatíons to Antenna
Problema, Proc. !RE, vol. 20, no. 6, pp. 1004-1041, June, 1932.
1 G. Brown and R. King, High Frequency Modela in Antenna Investíga.tions, Proc.
IRE, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 457-480, April, 1934.

5000
z
...____
...____
T
L .z=O L/a = 22,000
l.
4000
..¡
U'I 3000
E
.e
o
.5
i:i:;
2000
"
I ..--L/ a = 1800
1000
J \\\\
j - \' L/ a = 150
7
V V
o
(a)
2400
í
1600
/ L/ a = 22,000
I
800
// 1\ l
11> r- - L/ a = 1800 //V
.e
E
o ¿:,, \ ¿ Y'
o
.s
- 800
/
[7_.0 í7
//
L/ a = 150\
-- v¡ V
/
__.,...-f-:;¿"
/,
-1600
l V
/
J
-2400 /
V
o 2 4 6 8 10 12
kL
(b)
Flo. 7-13. Variational solution for tbe input impedance of the symmetrical cylindrical
a.ntenna. (After Y. Y . Hu.) (a) Input resistance; (b) input reactance.
PERTURBATIONAL AND VARIATIONAL T ECHNIQUES 353
Equations (7-97) and (7-98) also apply to the case of N adjustable con-
stants if the various matrices are extended to N rows and/ or columns.
Expanding Eq. (7-98) 1 using the reciprocity condition (u1v) = (v1u)1 we
obtain
(a a) = (c1 u) 2(v1v) - 2(c1 u)(c1v)(u1v) (c,v) 2(u,u) +
1
(u1u)(v1v) - (u1v) 2
Now note that n X Eª = O on the antenna surface except at the feed; so
(c,x) = - V1nl"'
for any x1 where V1a is the input volta.ge and J"' is the x current a.t the
input. Using the above two relationships in Eq. (7-89), we obtain
z. = z 2 J.,2(u1u) - 21.. I.,(u,v) + I ..2(v,v)
'" In (u1v) 2 - (u1u)(v1v)
which can be rearranged to read
z _ (u1 v} 2 - (u,u)(v1v)
(7-99)
In - J.,2 (u,u) - 21.,1.,(u,v) + I ..2(v1v)
wbere I .. a.nd l . are the valucs of the u and v tria! currents at the input.
Let us now look at the forro of the reactions. The currents will be
rotationally symmetric z-directed surface currents on the cylinder p = a,
where a is the antenna radius. These currents can be expressed as
1
J•"' = -
211"a
[z(z) U
•
(7-100)
where ["' is the total current and x = u, v. By the potential integral

method we can calculate the field of thc current J."' as
E."'= -8 12 •
11" 'JW f
( k2 éJ 2 )
+-aZ2
f L/2
- L/2
dz' Ío2r dq/J,"'G
O
(7-101)
e-;ky P'+a1 -2pa oos (ct>-ct>')+C•-1'>'

(7-102)
where G=
v p2 +a 2
- 2pa cos ( - ') + (z - z') 1
The various reactions of Eq. (7-99) are then given by
12 2
(x1y) = JL
-L/2
dz f " ad</> E."' Ja'11
}o
(7-103)
wbere E,= is given by Eq. (7-101) with p = a. Note the singular nature
of the Green's function [Eq. (7-102)] a.t p = a.
A precise evaluation of Eq. (7-103) would be diflicult; so tbe following
a.pprox.imation is usually used. The field of the current is approximated
by the field of a filamentary currcnt of the same magnitude. This is
354 T I ME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
equivalent to replacing Eq. (7-102) for p = a by

e-ikva•+<•-•'>•
(} = --;:==::==:==::::;:::; (7-104)
ya2 + (z - z') 2
For thin antennas, the error introduced by Eq. (7-104) is negligible, as
can be shown by the following argument. The .field of the filament of
current is a source-free field in the region externa! to the linear antenna.
We can therefore assume that this field exists and calculate the equiv-
alent currents on the surface of the antenna. As long as the equivalent
magnetic currents are negligible, as they will be for thin antennas, we can
take the equivalent electric currents for our tria! currents. The resultant
current is essentially that of Eq. (7-100). Using the above approxi-
mation for G, we obtain from Eq. (7-103)
(x,y) = JL/Z dz JL/Zdz' ["'(z')/11(z) (k" + G (7-105)

4irJWE - L/ 2 -L/ 2 az'l.
where Gis given by Eq. (7- 104). Note that, to this approximation, the
self-reaction is equal to the mutual reaction between two identical anten-
nas fed in phase and separated by a distance a. Hence, Eqs. (7-95) with
d replaced by a give the first-order (one tria! function) variational solu-
tion for the input impedance of a A/2 linear antenna. In particular,
note that for very small a = d, Eqs. (7-95) reduce to
R10 = 73.1 (7-106)
as is evident from Fig. 7-12. Resonance (X = O) occurs for L slightly
less than X/ 2.
For trial funetions in the second-order solution,
Ju= - lzl)
(7-107)
[ " = 1 - cos k - lzl)
ha.ve been used in the literature. The evaluation of Eq. (7-105) for
(x,y) = (u,u), (u,v), and (v,v) is long and involved, and formulas in terms:
of sine integra.Is and cosine integrals have been given by Storer 1 and Hu. 2:
Numerical values of the input impedance are givcn in Fig. 7-13. The
antenna is said to be resonant when X is zero and kL ::::: n'll', n odd. It is
said to be antiresonant when X is zero and kL ::::: n1r, neven. Note that.
1
J . E. Storer, Va.ria.tional Solution to the Problem of the Symmetrica.l Cylindrical
Antenna, Crv.ft Lah. Rep. TR 101, Cambridge, Mass., 1952.
t Y. Y. Hu, Be.ck-scattering Cross Sections of a Center-loa.ded Cylindrica.l Antenna.
IRE Tran11., vol AP-6, no. 1, pp. 140-148, Janua.ry, 1958.
in the vicinity of resona.nce, R is in- E o=: E'+ E•
sensitive to antenna thickness. It
is in these regio ns that the analysis
of Sec. 2-10 gives good results. Both
t
so urce
trial currents of Eqs. (7-107) are zero

at the input for kL = 41r. Hence, Frn. 7-14. Wa.ve scattering by an ob-
theinputimpedance calculated there- sta.cle.
from cannot be valid in the vicinity
of kL = 4'lr. Perhaps a better choice for the v current would be
Jv = - lzl
which is finite at z = O for ali L > O. However, calculations have not
been made for this choice.
7-10. Stationary Formulas for Scattering. Let us first treat the back-
scattering, or radar echo, type of problem by the variational method.
The problem is represented by Fig. 7-14. It consists of a source and one
or more obstacles, and we wish to determine the field scattered back to
the source. For simplicity, the obstacle will be considered a perfect con-
ductor and the source a current element Il. The more general case of
dielectric obstacles is considered in Sec. 7-11.
Let the incident field, that is, the free-space field of the source alone,
be denoted by E'. The total field E with the obstacle present is then the
sum of the incident field E' plus the scattered field E•. The reaction of
the scattered field on the current element is
(s,i) = IlE1• = - IY. (7-108)
wbere V• is the scattered voltage appearing across l. Let the echo be
defined as the ratio of Ei• to Il. Then, using reciprocity, we ha.ve
Ez• (s,i) (i,s)
Echo = 7f = (Il)2 = (Il) 2
= effa E' · J. ds (7-109)
where J. is the current induced on the perfectly conducting obstacle.

The boundary condition at the obstacle is n X E = O, or
n X E' = - n X E • on S (7-110)
Hence, Eq. (7-109) can be written as
-1 ,.{{.. (c,c)
Echo = (Il) 2 'ir E• · J. ds = - (Il) 2 (7-111)
where (c,c) stands for the self-reaction of the "correct" currents induced
on the obstacle by the source.
For a stationary formula, we assume a current ]" on S and a.pproximate

(c,c) by (a,a), subject to the constraint
(a,a) = (c,a) = - (i,a) (7-112)
The last equality results from Eq. (7-110). To express this constraint in
a forro for which (a,a) is insensitive to the amplitude of Jº, we take
(i,a)'
(a,a) = -(
a,a)
and, replacing (c,c) by (a,a) in Eq. (7-111), we ha.ve
_ -(i,a)2 _ (1fa E' · Jº ds)2 (7-113)

Echo - (Il) 2(a,a) -
(Il) 1fa E"· ]ª ds
2
where E" is the field produced by the assuroed currents Jº. This is the
va.ria.tional formulation of the problem. Note the clase similarity of the
echo problero to tbe impedance problem of the preceding section. The
impedance problem is essentia.lly an echo problem for which the source is
at the obsta.ele. A more general formulation of the echo problem can be
roa.de by replacing ll with an arbitrary source.
The tensor Green's functions of Sec. 3-10 can be used to put Eq. (7-113)
into a more descriptive forro. Define [r(r,r')] as the tensor of propor-
tionality between a current eleroent dJ0 at r' and the field dE0 tha.t it
produces at r, that is,
dE0 (r) = [r(r,r')] dJ0 (r')
Then Eq. (7-113) can be written as
Echo
- [il 1fa E'(r) · J0 (r) ds
_..,..,- ....-.,,=-------- =---
r
1fa ds 1fa ds' ] "(r) · [r(r,r')] Jº(r')
This equation is in a form characteristic of variational solutions in general.
A commonly ca.lcula.ted pa.rameter is the echo a.rea, defined by Eq.
(3-30). For linearly polarized fields, t he echo area is given by
(7-114)
If, in Fig. 7-14, we let Il be z-directed and loca.ted on the x axis, and then
let r = x co, we ha.ve, in the vicinity of the obsta.ele,
E' = u, i'flll eib = u,Eoeit:

2>.r
PERTURBATIONA.L A.ND VA.B.IATIONAL TECB NIQU:ES 357
2.0
.2'
!E'
1.5 H'
-i
m ¡+20
(\ L/ o = 150
i\:
1.0
(\
0.5
\ ... ............... -
o 2
J
)J
4 6
-
8
/
'
,) L/ a
1
10
- 22,000
e:
1
12
1L
Fio. 7-15. Broadside echo area A . of a wire. (Afú-r Y . Y. H u.)
Also, by definition, we have echo = E.•/ ll¡ hence írom Eq. (7-113)
r¡E 0 ( <jp u 1 • J eihi d s)
0
1
E,• =
j2Xr 1/> E'" • J• da
Therefore, by Eq. (7-114), our sta tionary formula for echo a.rea. is
A. 11
= .,. -
({fo J. ei" ds)" 0
1
(7-115)
:\ 1fi Eº • Jº da
whe n the incident ple.ne wave is z-pola.rized a.nd - x traveling.
A13 a.n example, consider t he scattering of a pla ne wa.ve by a thin con-
ducting wire, as represented by t he insert of F ig. 7-15. The integral in
the denomina.ter of E q. (7-115) is just t he self-reaction of t he assu.med cur-
rent on the wire. T hiB is t be same type of reaction that we encou ntered
in t he linear-antenna problem, approximated by Eq. (7-105). Defining
A as t he self-reaction, we ha.ve
A = ,.{{..E• · J• ds ...
'JY 41rJWE
f 2
L/ dz !L
- L/2
12
- L / 'J
dz' J•(z)J•(z') (k2 + éJz1 G
(7-116)
358 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAONETIC FIELDS
where Gis given by Eq. (7-104). For the current on the wire we should
expect a consta.nt current "forced" by the incident field plus a" natural-
mode 11 sinusoidal curren t . At tbe encls of the wire, the current should
be practically zero ¡ hence we assume for our trial current
L
I 0 = cos kz - cos k - (7-117)
2
Equation (7-116) can t hen be evaluated as
Re (A) = -¡: [(kL + kL cos k L - 2 sin kL ) Si (kL )

+ log 2-ykL - Ci (2kL) - sin 2 (kL)]
(7-118)
I m (A) = : { (kL + kL cos kL - -2sin kL) [ Ci (kL) + log
+ Si (2kL ) - (1 + cos kL) sin kL }
where 'Y = 1.781. The integral in the numerator of Eq. (7-115) evalu-
ates to
f L/ Z
-L/2
l 0 (z) dz =!
k
(2sin kL2 - kL cos kL)
2
= !!_
k
(7-119)
which defines B. Hence, the echo a.rea is
(7-120)
with A and B given by Eqs. (7-118) and (7-119). T his solution gives
good accuracy out to about kL = 8. Figure .7- 15 shows a plot of A./ "A. 2
for the second-order solution (two trial functions), as calculatcd by
Y. Y. Hu. 1 The results for plane waves incident at an arbitrary angle
are given by Tai. 2 He also shows the effect of choosing cliffcrent trial
functions.
In two-dimensional problems, the quantity echo width Lo corresponds
to the echo area of the three-dimensiona.1 problems. The echo width is
defined as t be width of incident wavc which carries sufficient power to
produce, by cylindrically omnidircctional radiation, the same back-
scattered power density. In equation form, the echo width is
L. = lim
,,.......
(21rp S' (7-121)
1 Y. Y. Hu, Bo.ck-sca.ttering Cross Section of a Ccnter-loaded Cylindrico.1 Antenna,

I RE Trans., vol. AP-6, no. 1, pp. 14.0-148, January, 1958.
•C. T . Ta i, Electromagnetic Ba.ck-sca.ttering from Cylindrice.l Wires, J. Appl. Pht¡.,
vol. 23, no. 8, pp. 909-916, August, 1952.
or, for linear polarization,
Le = ( 27rp (7-122)
where superscripts s and i stand for

"scattered 11 and "incident,11 respec-
tively. Going through a develop-
ment similar to tbat used for Eq.
(7-115), except that a line source is
used, we obtain o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
( J.. J ei'" dl) 2 2 Fxo. 7-16. Echo widtb L. of a conduct-

L. = ..!.. 'f • (7-123)
2
>.
11
f E, J. dl
0 0
ing ribbon of width a..
if the incident field is z-polarized and -x traveling. Similarly,
1r <f J"ªeikz dl r 2
(7-124)
L.= 2>. 11
f E•i. Jª dl
if the incident field is y-polarized and -x traveling. From symmetry,
]
4
in Eq. (7-124) should have no z component. In both Eqs. (7-123)
and (7-124), it is assumed tha.t the scatterers are cylinders generated by
elements parallel to t he z axis and the line integrals are in a transverse
(z = consta.nt) plane.
For an example of a two-dimensional problem1 consider a z-polarized
plane wave normally incident on a conducting ribbon of width a. This is
illustrated by the insert of Fig. 7-16. Assume that the current induced
on the ribbon is unüorm, that is,
= 1 (7-1 25)
Beca.use the current is real, the integral in the denominator of Eq. (7-123)
is
f
o/ 2
- o/ 2
E •0 J •º dy =
¡ o/ 2 . 0 0
E J
- o/ 2 • 1
* dy = - P
wbere Pis t he complex power per unit length supplied by J,0 • But we
have already analyzed the ribbon of uniform current in Sec. 4-12, the
result being
2
P = II 2IZ = a 2 Y•.,..t
where Y..P••t is plotted in Fig. 4-22. Th e echo width, according to Eq.

Receiver
/
Fic. 7-17. Differential

sca.ttering.
Transmitter
(7-126)
A plot of this is shown in Fig. 7-16. For large a we can use Eq. (4-107)
and obtain
2
L ---+2rra (7-127)
G/).-+co T
which is also the physical optics approximation (see Fig. 3-21).
The more general case of differential scattering, or transmission, 1 is
represented by Fig. 7-17. The problem consists of a transmitter, which
illuminates the obstacle, anda receiver at which we wish to evaluate the
scattered signal. F or simplicity, let us consider both the source and
receiver to be unit electric currents. Then, according to Eq. (3-39), the
voltage across t he receiving current dueto the transmitting current is
Vr = - (t,r)ob1taelo proaent (7-128)
where t and r refer to the source or field of the transmitter and receiver,
respectively. The total signal received is the superposition of the inci-
dent field, due to the transmitter alone, plus t he scattered field, due to
the eurrents e on the obstacle. Hence,
(7-129)
where (t,r) is calculated with the obstacle absent and (c,r) involves the
free-space field of the currents on the obstacle. The t ransmitter and
receiver currents are assumed to be known (they are current elements in
our simplified case); so Vr' can, in principie, be calculated exactly. Our
problem is to obtain the variational formula for v..•.
We shall here consider only the simple case of a perfectly conducting
obstacle, t he general case being considered in Sec. 7-11. Applying reci-
1 A tra.nsmission problem involves the eva.lua.tion of the total field a.t tbe receiver,
while a. sca.ttering problem involves the eva.lua.tion of only the sca.ttered field.
PERTURBATIONAL AND VABIATIONAL TECHNIQUES 361
procity, we have, for the sca.ttered voltage at the receiver,
- Vr• = (c,r) = (r,c) = 1J> (E ')r • (J. 0
)
1
da (7-130)
where (J. 0 ) 1 is the surface current induced on the obsta.ele by the trans-
mitter and (E')' is the field of the recciver current calcula.ted with the
obstacle absent (the incident field). Our boundary conditions on the
various true fields are n X E = O a.t the obstacle boundary; hence
n X (E ')• = -n X (E •)r
(7-131)
n X (E i)I = -n X (E•) 1
where superscripts i and s refer to incident and sca.ttered components,
and t and r refer to transmitter and receiver sources. Hence, by Eqs.
(7-130) and (7-131), we have
Vr• = 1J> (E•)r • (J.0) 1 ds = (c,,-c1) (7-132)
where (cr,c,) stands for the reaction between the field of the "correct"
currents induced on the obstacle by the receiver and the "correct" cur-
rents induced by tbe tra.nsmitter. For our sta.tiona.ry formula, we
approximate (cr,c1) by (a,,a,), where the a's denote assumed currcnts on
the obstacle, a.nd constrain the latter according to Eq. (7-65), which is
(ar,a1) = (er,a1) = (ar,c,) (7-133)
In the language of the reaction concept, Eq. (7-133) says tha.t the assumed
currents look the same to ea.ch other as to tbeir respective true currents.
By Eqs. (7-131) and reciprocity, Eqs. (7-133) become
(a,,a,) = (c,,a,) = - (r,a,)
(7-134)
(a,.,a,) = (a,,c,) = (c,,a,) = - (t,ar)
Substituting from Eqs. (7-134) into Eq. (7-132), we have for our vari-
ational formu la
V , • -_ (a,, a) = (r,a,)(t,a,)
l (
a,,a,
)
_ [1J> (E')' · (J. 0 1

) ds] [ 1J> (E')' · (J.4)' ds]
(7-135)
- 1f> (Eº)' · (J.º)' ds
where (Eº)' is the field dueto the assumed currents (J.º)', which a.pproxi-
mate the currents induced by the receiver. Note tha.t Eq. (7-135)
involves the assumption of currents on the obsta.ele due to sources a.t
both the transmitter and receiver. Note also that Eq. (7-135) reduces
to the formul a. for back-scattering [Eq. (7-113)} when the tra.nsmitter
and receiver coincide.
7-11. Sc.attering by Dielectric Obstacles. 1 The problem of differential

sca.ttering by a dielectric obsta.ele is represented by Fig. 7-17 if the
obsta.ele is now considered as a dielectric body. We sha.11 assume it to
be nonma.gnetic (µ = µo), but it may be lossy if E is complex. The
extension to magnetic obsta.eles is given in Prob. 7-42.
When the obsta.ele is exeited by a. source, there will be induced in it
polarization eurrents given by
Jº = jw(E - Eo)E = KE = K(E' + E•) (7-136)
Superscripts t or r will be added to the various quantities to indica.te tha.t

the exeiting source is at the transmitter or receiver, respectively. Tbe
trcatment of differential seattering of the preeeding section made no
assumptions about the nature of tbe obsta.ele in the derivation of Eq.
(7-130); hence for unit eurrents a.t t and r
- V,• = (r,c) = JJJ (E')r · (J 0 1

) dr (7-137)
where the notation is the same as in the preceding section. Using the
relationship E' = E - E• and Eq. (7-136), we can rewrite Eq. (7-137) as
- v.· = JI J c 1
(Jº)'. Uº> ' dr - JIJ <E·>·. Oº>' dr
= F(c,,c,) - (c.1c,) (7-138)
which defines the functional F. Note that F is symmetrical in e, and

e, and is actually the reaction between E' and (Jº)' with the obsta.ele
present.
To obtain a stationary formula for the sea.ttered voltage at the receiver,
we approximate the true currents e by tria.l currents a and set
- V,• F(a,,a,) - (a,,a,) = G(a,,a,) (7-139)
subject to constraints oí the form of Eq. (7-65) applied to G. Such eon-
straints are
G(a,,a,) = G(c. 1a,) = G(a,,c,) (7-140)
and we find
G(c,,a,) = (r,a,) = JJJ (E')•• (] 0 1
) dr
(7-141)
G(a,,c,) = (t,a,) = j j j (E')' · (J0
)• dr
Combining the preceding equations to render V,• insensitive to the ampli-

1 M. H . Cohen, Application of the Rea.ction Concept to Scattering Problema, !RE
Trana., vol. AP-3, no. 4, pp. 193-199, October, 1955.
tudes of tbe trial functions, we have the variational formula
_V,• = (r,a,)(t,a,)
F (a,, a,) - (a,,a,)
[/JJ (E')r • 0 °) dr] [//J (E') (J
1 1
•
0
)' dr]
(7-142)
= JJJ ic (J (J dr - JJJ (Eº)' · (J
1 0
)' •
0
)
1 0
)
1
dr
For the lossy case, K = jwE + <T. For a perfectly conducting obstacle,
co; hence ic- 1 -+ O and Eq. (7-142) reduces to Eq. (7-135).
Wben the transmitter and recei ver are represented by the same source,
we ha.ve the back-scattering problem. Using the definition of Eq. (7-109)
for echo, wben the source is a unit currcnt, we ha.ve
Echo = - V,• = ((i,a)/l)2

l2 F (a,a) - (a,a)
fff E' . Jº dr y (7-143)
The echo a.rea, defined by Eq. (7-114), can be obtained from Eq. (7-143)
by letting the source recede to infinity. The steps parallel those used to
obtain Eq. (7-115). For a z-polarized, - x traveling incident wave, we
obtain
(7-144)
In two-dimensional problema, the echo width, defined by Eq. (7-122), is

found to be
7r
L, = 2>. (7-145)
if the incident wave is -x traveling and z-polarized, and
(7-146)
if the incident wave is -x traveling a.nd y-polarized. 'file surfa.ce inte-

grals in Eqs. (7-145) a.nd (7-146) are over the cross section of the obataole
in a z = constant plane.
364 TIME-BARlliONlC ELECTROlliAGNETIC FIELDS
To illustra.te the accuracy that we might expect from the variationru

formulas, let us consider a problem for which the exact solution is avail-
able, the circular dielectric cylinder. The incident wave is z-polarized,
a.nd the cylindcr is defined by p = a = Xo/ 2, as shown in the insert of
Fig. 7-18. For our first approxima.tion, let us take
Jº == u,efb (7-147)
where k = w the wa.ve number of the dielectric. This very crude

assumption yields curve (b) of Fig. For a better approximation,
which yields curve (e) of Fig. 7-18, take
(7-148)
where A is a va.riational para.meter to be determined either by the Ritz

procedure or by the rea.ction concept. While Eq. (7-148) is a better
approximation than Eq. (7-147), it is still crude. The integra.tions
occurring in thc va.rious reactions were accomplished by exprcssing the
exponentia.ls and Hankel functions as Dessel function series, according to
Sec. 5-8. The resulting series converged fairly rapidly.
An alternativo procedure for treating dielectric obstacles can be given
0.00012
0.00008
........
o
1.00 1.04 1.08 1.12 1.16 1.20 1.24 1.28
«/ fo
Fto. 7-18. Scattering by a dielectric cylinder (a) exact solution, (b) first-order va.ria-
tional solution, and (e) second-order va.riational solution. (A/úr Cohm.)
PERTURBATI ONAL AND V ARIATI ONAL TECHNIQUES 365
in terms of equivalent currents over the surface of the obstacle. 1 T his
method leads to more than one formula. for the desired pa.rameter, and
Rumsey discusses how to choose the best approximation a.ccording to
the rea.ction concept.
7-12. Transmission through Apertures. T he problem of t ransmission
through apertures in an infinitely t hin, perfectly conducting plane is
closely rela.ted to the problem of scattering by plano obsta.eles. The pre-
cise interrelationship is shown by the following extension of Babinet's
principle for optics.
Consider the three cases of a given source (a) radiating in free space,
(b) ra.diating in the presence of an electrically conducting screen, aod (e)
ra.diating in the presence of a magnetically conducting acreen, as shown
in Fig. 7-19. The electric and magnetic screens are sa.id to be comple-
mentary if the two screens superimposed cover the entire y = O plane
with no overlapping. (The aperture of one is identical to the obstacle
of the other.) Let the fields y > O be designated (E',H'), (E•,H •), and
(E"',Hm) for the cases (a), (b), a.nd (e), respectively. T hen Babinet's
principle for complementary screens states tha.t
H • + Hm = H ' (7-149)
proved as. follows. Let S, be the screen surface of Fig. 7-19b, a.nd So be
the a.perture surface of Fig. 7-19b. The total field in ea.ch case is the
incident field E' plus the scattered field E• produced by the currents on
the acreen. An element of electric current produces no components of
H ta.ngential to any ple.ne containing the element (see Sec. 2-9). The
currents induced on the acreen thus produce no tangential H over t he
y = O ple.ne; hence
n X H• = n X Hi over So
On t he screen itself we ha.ve the boundary condition
n X E•= 0 over S.
For the complementary magnetic screen, following similar reasoning,
we find
n X E 111 = n X E i over S,
n X Hm = O over So
By the above four cquat ions, the sum E•+ Em, H• + H "' satisfies
n X (E• + Em) = n X E' over S,
n X (H• + H 111) = n X H i over So
1 V. H. Rumsey, The R-eaction Concept in Electroma.gnetic Tbeory, Ph71a. Rev.,
2 ser., vol. 94, no. 6, pp. 1485-1491, J une 15, 1954,
366 TIME-RABMONIC E LECTROl\1AGNETl C FIELDS
Hence, the e + m field has the same n X E as the incident field over part
of the y = O pla.ne and t he same n X H over the rest of the y = O plane.
These conditions a.re sufficient t o determine E, H in the region y > O
according to the uniqueness theorem (Sec. 3-3) ; so Babinet's principie
[Eq. (7-149)] follows.
An alternative statement of Babinet's principle can be given in terms
of the dual problem to Fig. 7-19c, shown in Fig. 7-19d. If the original
source is replaced by ita dual U repla.ced by K ), the magnetic screen
replaced by an electric screen, a.nd the medium replaced by its "recipro-
ca.l" ('7 by 1/ ,.,) 1 then E will be numerically equal to - H "' and H numeri-
cally equal to Em (see Table 3-2). If the field of this dual problem is
1
1 Electric conductor S,
1
1 E', H1 'lo
1
1
1
t Souroe 1
1
t Source
1
,so
1
1
1
1
1
y=O y,:0
{a) {b)
Is, 1s.
1 1
1 1
1 Em, Hm, '10
1
t Source
¡
So
Magnetic conductor * Dual source
So
Electric conductor
1 1
¡s. Is,
1-+.n
1 1
y= O y=O
(e) (el)
Fio. 7-19. Illustration of Babinet's principie.
Electric conductor
Magnetlc conductor 1
\lt- "lt lr;tf
Transmitter Receiver Transmitter Receiver
(a) (b)
F10. 7-20. The transmitt.ed field E 1 of (a) is equa.l to the sca.ttered field E• of (b).
denoted by Ed, Hd, Babinet's principie [Eq. (7-149)] becomes

(7-150)
The problem of Fig. 7-19d is more easily approximated physically than is

the problem of Fig. 7-19c.
The direct application of Babinet's principle to the problema of Fig.
7-ZOa and b shows that the field transmitted by an aperture in a plane-
conducting screen is equal to the negative of the :field scattered by the
complementary obstacle. Hence, stationary formulas for,.the signal at
a receiver on the shadow side of a screen are of the same forro as the
stationary formulas for the scattered signa! at a receiver in the comple-
mentary problem. I n Fig. 7-20b, let the sources at the transmitter and
receiver be magnetic currents a.cross the "terminals" 1, and lr. Then,
dual to Eq. (7-135), we have at the receiver
[ff (H i)r · (M ,0) 1 ds ] [f f (H ')'. (M.4 ) ' ds]

H• · lr = - (7-151)
fJ(H ª)r • (M. 4 1
) ds
where M ,ª denotes the assumed magnetic current on the obsta.ele. It

approximates the true magnetic current
M. = (E+ - E-) X n = 2E• X n (7-152)
where E+ and E- denote E in the regions y > O and y <O, respectively,

and n = u 11• The interrelationships between Fig. 7-20a and b can be
expressed as
H' = - H• E'= - E•
368 TIME-BARMONIC ELEOTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
Hence, from Eq. (7-151), we obtain for the aperture problem
H' · 1 -
[JJ(H i)r . (n X Eº)' ds] [J
·
J(H ')' • (n X E )r ds J 0
(7-153)
r- JJ (H )r • (n X E
0 0) 1 ds
where E0 is an assumed field in the aperture a.nd Hª is the magnetic field
calcula.ted from the Eª. The sources of H ' a.re magnetic current elements
a.cross 11 a.nd lr, and, to apply Eq. (7-153), we must assume a.n n X E in
the aperture due to (H') 1 a.lone a.nd due to (H ')r alone. If 1, and lr are
images of ea.ch other, as they appear in Fig. 7-20, then t he a.perture
problem becomes the same asan echo problem, beca.use of the symmetry
of the plane screens about y = O.
Sometimes it is the total power tra nsmitted through the apertura that
is of interest. We define the tran.smission coefficient T of an aperture
as the ratio of the power transmitted through an aperture to tha power
incident on the aperture, that is,
T =
ff E X H * · ds
Re 1 1
<91
Re f f E ' X H'* · ds
aper\ (7-154)
= <P,
apert
Note that T depends on both the nature of the source and the geometry
of the aperture. Another qua.ntity soxnetimes defined is the transmission
area, which is the transmission coefficient times the a.rea of the aperture.
We shall explicitly consider uniform plane waves normally incident on
an aperture in a pla.ne screen, as shown in Fig. 7-21a. Let the incident
Electric conductor Complete electric

conductor
tncident
plane wave
y=O y =O
(a) (b)
FIG. 7-21. {a) Transmission through an aperture, a.nd (b) equivalent problem for the
region y> O.
PERTURBATI ONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNIQUES 369
wave be specified by
H' = ue-ik11 (7-155)
where u is any unit vector orthogonal to In the proof of Babinet's
principle, we noted that in tbe aperture
n X H ' = n X H' (7-156}
beca.use tbe currents on the conducting screen produce no tangential
components of Hin the y = O plane. Equation (7-155) chooses H' to be
real in the y = O plane; so by Eq. (7-156) n X H ' is real in the aperture.
Hence,
<$'1 = Re ff E
apert
1
X H 1 * · ds = Re ff E' X H' · ds
apcrt
(7-157)
Now consider the problem of Fig. 7-2lb, which for

M , = E1 X n (7-158)
is equivalent to Fig. 7-2 l a in the region y > O. Hence, in t he equivalent
problem,
c'P, = - Re JJ M, · H' · ds = Re (c,c) (7-159)
where (c,c) is the self-reaction of the correct magnetic currents radiating

in the presence of an electric conductor covering the entire y = O plane.
For a variational formulation, we approximate (c,c) by (a,a) and con-
strain (a,a) according to Eqs. (7-65), that is,
(c,c) (a,a) = (c,a) = (a,c)
where all sources radiate in t be presence of the conducting plane. We
have (a,c) = (c,a) by reciprocity, and (c,a) can be calculated beca.use we
know n X H • = n X H '. Hence, our stationary formula for (c,c) is
(e e)
(c,a)i
- - = -
(/ H ' · M,
_ _ __
J 0
ds)
2
(7-160)
' (a,a) JJ
H 0 • M , 0 ds
where H 0 is the field of t he assumed current M ,0 • For the incident field

of Eq. (7-155), we have the power incident on the aperture given by
<$', = 11A (7-161)
where A is t he a.rea of the aperture. Hence, combining Eqs. (7-154) to
(7-161), we ha.ve
T = __!_ Re
11A
[(fffJu·n X E ds
0
Hº • n X Eº ds
)2] (7-162)
370 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTRO?.iAGNETIC FIELDS
2.0 wbere Eª is the assumed ta.ngentia.l

1
1.5
\ Eit al
1
>-----
electric field in t he aperture a.nd H 0 is
the ma.gnetic fi.eld ca.lcula.ted from Eº
by the mcthods of Sec. 3-6.
t.. 1.0
Exact 1 As a.n example, let us consider the
Variationat two-dimensional problem of trans-
0.5 mission through a slot, as shown in
the insert of Fig. 7-22. If we assume
E0 in tbe slot to be real, then
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
a/J.. E 0 X H 0 * = {Eº X H 0 )*
Flo. 7-22. Transmission coefficient for and the denominator of Eq. (7-162)
a. slotted conductor, incideo.t wa.ve is
pola.rized transverso to slot axis. (After
Miles.) ff H ª • n X Eª ds =
(Jf E 0
X H 0 * · ds) •
In Sec. 4-11 we defined the a.dmittance of an aperture as
Yapu& = ; 12
1
JI E X H * • ds
and calculated it for a slot for particular assumed E's. Hence, applying
Eq. (7-162) to a unit length of our two-dimensional slot, we ha.ve
T = _!_ Re [ ( Ju . E 0
X dl Y] (7-163)
1Vl Y:"""
1
11a
where a is the width of the slot. Wben the incident wa.ve is polarized
transverse to t he slot, we have the case of Fig. 4-22; hence we take
(7-164)
in the slot. Now Eq. (7-163) reduces to
T = _!_
11a
Re(+
Y •.,."
) (7-165)
where Y •.,.,, = Ga + jBª is sbown in Fig. 4-22. From Eqs. (4-106) we

have for small a
?rt
T log ka <7- 166)
and from Eqs. (4-107) we ha.ve for large a
T-+1 (7-167)
.ta-t ..
PERTURBATIONAL AND VA.RIATIONAL TECHNIQUES 371
This last result is t he geometrical optics approximation. The variational
solution is compared to the exact solution, which can be obtained by
solving the wave equation in elliptic coordinates1 (Fig. 7-22). The case
of aplane wave atan arbitrary angle of incidence is considered by Miles. 2
If the incident wave is polarized para.lle! to t he axis of the slot, we have
the case of Fig. 4-23; so to make use of the analysis of Sec. 4-11 we would
assume
7rX
Eª = cos - (7-168)
a
in the slot. Equation (7-163) then reduces to
T = 4a2
Re ( - 1 ) (7-169)
1r T/ Y:port
where Yaport = Ga + jBa is shown in Fig. 4-23. From Eqs. (4-115) , we
have for small a
T 6.85 (7-170)
For large a we should expect the field in the aperture to be uniform.

Hence, we should not expect t he trial field of Eq. (7-168) to give good
results for large a, say a > X. Equation (7-169) actually approaches
0.81 for large a, instead of t he expected value l.
PROBLEMS
7-1. Suppose the cavities oí Fig. 7-1 contain lossy material cha.racterized by "• E,
and µ. Show tha.t the perturbational formula. corresponding to Eq. (7-3) is
j<ff H X Eo· ds
ti. S
"'º =
w -
!!f
- - - - - - --
[EE · Eo - µH • Ho) dr
-
Note that both w and w 0 must be complex. A complex resonance in the low-loss case
can be interpreted according to
where "'' is the real resonant frequency :and Q is the qua.lity factor (see Seo. 8-14).
7-2. Consider the perturbation oí a. cavity (say Fig. 7-la) from one having per-
fectly conducting walls to one ha.ving a. wall impedance Z, defined by
nXE-=ZHc
1 Morse a.nd Rubenstein, The Diffraction of Waves by Ribbons and Slits, Phys. Rev.,
vol. 54, no. 11 , pp. 895-898, December, 1938.
t J. W. Miles, On the Diffraction of a.n Electromagnetic Wave through a. Plane
Screen, J. Appl. Phy., vol. 20, no. 8, pp. 760- 770, August, 1949.
at the walls. Show that the exact perturbational formula is
-j cffi ZH • H o ds
w - wo - fff (eE • E o - µH • H o) ck
where the subscrip t O denotes unper turbed quantities. Note that wo is real but w is
complex if z has a. real pa.r t.
7-3. Use the results of Prob. 7-2 and the approxima.tions
E = Eo"" IEol H ... Ho - i lHol
to show that
"' _ "'º ... j 1f> z lHol' ds

JJJ (elEol 1
+ µj H ol') dr
Use t he relationships
z- <R + j'J:.
and show that the perturbational formula gives
1f> XIHol' da "'º JIJ µIHol 1

dr
Q ...
# <RIHol
w, - wo ...
2 fff µI H ol' dT 1
ds
Note that the formula. for Q is identica.l to the one tha.t we ha.ve been using if
<R - Re (11), where 11 is the intrinsic irnpedancc of the conducting wo.lls.
7-4. Use the resulta of Prob. 7-3, and show that the fractiona.l chango in resonance
d ue to metal walls is
___ ..,
w, - "'º
wo
1
-2Q
where wo is the rcsonant frequency o{ the co.vity witb perfectly conducting walls.
7- fi. Suppose the ca.vities of Fig. 7-2 aro characterized by rr and <T + l:..<T in addition
to E, µ and e + t:..e>, µ + t:..µ. Show that the perturbational formula. corresponding to
Eq. (7-10) is thcn
w -wo
- --=
ffJ[(t:..t - jA<T/w)E · Eo - t:..µH • Ho] ck
JJJ [(e - ju/w)E · E o - µH • H o) dr
Both "'º and w are cornplex if <T and rr +

Au are not idcntically zero.
7-6. Use the result of Prob. 7-5 Cor thc case <T = O, and let E ... Eo - IEol,
H "'" Ho "'" ilHol, w ... C11r + jwo/2Q, to show that
JJJ e!Eol dT
wo 1
!JJ
Q =-=-':"'-:--- - -
t:..rr!Eol' dT
a.nd t hat Eq. (7-11) still applies witb w cbaoged to w,.

7-7. Suppose that a sma.ll sa.mple of lossy dielectric is introduced into a cavity
whose unper turbed resonant frequency is wo. Show that
e' - to wo - w,
- - ... 2Q - - -
•" "'•
where l - e' - je" is the complex permittivity of the sa.mple and "'' is the perturbed
resonant frequency. lf the losses of the unperturbed cavity are significant, then
1 1 1
Q Q. - Qo
where Q. and Q0 are the Q's of the cavity with and without thc sample, respectively.
7-S. Conaider a rectangular cavity with a 8mall centered dielectric cylinder, as
shown in Fig. 7-23a. Show that the change in the resonant frequency of the domi-
nant. mode due to the introduction of the dielectric is
2A (1 -t,)
"'º be
where A is the cross-sectional a.rea of the cylinder. Use a quasi-static approximation.
Area A
(a)
Fto. 7-23. Rectangular oavity with (a) dielectrio cylinder and (b) dielcctrio sphere.
7-9. Consider thc rectangular cavity with a sma.11 centered diolectric sphere, as
shown in Fig. 7-23b. Show that the change in the resonant frequcncy o{ the domi-
__ ,,,.
nant mode due to 'the intro<luction of the dielectric is
w - wo
"'
where d is the diameter of the sphere. Use a. qua.si-ata.tic approxima.tion.
7-10. Consider the circular wa.veguide of Fig. 5-2. Suppose tho wall is slightly
fla.tteoed at the point = 90º. Show that thc chango in cutoff frequency for t.he
:-polarized (E in the ccnter points in the x direction) dominant mode is
6
"'• ,.. -0.418 _A
"'• 11'a'
where A is the cross-sectional a.rea of the deforma.tion and "'• - 1.841/a v;; is t be
unporturbed cutoff frequency. For tbe y-polarized dominant rnode,
áw. ,,,. 1.42 _A
"'• 11'at
Hence, tbe mode degeneracy has beco removed.

374 TIME-HARMONI C ELECTROMAGNETIC FI ELDS
7-11. Figure 7-24a shows a sma.11 centered dielectric cylinder in a rectangular

waveguide. Show tbat the cha.nge in cutoff írequency of the dominant mode from
that for the empty guide is
where "'• = 7r/ b v;;. Use a perturbati.onal method and a quasi-sta.tic approximation.
,. b .., ,.
T
a
0
T a
1 -1 dl--
l -fdf--
(a) (b)
F10. 7-24. Rectangular waveguide with {a) dielectric cylinder and (b) conducting
ridges.
7-12. Consider the rectangular waveguide with small semicircular ridges, as shown
in Fig. 7-240. Use a perturbational method and a quasi-static approximation to show
that the dominant-mode cutoff frequency differs from the T E01 rectangular guide
cutoff, according to
where "'• = r / b v;;. Show that the next higher mode (b 5 2a) cutoff frequency
differs from the T E02 rectangular guide cutoff, according to
where "'• = 21r/ b v;;. Hence, the mode sepa.ration is increased.

7-13. Consider the rectangular waveguide with the bottom covered by a thin
dielectrio slab (Fig. 4-6 with d 5 a). Use a perturbational method and quasi-sta.tic
approximation to show that the phase constant is
k1 2 k12 d
fJ $::l {Jo
ft
+ ;;
-
2fJo a
where fJo - kt V
1 - (f./f)I is the empty-guide phAse oonstant. Note that this is
the same as the first term of an expansion of the cxact charaoteristio equation, os
given in Prob. 4-14.
7-14. Consider the rectangular waveguide with a centered dielectrio cylinder, as
shown in Fig. 7-24a. Use a perturbational method and quasi-static approximation to
show that
fJ - fJo rd1 fy - 1 1
- - --:= = ===
2ab E, + 1 y l - ("'./"')'
- - $::$ -
ko
where "'• can be taken as the cutoff frequency of the perturbed guide, given in Prob
PERTURBA.TIONAL AND VARIATIONAL TECHNIQUES 375
7-11, if w is close to w.. Show that at the unperturbed TE01 outoff frequency
fJ .., ko • /,rd1 e, 1+
'\/ 4ab e, - 1
7-15. Suppose that a waveguide is filled with lossy material, and consider a pertur-
bation of ita perfeotly conducting walls. Represent the unperturbed fields (subscript
O) and the perturbed fields (no subscript) by
Eo - t oe-Y..
H o "'" ftoe-,.••
Note the opposite directions of propagation. Show that the formula corrcsponding
to Eq. (7-29) is
,+. t o X ft · n dl
'f' e.e
'Y - 'YO =
JJ S'
<!o X ft - ! X fto) · u, ds
Show tbat this reduces to Eq. (7-29) in the loss-free case.

7-16. Consider the pcrturbation oí material in a lossy waveguide from e, µ., " to
e + 6e, µ + 6µ, " + &T. Represent the fields as in Prob. 7-15, and show that tbe
formula corresponding to Eq. (7-30) is
'Y - 'YO a
.ff
-1
[(w 6e - j óo'}t · to - w óµÍi • ftoJ ds
JJ X :A: - t X Ho) · u, d8
Show that this reduces to Eq. (7-30) in the loss-free case.

7-17. Use the results oí Prob. 7-16, and Jet the unperturbed guido be los.s-free.
Denote the propagation constant oí the perturbed guide by -y- a + j{J, e.nd lct
E ""' E: and H <>< - H!. Show that the resultant approximation for fJ is Eq. (7-33)
and
ª ... ¡¡ A<1 12.1· d8

2 Re ff t 0 X :H: · u, d8
Note that this is an approximate form of Eq. (2-76).
7-18. Consider the perturbation of the walls of a waveguide from o. perfect con-
ductor to an impcdance sheet Z sucb that
nXE -ZH
Represent the unperturbed and perturbed fields as in Prob. 7-15, and show that
=
f 'LH·Hodl
'Y - 'YO
!J (t o X :A: - t X Ho) · u, d8
7-19. Use the resulte of Prob. 7-18 and lct the unperturbed guido be loss-free,
80 that "'fo - ;fJo. In the perturbed guide, let Z = <R + jX, 'Y = a + j{J, E E:,
376 TIME-H.ARMONIC E LECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
H =- a.nd show tha.t

f OC!b ol
- --=---=------- -
1
dl
fJ - fJo ...
2 Re ff t a: ·
0 X u. ds
a ..,
f <Rlhol 2
dl
2 Re ff !o ft: ·u.
X ds
If Z ... "' the intrinsic impeda.nce of metal walls, t.he above formula for a is t.he
a.pproxima.tion tha.t we ha.ve been using to calcula.te a.ttenua.tion in metal wnveguides.
7-20. Show tha.t
is a stationary formula for the resonant frequency of a loss-free eavity, provided

n X E "" O on S, but is not stationary if losses are present.
7-21. Sho\v that Eq. (7-46) is a stationary formula for w. 2, with no boundary con-
ditions required on H.
7-22. Consider tbe rectangular cavity (Fig. 2-19) and the stationa.ry formula (Eq.
(7-44)). Use a. tria.l field
E .,. u.,yz(y - b)(z - e)
and show that Eq. (7-44) gives
w, .., yl10
be
'1b' +1µ
e•
In the exact solution [Eq. (2-95)), the numerical factor is 7r instead of VIO.
7-23. Consider a small deformation of thc walls of a. cavity, sueh as represonted by
Fig. 7-1. Take the varia.tional formula (Eq. (7-45)), which requires no bounda.ry con-
ditions on E, a.nd take tbe unperturbed cavity field E 0 as a trial ficld. Show that
fff (µIII ol' - 1IEol 2

) <k
"'"
Show that tbis formula is essentially the se.me as Eq. (7-4).

7-24. Figure 5-3lb shows a. partially filled circular cavity. Use EQ. (7-46) and a
trial field
to show tha.t the domina.nt mode resona.nce is
Wr .., 2.405 '11 -

d
(1 - .!)
1,
Compare with the resulta of Prob. 5-24.

PERTURDATIONAL AND VAB.IATIONAL TECHNIQUES 377
7-23. Consider a waveguide whose cross section is an equilateral triangle of side
length a. Use va.riationa.l formulas to approximate the lowest cutoff frequency. The
exact solution is
4:.-
"'º = 3av1;
- -,,=
7-26. Consider the rectangular cavity (Fig. 2-19) and the mixed-field variational
formula [Eq. (7-72)]. Choose a trial field
.-iry . 1rZ
E ...
H = .
U11A 1 Slll
1f"Y
b 'lrZ
COS C
+ Uzn.2 COS 'fí'Y
A
b Stn. 'lrt
C
where A1 and At are variational parameters. Determine A 1 and A1 by the Ritz

method, aod show that the resulta.nt formula. for w, is the exact formula. [Eq. (2-95)).
Why do we get an exact solution in this case?
7-27. In Fig. 7-25, the surface S represents a perfect electric conductor enclosing a
cavity. A variational solution is dcsired in terms of a trial field satisfying o X E = O
Fxo. 7-25. Tria! fields are discont.i¡iuous over s.
on S and o X (µ- 1V X E) continuous at s, but with o X E discontinuous at s. Show

tha.t the sta.tionary E-field formula is
fff; (V X E)' d-r +2 ff 1

(E 1 - E 2) X -µ. v X E · ds
w' -
fff E}JI dT
where subscripts 1 and 2 refer to regions l and 2 (Fig. 7-25). Show also that a varia,..
tional solution in terma of tria.l fields satisfying n X E = Oon S and n X E continuous
at s, but with n X (µ- 1 V X E) discontinuous at s, is given by Eq. (7-44).
7-28. Show that the variational H-field formula for Prob. 7-27 is of the same form
as the above E-field formula, given by replacing E by Fl, E byµ, and µby E. Show
that no bounda.ry conditiona at S a.re required in the H-field formula.
7-29. Considera perturbation of material in a. cavity, such as represented by Fig.
7-2. Ta.ke the mixed-field va.ria.tional formula [Eq. (7-72)), and ta.ke t he unperturbed
ca.vity field Eo, Flo as a trial field. Show that Eq. (7-72) then reduces to Eq. (7-11).
7-30. Repeat Prob. 7-26, using the rea.ction concept of Sec. 7-7.
7-31. Consider the partially filled rectangular waveguide of Fig. 4-Sa. Use the
E-field variational formula [Eq. (7-8)], a.nd the t rial field
. n
E = U11 Slll. -
a
378 T IME-BARMONIC ELECTROMAONETIC FIELDS
and show that
w. ""
- [1 +-
e1 - -e2 (ª
- - -1 em
. Zrd)
- J-¡.s
a Et a 2ir a
Compare eome calculated points with the exact solution (Fig. 4-9).
7-82. Use thc rcaction concept to derive the mixed-field variational formula for
waveguide phasc consta.nts
fJ = w JJ (µb
1
+ ds - j X :ti · n dl
2 JJ °! X :ti · u, d8
which corresponde to Eq. (7-85) if n X E - O on C. No boundary conditions are
required in tho above formula.
7-83. Consider the variational formula of Prob. 7-32 anda. pcrturbation of wa.ve-
guide walls, a-s illustrated by Fig. 7-5a and b. Use thc unperturbed field Eo, H 0 a.s a
trial field, and show tba.t the formula. of Prob. 7-32 reduces to Eq. (7-32).
7-34. Consider the variational formula. of Eq. (7-85) and a. perturbation of matter
in a waveguide, represented by Fig. 7-5a and c. Use the unperturbed field E o, H o as
a tria! field, and show that Eq. (7-85) reduces to Eq. (7-33).
7-35. Figure 7-26 shows a coaxial stub to parallcl-plate waveguide fced system.
Assu.me a « >. so that a rea.sonable tria! current is a uniform current. Show by the
va.riationa.l metbod that the impedancc seen by thc coax is
Z "" -4'1 ka ( l - 3.2

- log • - 4 -ykd)
11'
where "Y - 1.781.
matched a matched
load load
t
1-1
Fio. 7-26. Coax to pa.rallel-pla.te feed.
7-36. In P rob. 7-35, remove t he restriction on a and a.sswne a trial eurrent on the
stub
I "" cos k(a - i)
Obt ain the input impedance seen by the coax by the variational metbod.
7-87. Repeat Prob. 7-36 for the sccond-order va.riational solution, assuming trial
eurrents
¡ .. ... cos k(a - z) I• =1
Note tha.t only one new reaction is nccded in e.ddition to those obta.ined in Probs.
7-35 and 7-36. Specialize the result to a • >./4.
Considcr tho two-dimensional problem of plane-wave sce.ttcriog by a con-
ducting ribbon, shown in the insert of Fig. 7-16, but with the oppositc polarization.
'In otber words, H ' is parallel to tbe axis of the ribbon. Use the trial current
'ff'fj
J. = U11 COS-a
and show that the variational solution is
L, ... 32a'
- 1 1 1•
ir'>.. 11- Y •-.,.,,
where 11 Y •.,.,, is givon in Fig. 4-23. Show that as ka -. oo this answer reduces to
0.66 times the physical optics solution. Why should we expect tbe above formula
to be inaccurate for Largc ka?
7-39. Consider plane-wave scattering by a wire, represented by Fig. 7-15. At the
lirst resonance (L "" >../2), the current is
I• ""'cos kz
and we know that (see Fig. 2-24)
(a,a) .., 73
The imaginary part of (a,a) is zero beca.use the lengtb is adjusted for resona.nce.
Using Eq. (7-115), show tha.t at resonance the echo arca is
A. "" 0.86>..1
Tbis is relatively insensitive to the diameter of the wire.
7-40. Figure 7-27 represents a resona..n t length of wire illuminated by a uniform
plane wave at the angle B, polarized in the r-z plane. Using the a.pproxima.tions of
Prob. 7-39, show tba.t the back-scattering area is
cos 8 )] '
A, ,.. 0.86>..' [ sin 8
Again this is rela.tively insensitive to th e diameter of tbe wire.
z¡ r (to receiver)
l-01
L._8 r '(to transmltter)
1
TL
1
Fxa. 7-27. Scattering by a resonant wire (L ,.. "A/2).
7-41. Repea.t Prob. 7-40 for tbo ca.se of differential sca.ttering, showing that the
di.trerential echo a.rea is
A, ,.. 0.86>..1 [ ººª .

s111 8
cos
•
sin 8
,
where .A, is defined by Eq. (7-114) witb E• evaluated in tbe 81 direction.

380 TIME-HARMONIC ELl!:CTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
7-42. Consider difierential scattering by a magnetic obsta.ele (Fig. 7-17) and define
1c. = jw(t - to)
Show that, instead of Eq. (7-143), we ha.ve
((i,a)/l)l
E.ch o = F(a,a) - (a,a}
where (i,a)JJf (E'· Jº - H• · M d-r
= 0
)
F(a,a) - JJJ (J [K.-(M 1

dT 0
)
1
- Km -
1 0
)
1
]
(a,a} = JJJ (E •J - H • M )dr

0 0 0 0
In the above formulas, E', H ' is the incident field, J" and M 0 a.re the assumed electric
and magnetic pola.rization currents on the obsta.ele, and E H is the field from Jª, M 0
,
0 0
•
7-43. Figure 7-28a represents a metal antenna. cut from aplane conductor and fed
a.cross the slot ab. Figure 7-28b representa tbe aperture formed by the remainder of
the metal pla.ne left a.fter the metal ant enna. was cut. The aperture antenna, fed
'
' (a) (b)
Fxo. 7-28. (a) A sheet-metal antenna. and (b) its complementa.ry aperture antenna..
a.cross cd, is sa.id to be complementary to the metal a.ntenna.. Let Z.,. be the input
impedance oí the metal antenna and Y, be the input admittance to the slot antenna.,
and show that
H int: Consider line integra.is of E and H from a to b and e to d, and use duality.
7-44. Consider a narrow resonant slot of a.pproximate length X/2 in a conducting
screen. Show t hat the tra.nsmission coefficient is
T 0.52-
>.
w
where w is the width of the slot. Hint: Use the result of Prob. 7-43 a.nd assumptions
similar to tbose of Prob. 7-39.
CHAPTER 8
MICROWA VE NETWORKS
8 -1. Cylindrical W aveguides. Severa! y

special cases of the cylindrical waveguide,
such as the rectangular and circular guides,
already have been considered. We now wish
1
to give a general treatment of cylindrical
(cross section independent of z) waveguides
s X
consisting of a homogeneous isotropic dielec-

tric bounded by a perfect electric conductor. FIG. 8-1. Cross section of ª
cylindric.a l waveguide.
Figure 8-1 represents the cross section of one
such waveguide. Our formulation of the problem will be similar to that
given by Marcuvitz. 1
As shown in Sec. 3-12, general solutions for the field in a homogeneous
region can be constructed from solutions to the Helmholtz equation
V 21/I + k21/I = 0 (8-1)
In cylindrical coordinates, this equation can be partially separated by
taking
Y, = 'lt(x,y)Z(z) (8-2)
The resultant pair of equations are

v,2'11 + k, 2 '11 = o (8-3)
d2Z + k,2z = O (8-4)
dz 2
where t he separation constants k, and k, are related by

k.2 + k,2 = k2 (8-5)
and v, is tbe two-dimensional (transverse to z) del operator
(8-6)
1
N. Marcuvitz, " Waveguide Handbook," MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, vol.
10, sec. 1-2, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1951.
381
382 'l'IME-B..ARMONIC EI.ECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
Solutions to Eq. (8-4) are of the general forro

Z (z) = Ae-ik,• + Beik,• (8-7)
which, for k. real, is a superposition of +z and - z traveling waves. The
k. are determined from Eq. (8-5) after the k. (cutoff wave numbers) are
found by solving the boundary-value problem.
For TE modes, we take F = u.1/;• (superscript e denotes TE) and
determine
éJl/;• iJl/;•
E• = - u : -ay +u 11 -
ax = (u X V w•)Z•
• ' (8-8)
The component of E tangential to the waveguide boundary O is

E,• = 1· (u z x v ,w•) = (n · v ,w•)Z•
where 1 is the unit tangeot to O and nis the unit normal to C (see Fig. 8-1).
The boundary is perfectly conducting; hence Ei = O on C and
aw• = 0 on a (8-9)
an
The associated magnetic field is given by
a21/;.
H• = - -.1- V X E• = -.1- ( U:;-;;--+
JWµ.
éJ2ij¡•
JWµ.
u11 - ; -
v XvZ vy 8Z
+ u,kc2'{1•)
For more concise notation, we define a transverse jield vector as
H , = H - uJI. (8-10)
and rewrite the above as
H,• = J_ (v,w•) dZ• . H.• = w•Z• (8-11)
JWJJ. dz JWp.
It is evident from Eqs. (8-8) and (8-11) that lines of S and :re, are every-
where perpendicular to each other.
For TM modes, we take A = u ,iJ¡m (superscript m denotes T M) and,
dual to Eq. (8-8) , we determine
(8-12)
Defining the transverse electric field vector E, by Eq. (8-10) with H
replaced by E, we have, dual to Eq. (8-11),
(8-13)
From the second of these equations, it is evident that for E. to vanish on

a we must meet the boundary condition
'11"' = o on e (8-14)
MICROW AVE NETWORKS 383
provided kc O. Note t hat Eq. (8-14) also satisfies the condition
l · E, = O on C. When the waveguide cross section is multiply con-
nected, such as in coaxial lines, it is possible to have kc = O. In this case,
the necessary boundary condition is '11"' = constant on ea.ch conductor.
The corresponding field is TEM to z and is a tra.nsmission-line mode.
It should be kept in mind that Eq. (8-3) subject to bounda.ry conditions
is an eigenvalue problem, giving rise to a. djscrete set of modes. These
modes can be suitably ordered, a.nd the various equations of this section
then a.pply to each mode. It is convenient to introduce mode functions
e(x,y} and h(x,y), mode voltages V(z), and mode currenls I(z) according to
E•= e•V• Ei"' = e"'Vm
li"' = h m/m (8-15)
H,• = h•/•
Comparing Eqs. (8-15) with Eqs. (8-8) and (8-11), we see that we may
choose
e• = u, X V ,'IJr• = h• X u, V•= Z•
b• = - v ,i<• = u, x e• I• = _ _1 dZ• {8-16)
jwµ dz
for TE modes, and, compa.ring Eqs. (8-15) with Eqs. (8-12) and (8-13),
em = - V,'IJr"' = hm X u, Vm = - _!_ dZ"'

jwE dz (8-17)
h"' = - u, X V, i'"' = u, X e"' !"'..= Z"'
for TM modes. Furthermore, we normalize the mode vectors according
to
JJ (e•)! ds = JJ (h•) ds = 1 2
(8-18)
JJ (e"') ds = JJ (h"')2 ds = 1
2
where tbe integration extends over the guide cross section. Hence, a.U
amplitude factora are included in the V's and J's.
We sha.ll now show that all eigenvalues are real. Consider the two-
dimensional divergence theorem
JJ V 1• A ds = A • n dl
and let A = i<•v,i'. Then,

v, · A = v,i'* · v,i' + i<•vr,ti' = ¡v,i'j 2 - ko 2 l'111 2
and the divergence theorem becomes
ff (1Vci'l 2 -
2 2
kc li<l ) ds = f ir*!! dl
384 TIME-HARMONIC E LECTROMA.GNETIC FIELDS
But the boundary conditions on the eigenfunction '11 are either '11 = O or
aw j<Jn = O on C. Hence, the right-hand term vanishes and
k.% =
JJ ¡v,w¡ 2
ds
(8-19)
!J1'111 ds
2
The eigenvalue k. 2 is therefore positive real. There is also no loss oí

generality if we take all eigenfunctions '11 to be real. To justify this state-
ment, suppose '11 is not real, and let '11 = u + jv. Then the Helmholtz
equation is
V,2:\f! + k 2\f! = V,2U + k 2U + j(Vt2V + k 1V)
0 0 0 = Ü
which, since kc 2 is real, represents two Helmholtz equations far the real
functions u and v. The bounda.ry conditions, either
'1' = u + jv = o on e
or aw = au + 3. av = o on e
an an an
are satisfied independently by u and v; so u and v are solutions to the same
boundary-value problem. Hence, u and v for a particular ko can differ
only by a constant, and wis in phase over a guide cross section. We can
take it to be real and include any phase in the V and I functions.
Let us now look at the propagation constant 'Y = jk,. For E and µ
real, we ha.ve a cutoff wavelength
x. = 211'
k. (8-20)
and a cut off frequency
(8-21)
Then, from Eq. (8-5), we ha.ve the propagation constant given by
f >J.
(8-22)
J <fo
These are, of course, just the relationships t hat we previously established
for the rectangular and circular waveguides. Figure 2-18 illustrates the
behavior of a and {3 versus f. When the mode is propagating (f >f.),
the concepts of guide wavelength,
211' X
>-o = 7f = yl _ (f.//) 2 (8-23)
where X is t he intrinsic wavelengt h in the dielectric, and guide pha8e
velocity,
where v,, is the intrinsic phase velocity, are useful. T hese para.meters
a.re cliscussed in Sec. 2-7.
Turning now to tbe mode voltages and currents, we see from their
definitions [Eqs. (8-16) and (8-17)) that V and I satisfy Eq. (8-4).
Hence, in general they are of the form of Eq. (8-7), or
V(z) = V+e-'Y• + V-e'Y•
I(z) = J+e-r• + J-e"Y• (8-25)
where superscripts + and - denote positively and negatively traveling

(or attenuating) wave components. Also, from Eqs. (8-4), (8-16), and
(8-17) it is appa.rent that
v+ v-
-
¡+ = Zo -¡- = -Zo (8-26)
where the characteristic impedance Z o is, for TE modes,
l
wµ. TI
Zo• = jwµ. = 7i = v1- Cf./f) 2
f >J.
(8-27)
'Y jwµ. jwµ
f <f.
= k. vi - U/f.) 2
a.nd, for TM modes,
f >f.
(8-28)
f <f.
Note that these are just t he characteristic wa.ve impedances that we pre-
viously defined for rectangular and circular waveguides. Figure 4-3
illustrates the boha.vior of the Zo's versus frequency. Finally, from Eqs.
(8-4), (8-16), and (8-17), we can show that V and I also satisfy tbe trans-
miss-i0111-line equations
dV
dz = --yZol
(8-29)
dl
dz = --yYoV
where Yo = l/Zo is the characteristic admittance. Hence, the analogy
386 TlME-RARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
1
jOJµ.
jt»e k,,2/ jwp.

1
1
I· dz
(a)
·1
1
1
1
k;/jw1.
1
1
1
1----
I I
1
1 1
1 1
1 1
I· dz
(b)
·I
Fio. 8-2. Equivalent transmission lines for waveguide modes (series elemeots labeled
in ohms, sbunt elcments in mbos). (a) TE modes, (b) T M modes.
with transmission lines is complete, and all of the techniques for analyzing
transmission lines can be applied to each waveguide mode. 1
We may define an equivalent transmission line for each waveguide mode
88 one for which 'Y and Zo are the same as those of the waveguide mode.
Such an equivalent circuit may help us to v:isualize waveguide beha.vior
by presenting it in terms of the more familiar t ra.nsmission-line behavior.
For a dissipationless t ransmission line, we ha.ve
-y= yZY = j vXB

(see Sec. 2-6). Equa.ting the above Zo and 'Y to those of a TE waveguide
mode, we obta.in
. + -.kc-
2
jX = jwµ. J.B = JWE (8-30)
JWµ
Thus, the transmission line equivalent to a TE mode is as shown in Fig.
8-2a. Similarly, for a TM mode we obtain
J·x .
= JWµ. + -.-
k o2 jB = jwE (8-31)
JWE
1 For example, see Wilbur LePage and Samuel Seely, "General Network Ana.lysis,"
Chaps. 9 aod 10, McGraw-Hill Book Company, loe., New York, 1952.
The transmission line equivalent to a T M mode is therefore as shown in
Fig. 8-2b. If the dielectric is lossy, the equivalent transmission will also
ha.ve resistances, obtained by replacing jwE by " + jwE in Eqs. (8-30) a.nd
(8-31). I n the light of filter theory, we can recognize the equivalent
transmission lines as high-pass filters.
The powcr transmitted along tlie waveguide is, of course, obtained by
integrating the Poynting vector over t he guide cross section. Hence, for
the +z direction,
P• = ff E H * · u, ds V l * ff e
X = X h * · u. ds
= V l* ff e ds 2
VI *
= (8-32)
and the time-average power transmitted is

(VI*) (8-33)
Hence, in terms of the mode voltage and current, power is calcula.ted by
tho usual circuit-theory formulas.
It is also worthwhile to note that t he modc patterns, that is, pictures
of lines of S and :Je at sorne instant, can be obtained directly from the
'1r1s. For TE modes, H, is proportional to v ,'l!e, and E is perpendicular
to H,. Hence, lines of constant 'lf• are also lines of instantaneous 8 . Lines
of instaotaneous :re, are everywhere perpendicular to lines of instantane-
ous S. Similarly, for T M modes, lines of constant '1''" are also lines of
instantaneous :re, and linea of instantaneous 8, are everywhere per pendic-
ular to linea of instantaneous :Je. It is therefore quite easy to sketch the
mode patterns directly from the eigenfunctions '1'.
Recognizing that the general exposition of cylindrical waveguides has
been quite lengthy, let us summarize the resulta. Table 8-1 lists the
more important relationships that we have derived. Those equations
common t o both TE and T M modes are written centered in the table.
Keep in mind that all of the equations apply to each mode and that many
modes may exist simultaneously in any given waveguide.
Finally, for future reference, let us tabulate the normalized eigen-
functions for the special cases already treated. For the rectangular
waveguide of Fig. 2-16, we can pick the w's from Eqs. (4-19) and (4-21)
and normalize them according to Eq. (8-18). The result is
'1'mn' = :11" X) cos ( Y)

COS (
(8-34)
.T.'rmn"' 2 / ab . (m11" ) . (n11" )
= ; '\/ (mb)2 + (na)2 Slll a X 810 by
where m, n = O, 1, 2, . . . , (m = n = O excepted). Similarly, for the

TABLE 8-1. SUMMARY OF EQUATIONS FOR THE CYLINDBICAL WAVEGUIDE

(TEM MODES NOT lNCLUDED)
TE modes TM modes
Transverse Helmholtz equation v, 2'11 + kc '1' o

2 c:a
Boundary relations -a-Jt•

an
- o on e 'l'M ,.. o on e
e• - u, X v,'lt• e"' = -v,i'm

h• == -v,'1'• h"' = - u, X
Mode vectors
e =hXu.
h = u, X e
Normalization JJ 1
e ds = JJ 2
h ds ... 1
Propagation constant 'Y - jk. -

1j{J = jk V 1 - (Jc/f) 2 f >f.
ª = k• .../1 - <JJJ.> 2
f <f.
jwµ 1
Charactcristic Z and Y Zo• = - = - Zo"' - = -
jwf.
'Y
= -Yo1..
'Y Y o•
dV
-dz + yZol - O
Transmission-line equations
di
-+-rYoV ... O
dz
_,
V = V+e--r• + V - e-r•
Mode voltagc and currcnt 1
1 = - (V+e--r• - v - e-r•)
Zo
E, = eV
Transverso field H1 = hJ
kc2 k.2
Longitudinal field H,• = -. - ir•V• E,'" - -.-
JWµ JWE
z-directed power P, == VI*

MICROWAVE NETWORKS 389
circular waveguide of Fig. 5-2, we can pick the '1t 1s from Eqs. (5-23) and
(5-27) and normalize them. The result is
'1t • _ / tn sin ncf> }
np - - n 2] { cos n4>
(8-35)
'1tn,,m = g Jn(XnpP/a) { sin n4> }
\J1r Xn,. J n+i(Xn11) COS n,P
where n = O, 11 21 • • • 1 and p = 11 2, 3, . . . . The xn,. are given by
Table 5-2 1 and the are given by Table 5-3. Normalized eigenfunc-
tions for the parallel-plate guide are given in Prob. 8-1. Normalized
eigenfunctions for the coaxial and elliptic waveguides are given by
Marcuvitz.1
8-2. Modal Expansions in Waveguides. An arbitrary field inside a
section of waveguide can be expanded as a sum 'over all possible modes.
This concept was used in Sec. 4-4 for the special case of the rectangular
wa.veguide. We now wish to consider such expansions for cylindrical
waveguides in general. The equations in Sec. 8-1 apply to each mode.
Henceforth, to identüy a particular mode, we shall use the subscript i to
denote the mode number.
Let us first show t hat each mode vector e, is orthogonal to ali other
mode vectors. For this, we shall use the divergence theorem in two
dimensions,
ff V, · A ds = f A • n dl
Green's first identity in two dimensions,
ff (Vil/! · V,</>+ t/IV12cf>) ds = f 1/1 : : dl
and Green's second identity in two dimensions,
ff (l/IV,2 cj> - q,V, 21/1) ds = f ( 1/1 :: - cf> dl

First, consider two T E modes and form the product
e,•· e/ = h,• · h;' = V,'lt,c · V,'lt/
Letting i/¡ = 'lti' and cf> = 'lt/ in Green's first identity, we obta.in
JJ e;"· e/ ds = - JJ '11.''lt;' ds
Using the same substitution in Green's second identity, we have
[(k..•) 2 - JJ'1tl'1t;' ds = O
1 N. Ma.rcuvitz, "Wa.veguide Ha.ndbook," MIT Ra.dia.tion La.bora.tory Series, vol.
10, chap. 2, MoGra.w-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1951.
390 'l' IME-HARM:ONlC ELECTROMAGNETIC FlELDS
Hence, if kci• krf, the integral must vanish, and the preceding equation
becomes 1
JJ e;• · e/ ds = O (8-36)
A dual analysis applies to the TM modes, and we have
JJ er . er ds = o i j (8-37)
Finally, we must consider the TE-TM cross products

e,•· e¡"' = h.ª · h¡"' = - (u. X V,'11,•) • v, 'llt¡"'
If we let A = '111mu. X v ,'lltl in the divergence theorem, the contour
integral vanishes because of the boundary conditions, and we obtain
JI V1'1t;"' ·u, X v ,'llt;'ds =0
Comparing the preceding two equations, we see that
JJ e,• · e 1"' ds = O for all i, j (8-38)
The ortbogonality relationships [Eqs. (8-36) to (8-38)] also are valid for
the e 's replaced by the h's.
At any cross section along a cylindrical waveguide, the field can be
expressed as a summation over ali possible modes:
E, =l e,•v,• + e,"'V•"'
i
(8-39)
H, = l hl 'l1• + h,mJr
i
Because of the orthogonality of the mode vectors, we can determine the

mode voltages and/or mode currents at any cross section by multiplying
each side of Eqs. (8-39) by an arbitrary mode vector and integrating over
the guide cross section. N oting that the mode vectors are normalized,
we obtain
JJ E, · e,"' ds = y,,, (8-40)
JJ H e• h,,, ds = ¡,,,
where p = e or m. Since there are two independent constants in V and I
for each mode1 as shown by Eqs. (8-25) and (8-26) , we need two "cross-
1 A discrete spectrwn of eigenva.lues is assumed. However, orthogona.l sets of mode
functions for degenera.te cases can also be found.
MICROWA VE NE'l'WORKS 391
sectional " boundary conditions. These may be (1) matched waveguide
a.nd E , over one cross section 1 (2) matched wavcguide and H , over one
cross section 1 (3) E, over two cross sections1 (4) H , over two cross sections,
and (5) E, over one cross section and H , over another cross section. Thc
solut ions of Sec. 4-9 are examples of case (1). Furthermore1 when we
ha.ve currcnts in a wa.veguide1 we can obtain additional cases involving
discontinuities in E, and/or H, over waveguide cross sections. The solu-
t ions of Scc. 4-10 are examples of this situatioo.
It is a lso of intercst to note that, when many modes exist simultane-
ously in a cylindrical waveguide1 ea.ch m-Ode propagates energy as if it exists
alone. Hence, the equivalent circuit of a section of waveguide in which
N modes exist is N separa.te transmission lines of the form of Fig. 8-2.
To show this power orthogonality1 we calculate the z-directed complex
power
= l V.Ij JJ e,·e;ds l
;,;
=
i
Vdt (8-41)
which is a summation of the powers carried by ea.ch mode. (We ha.ve

used the indices i and j to order both TE and TM modes in tbe above
proof.) The energy stored per unit length in a waveguide is also the
sum of the energies stored in each mode (see Prob. 8-3).
8-3. The Network Concept. In Sec. 3-8, we saw that, given N sets
of "circuit" terminals1 the volts.ges at tbe terminals were related to the
currents by an impedance roatrix. This impedance matrix was shown to
be symmetrical1 that is, the usual circuit-theory reciprocity applied if the
medium was isotropic. We shall now show that the same network
formulation applies if, instead of circuit voltages and currents, the modal
voltages and currents of waveguide "ports 11 are used.
Let Fig. 8-3 represcnt a general "microwave network/' that is, a system
for which a closed surface separating the network from the rest of space
can be found such that n X E = O on the surfa.ce except over one or
more waveguide cross sections. Suppose that only one rn.ode propagates
F10. 8--3. A microwa.ve

network.
392 TIME-HAltMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
in each waveguide. 1 Then, assuming we a.re far enough a.long each wave-
guide for higher-order modes to die out, only the dominant mode exists in
each guide. A k.nowledge of the mode V or I in the guide is equivalent to
a knowledge of Et or H,, respectively, since the mode vectors depend only
on the geometry. Hence, according to the uniqueness concepts of Sec.
3-3, a knowledge of V (or l) in a.11 guides is sufficient to determine I
(or V) in a.U guides. Furthermore, the relationship must be linear if the
medium is linear, andan impedance matrix [z} is defined by
(8-42)
where V,. and /.,are the mode voltage and current in the nth waveguide.
The inverse relationship to Eq. (8-42) defines an admittance matrix [y]
according to
[112la1] = [Yu
Y21
Y31
Y12
Yu Yn
Yu Yaa
Yu] [V1]
V2
Va
(8-43)
Equations (8-42) and (8-43) ha.ve been written explicitly for. the three-
port network of Fig. 8-3 but, of course, can be similarly written for any
N-port network. Now that we ha.ve established these linear sets of
equations, we can use all the usual techniques for solving linear equations.
The electrical engineer knows these techniques by the name of "network
theory." 2
It is also of interest to show that, for isotropic media,
Yi; = Y;; (8-44)
that is, microwave networks are reciproca! in the same sense as are the
usual lumped-element networks. To prove this, let us apply the Lorentz
reciprocity theorem [Eq. (3-34)]. It states that
1P E 0
X H11 • ds == 1fa E 6
X H 0 • ds
for two fields E", H 0 and E11, Hl> in linear, isotropic media. We visualize
a surface surrounding an N-port microwave network such that E, = Oon
S except over the waveguide cross sections, where
1
If N modes propaga.te in a. single waveguide, then that guide will be represented by
N porta on the equivalent network.
s For exa.mple, see C. D. Montgomery, R. H. Dicke, and E. M. Purcell (eds.),
"Principies of Microwa.ve Circuits," Chap. 4, MIT Radia.tion Laboratory Series, vol. 8 1
McGraw-Hill Book Compa.ny, Inc.1 New York, 1948.

MJCROW AVE NETWORKS 393
(The n here refers to the nth waveguide, not the nth mode.) Hence, the
desired surface integrals become
N N
1f> Eº X Hb• ds =
n•l
l Vnºlnb 1f> e,. X h,. • ds = l
n•l
V,.0 1,/'
and the Lorentz reciprocity theorem reduces to

N N
l
nol
Vn° l,.b = ¿Vn"l,.
n•l
0
(8-45)
To show t hat Eq. (8-45) is equivalent to Eqs. (8-44), it is merely necessary

to consider the spccial cases (1) all l ,.0 = O except 1,0 and (2) all I ,." = O
except 1/. Then Vf = z1;lt a.nd V,"= Zl¡l/, a.nd Eq. (8-45) reduces to
z;¡ = z¡;. Similarly1 taking ali V ,.0 = O except Ve, and all V11b = O
except Vi in Eq. (8-45) establishes y;¡ = y¡;.
8-4. One-port N etworks. A one-port network is characterized by a
single impedance or admitta.nce element. Visualize a surface enclosing
thc network such tha.t the field is zero on the surface except where it
crosses the input guide, as shown in Fig. 8-4. We then ha.ve
Pin = - 1f> E X H • • ds = - VI* 1f> e X h · ds = V l*
where V and I a.re the mode voltage a.nd current g.t the 11 reference plane,"
that is, at the cross section cut by the surface enclosiog the network.
Beca.use of the conservation of complex power [Eq. (1-62)), we bave
VI* = Pi.. = + j2w('W.,. - 'W,) (8-46)
where is the power dissipated, W,,. is the magnetic encrgy stored, and
W, is the electric energy stored in the network. The input impedance to
the network is t herefore
Z = = dr + j2w(w,,. - 'W,)] (8-47)
which is well known for lumped-element network theory. Similarly, the
da
Fto. 8-4. A one-port net,..
work and a surface en-
closing it.
....__,,
394 Tllll}-BARMON1C ELECTRO!\!AONETIC FIELDS
input admittance is
Y= = (<J'>d - j2w('Wm - W,)] (8-48)
As usual, we define the real and ima.ginary parts of Z to be resistance and

reactance, and the real and imaginary parts of Y to be conductance and
susceptance, respectively.
Z = R +jX Y= G +iB (8-49)
From Eqs. (8-47) to (8-49) we can draw the íollowing conclusions.

(1) A dissipationless network has R = G = O. (2) The R and G cannot
be negative in the lossy case. (3) At resonance (X = B = O) the elcctric
and magnetic encrgies are equal. (4) The Z and Y satisfy
Z*( - w) = Z(w) Y*(-w) = Y(w)
and hence R and G are even functions of w and X and B are odd f unctions
of w.
In tbe lossless case, V!* is imaginary, and hence V must be 90° out of
phasc witb J. We shall now show that everywhere within the network E
is in phase with V and H is in pbase with l. Hence, E is 90° out of phase
with H . Suppose we choose our referencc plane such t hat V is real.
Then n X E is real over the reference cross section of the input guide and
zero over the rest of the enclosing surfacc (see Fig. 8-4). T hese boundary
conditions, as well as the field equatioos
V X E = -jwµ.H V X H = jwEE (8-50)
can be satisfied by assuming E real and H imaginary. This is therefore
a possible solution, and, assuming uniqueness, 1 it must be the ooly
solution.
Let us now consider the effect of a change in frequency. The fre-
quency derivatives of Eqs. (8-50) are
aE .H . aH
V X ow = -Jµ - JWµ. ow
(8-51)
aH . E +. aE
V X ª"' = JE JWE aw
If we scalarly multiply the first of thesc by H * and the conjuga.te of the
1 I t may be recalled that the uniqueoess theorcm of Sec. 3-3 required some dissipa.-
tion for its proof. Hence, our conclusions apply only if we visualize sorne slight Joss.
However, even in thc loss-free case, a.ny ficld having n X E =- Oover the entire bound-
ary would be uncoupled to the input ports, a.nd would have no influence oo the exteroal
beha.vior of tbe network.
second of Eqs. (8-50) by aE/ éJw 1 and subtract1 we obtain
V • (ºE
aw
X H*) = -jµIHl 2
- jwµ aH • H* + jwEE* · aE
aw aw
Similarly1 if we scalarly multiply the second of Eqs. (8-51) by E* and
the conjugate of the first oí Eqs. (8-50) by aH/ aw 1 and suLtract 1 we obtain
V· (ºH
aw
E*) = jEIEI' + jwE aawE·E* - jwµH* • aH
X
aw
We now subtract the above equation from the preceding one a.nd obtain
V· (ºE
aw XH* - aH
aw XE*) = -jµIHl 2 - jEIEl 2 (8-52)
Finally1 tbis equation is integrated throughout a. region of space1 and the

divergence theorem applied to the lcft-hand term.
1f> X H* - X E*)· ds = -j fff (µI Hl2 + EIEl 2

) dT (8-53)
Note that the right-hand side is proportional to the total electromagnetic

energy contained within the region.
Equation (8-53) is now a.pplied to the one-port network (Fig. 8-4).
The field vanishes over the eoclosing surface except where it crosses the
input port1 and the left-hand side of Eq. (8-53) becomes
ff (av ¡• +al v•) ex

aw aw
h. ds =_ (l* av
éJw
+ v• al)
éJw
,vhere V and l are the mode voltage and current at the input reference
?la.ne. Hence, we can write Eq. (8-53) as
!* + V* = j fff (µllll + EIEl 2 2

) dT
= 2j('W,,. + 'W.) (8-54)
fhe input reactance X and susceptaoce B are given by
V j
jX = T = - B
rheir frequency derivatives are therefore

dX _
dw - -
i
l
avl
OW I conat&nt
(8-55)
dB j al 1
dw = - V aw V conatant
396 TIME--HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNE'l'IC FIELDS
Hence, from Eq. (8-54), it follows that

dX 2
dw = 111 2 ('W,,. + 'W,)
dB
dw =
2
IVl 2 ('Wm + 'W,)
(8-56)
Equations (8-56) state that the s"lope of the reactance or B'USceptance f or a

loss-free one-port network is always positive. This is known as Foster's
reactance theorem. From Eqs. (8-47) and (8-48) we also ha.ve for loss-
free networks
2w
X = l1f2 (w,,. - w.,)
(8-57)
2w
B = 1v¡2 ('W. - 'W,,.)
Solving Eqs. (8-56) and (8-57) for the energies, we obtain
w. = 111 2
(dX _X)=
4 dw w
¡v¡ (dB + !!.)
4 dw w
2
(8-58)
'W"' = i!r
4
(dX + !) = i!T4 (dB _!!.)
dw w dw w
Beca.use the energies are positive, it follows that
(8-59)
t hat is, the slope of the reactance or susceptance is always greater than
t he slope of a straight line from the origin to the point of consideration.
Rela.tionships (8-56) to (8-59) were 6.rst established in lumped-element
network theory. i
An impor ta.nt consequence of Eqs. (8-56) and (8-57) is t hat all polea
and zeros of the reactance or susceptance function f or a loss-free one-porl
network are simple. To prove this, suppose X vanishes a.t a resonant
frequency wo. The Taylor series about "'ºis then
X(w) = a1(w - wo) + a2(w - wo) 2 + ···
a.nd X'(wo) = a1, which must be positive by Foster's reactance theorem.
Hence, X has a simple zero at wo and B = 1/X has a simple pole at wo.
Similar reasoning shows tba.t the zeros of B are simple; hence the poles
of X are simple. Furthermore, the poles and zeros for the reactance or
susceptance function of a loss-free one-port network must alterna.te along
1R. M. Foster, A Rea.etance Theorem, Bell System Tech. J., vol. S, pp. 259-267,
April, 1924.
X
or
B
(a)
O
> ------____.=i (b) (e)
Fta. 8-5. (a) Typical rca.ctance or suscepta.nce function, (b) a Foster equivalent net-
work of the first type, and (e) a Foster equivalent network of the second typo.
the w axis; else X'(w) will not a.lwa.ys be gres.ter than zero. Figure 8-5a
illustrates the general beha.vior of a. reactance or susceptance function.
Equivalent circuits for reactance functions of the Foster type 1 are illus-
trated by Fig. 8-5b and c. Other equivalent circuits of the Cauer type,1
or of mixed Foster-Cauer type, can be found. An important difference
between microwa.ve networks (distributed elements) and lumped-element
networks is that the former have infinitely many resonances, while the
la.tter ha.ve a finite number of resonances.
The loss-free network is, of course, only a.n a.pproxima.tion to physica.l
networks. It is therefore desirable to know how the beha.vior of net-
works with sma.ll losses differs from the beha.vior of loss-free nctworks.
It is known from the usual network theory that a slight amount of dissi-
pation shifts the poles and zeros of the impedance function from the
w axis to points a.hove it. Hence, the reacta.nce (imaginary part of Z)
of a slightly dissipative network would not become infinite for any real w
but would be somewha.t like that shown in Fig. 8-6. Also, since Z(w) is
a.n analytic function of w, the resistance (real part of Z) is not independent
of X. A study of the resistance corresponding to the rcactance of Fig.
8-6 reveals that it would beba.ve somewhat like the dashed curve of Fig.
8-6. An example of a lossy one-port network is the linear a.ntenna. of
Fig. 7-13, for which the power " loss" is actually radiated power. The
effect of small losses can be shown in the equivalent circuits by adding
1 For exa.mple, see M. Van Va.lkenburg, "Network Analysis," Cha.p. 12, Prentice-
Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1055.

large resistances in parallel with t he

''\\ LC resonators of Fig. 8-5b a.nd by
\
\ adding small resistances in series
'' with the LC resonators of Fig. 8-5c.
8-6. Two-port Networks. The
primary uses of two-port networks in
m.icrowave theory are (1) tra.nsmis-
sion of energy from one place to
Fro. 8-6. The effect of small losses on the another and (2) fil tering of signals
impedance of a microwa.ve network. from one another. While much of
t h e tbeory can be presented in terms of the impeda.nce matrix [z], de-
fined by
(8-60)
or in terma of the admitta.nce roatrix

[y] = [z]- i (8-61)
it is often more convenient to use other matrices which emphasize the
waveguide character of the ports. T he port voltages and currents can be
considered to be the superposition of incidcnt and refiected components.
B ence, for por t 11
Vi= Vi'+ V{
(8-62)
Ii = li' + /1• = __!_ (Vi' - V{)
Zoi
and similar equations apply to port 2. Figure 8-7 suggests this traveling-
wave concept. Mathematically1 Eqs. (8-62) are merely a linear trans-
formation from the two quantities V 1, I 1 to Vi•, V { , and it is appa.rent
th at Zoi can be arbitrarily chosen. However, it is usually convenfont to
make the natural choice t hat Zo1 is t he characteristic impedance of the
waveguide connected to port l. Another choice, convenient from a
mathematical viewpoint, is to normalize tbe characteristic impedance by
choosiog all Zo's equal to unity. We shall ma.ke the former choice.
From the traveling-wave viewpoint, a possible matrix for describing
Ii = ¡/
- -- -
v, - vi+ v;{ Zo1 (1) Network (2) Zo2
- - - -
Fxo. 8-7. Traveling waves for a two-port network.
MICROWA.VE NE1'WORKS 399
1><--1
Flo. S-8. N two-port networks cascaded.
two-port microwave networks is the transmission matrix [T], defined by
V2•
=[Tu T12J
T21 T22
[Vi']
Vi'
(8-63)
This ma.trix is pa.rticularly convenient when microwave networks are

cascaded, as illustrated by Fig. 8-8. The incident and refiected waves
at the input of network n + 1 are the refiected a.nd incident waves,
respectively, at the output of network n. Hence, the T matrix of the
over-all network is the product of the T matrices of the individual net-
works, that is,
(8-64)
Another matrix commonly used to describe microwa.ve networks is the
scattering matrix [S] defined by
(8-65)
This matrix is convenient for considerations of impedance matching. I t

can also be easily extended to the case of multiport networks. Note
that Su is the reflection coeflicient seen at port 1 when port 2 is matched
and S22 is the reflection coefficient seen at port 2 when port 1 is makhed.
The va.rious matrices defined for a two-port network a.re, of course,
related to one another. For example, [y] is the inverse of (z], as stated
by Eq. (8-61). The relationship of [SJ to [zJ is more complica.ted.
Defining the matrix
(zo] = [ ;01
we ha.ve [S] = [z - zo][z + zo]- 1 (8-66)
Similarly, the transmission ma.trix is related to the scattering matrix by
22
S ]
[T] = Su Su (8-67)
Su 1
- S12 812
The derivation of Eqs. (8-66) and (8-67), a.long with other relationships
among the va.rious matrices, can be found in vol. 8 of the Radiation
Laboratory Series. 1 For networks constructed of linear isotropic matter,

t he reciprocity rela.tiooships [Eqs. (8-44)] apply. From Eq. (8-66), it is
evident that reciprocity requires
(8-68)
in the scattering matrix. From Eq. (8-67), it follows that reciprocity
rP.quires
TnTu - TuT21 = ZZoi (8-69)
01
in tbe transmission matrix. Equations (8-66) and (8-68) also apply to

multiport networks.
Tbere are realizability conditions imposed on the matrices by tho con-
servation of energy theorem. These conditions can be obtained from
the corresponding one-port conditions by terminating the two-port net-
work in various ways to form a one-port. For example, if port 2 is open-
circuited (I 2 = O), then zu is the input impedance. Similarly, when
port 1 is open-circuited, zu is the input impedance looking from port 2.
Hence, by Eq. (8-47) we know
Re (zn) O Re (z22) O (8-70)
Similarly, using the y matrix and short circuits on the porta, we obtain
from Eq. (8-48) that
Re (yu) O Re (yu) O (8-71)
More generally, since Eqs. (8-47) and (8-48) must be va.lid for any
passive termination, we can show that
Re (zu) Re (z22) - Re (z12) Re (z21) O
(8-72)
Re (yu) Re (y22) - Re (yu) Re (y21) O
Finally, when the network is loss-free, the elements of the impedance and
a.dmitta.noe matrices become imaginary, and restrictions on them can be
obtained from the corresponding restrictions in the one-port case. Such
considerations are particularly useful in the theory of filters. 2
Our principal concern for the remainder of this chapter wiU be to
obtain equivalent circuits for microwave networks. For any particular
network, an infinita number of equivalent circuits will exist. One oí our
tasks will be to choose a "natural" equivalent circuit, that is, one which
suggests the physical nature of the network. For example, a section of
1 C. D. Montgomery, R. H. Dioke, a.nd E. M. Purcell (eds.), "Principies of Micro-
wave Cirouits," Cbap. 4, MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, vol. 8, McGraw-Hill Book
Compa.ny, lno., New York, 1948.
1 M. Van Va.lkenburg, "Network Analysis," Cha.p. 13, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Engle-
wood Cliffs, N.J., 1955.

Flo. 8-9. A typica.1 equiva.lent circuit for a. loss-free two-port miorowa.ve networlc.
waveguide would not be represented by a.n equiva.lent tee or pi circuit,
since this would hide the transmission-line chara.cter of the guide. For
loss-free networks, we shall use the symbolism of Ta.ble 8-2 in equivalent
circuits. It should be ernphasized that it is only the sign of a reactance
or susceptance that dicta.tes whether a.n inductor or capacitor is chosen.
The reactance or susceptance does not, in general, ha.ve the simple fre-
quency dependence of a lumped-element inductor or capacitor. Figure
8-9 illustrates a typical equivalent circuit for a loss-free two-port network.
TABLE 8-2. SnnioL1SM UsED I N EQu1vALENT Cmou1TS oF Loss-FREE NETWOn.KS
Element Symbol Represcnts
Positivo rea.ctance
Inductor
·n Negativo suscepte.nce
Nege.tive reacta.nce
Ce.pacitor
--1tl!!-- Positive susceptai>ce
n:l
Ideal transformer
==3L Changc in impeda.nce level
Zo
Transmission line Wa.veguide section
f--l--1
Zo
(a) (b)
Fxa. 8-10. (a) A symmetrical obstacle in a cylindrical wa.veguide, a.nd (b) an cquivalcnt
circuit.
In the case of dissipative networks, resistors in series with X or in

parallel with B can be used to represent the losses. Similarly, the char-
acteristic impedances and propagation constants of the equivalent trans-
mission lines can be assumed complex to account for losses. Most of the
networks used in microwave practice are only slightly lossy, and the
small losses introduce only second-order corrections to the reactances
calculated on a loss-free basis.
8-6. Obstacles in Waveguides. An object in a cylindrical waveguide
can be represented as a two-port network. Figure 8-lOa shows an
obstacle, symroetric about the cross section T, in a waveguide. Figure
8-lOb shows a possible equivalent circuit. In the more general case of an
unsymmetrical object, the two Zb's would probably be different from each
other, and it might even be desirable to cboose two reference planes T.
In the loss-free case, the Z's will alL be jX's.
Befare considering the obstacle problem, let us conside1·
mode sources" in cylindrical waveguides. Figure 8-11 shows the electric
source J, in a waveguide terminated at z = O by a magnetic conductor
and matched as z --> - oo. The method of treating this problem is that
used in Sec. 3-1 for rectangular guides, as, for example, Fig. 3-2. Let
superscripts (1) denote the region -l < z < O, and superscripts (2)
denote t he region z < - l. Then in region 1 there will be an incident
wave plus a refiected wave such that H, = O a.t z = O. Hence,
E,< 1> = A(e-;1i. + eifl•)e = ZA cos (fJz) e l
A 2A
HP> = - (e-ifl• - eifl•)b = -. - sin (fJz) h
(8-73) J
Zo JZo
where e and h are t he mode vectors, fJ is the phase constant, and Zo is the
characteristic impedance, all of t he dominant mode (see T able 8-1). In
region (2) there will be only a. wave in the -z direction; hence
E,<2> = Beifl• e
H,<2> -B
= - - eifl• h
Zo
Continuity of E, at z = - l requires t hat
2A cos {3l = Be-1111
which determines B in terms of A. The boundary condition on H at
z = - lis
X [H rn - H CZ>] = J,
which leads to J. = - 2A eiPl e

Zo
A quantity of interest to us is the self-reaction of t he current sheet
(s,s) = Jrr
J E · J. ds = -
2A2
Zo (1 + ei?Jl1} (8-74)
We shall use dominant-mode cmrent sheets as mathematical "waveguide

probes" to determine tbe equivalent circuit im.pedances.
Now return to the original problem, Fig. 8-lOa. We define even excita-
tion of the waveguide as the case of equal incident waves from both z < O
and z > O, phased so t hat E, is maximum and H, is zero at z = O. By
symmetry arguments, t!he H, scattered by the obstacle will also be zero in
the z = O cross section ; so a magnetic conductor can be placed over the
z = O plane without changing the field. This divides the problem into
two isolated parts, one of wbich is shown in Fig. 8-12a. The excitation is
provided by the dominant-mode source J., wbich we ha.ve just analyzed.
The equivalent circuit of Fig. 8-12a is shown in Fig. 8-12b. (The mag-
netic conductor is equivalent toan open circuit, and the J, is equivalent
to a shunt current source /.)
We now further restrict the problem to the loss-free case. Then the
dominant mode will be apure standing wave in the region - l < z < O of
Fig. 8-12a. If J, is located where Et = O, then by the usual transmission-
line formulas
z - z,, + 2z.. =
-Zo - j tan {jl (8-75)
- Zo
1''or the source of arbitrary l, the total reaction on J, is
Reaction = JJE · J. ds JJ (E• + E•) · J. ds

=
= (s,s) + (c,s)
where E• is t he field of J, a.lone, and E• is the field of the current on the
Matched guide Magnetic conductor
··1 z
Fio. 8-11. A domfoant-mode source in a waveguide terminated by a magnetio
conductor.
T T T
Matched
Zo
guide
(a) (b)
T T T
Matched
Zo
guide
(e) (d)
FtG. 8-12. Even oxcita.tion of Fig. 8-lOa is represented by (a), which ha.s a.n
network (b). Odd excitat.ion of Fig. 8-lOa is rcpresentcd by (e), which ha.s a.o equiva.
lent network (d).
obstacle a lone, both radiating in the waveguide terminated by the mag·

netic condu ctor at z = O. If l is adjusted to a cross section for which
Et = O, then the rcaction vanishes and the abovc equation becomes
2
(c,s) = -(s,s) = 2A
Zo (1 + eí2P')
where the last equality is Eq. (8-74). Taking A as real, we have
2A 2
Re (c,s) = Zo (1 + cos 2(:JZ)
2A 2
Im (c,s) = Zo (sin 2(:Jl)
a.nd, using t he identity

a sin a
t an- =
2 1 + COS a
Eq. (8-75) becomes
X ,,+ 2Xa Im (c,s) (8-76)
Zo = Re (c,s)
We have replaced the Za a.nd z,,
by jX,,. and jX,, beca.use only the loss-free
case is being considered. By reciprocit y,
(c,s) = (s,c) = J E• · dJ•

ob.st
(8-77)
where E• is the incident field, given by Eq. (8-73), and J• is the cu rrent on
the obstacle. Note that the problem is now identical to the echo prob-
1
lems of Secs. 7-10 and 7-11, except that all currents radia.te in the environ-
ment of the waveguide plus the magnetic conductor.
For the case of a. perfectly conducting object, the obstacle current is a
surface current J.•, and n X E = O on its boundary. Hence,
·n X E•= -n X Ee
and (s,c) = -(c,c) = - JJ E ·J.º ds

0
(8-78)
where (c,c) represents the self-reaction of the currents induced on the

obsta.ele. By Eqs. (8-76) to (8-78), we therefore ha.ve
X,, + 2Xa = -
Im (c,c)
(8-79)
Zo Re (c,c)
Our problem is now one of finding the self-reaction of the currents induced
by the incident field of Eq. (8-73) with A real.
For a stationary formula, we assume currents J," on the obsta.ele and
calculate (a,a) subject to the constraints
(a,a) = (c,a) = (a,c)
(see Sec. 7-7). The last equality is met by reciprocity, and, since
n X E• = - n X E 0 on the obsta.ele surface,
(c,a) = -(s,a)
Hence, our stationary formula for (c,c) is
(s a) 2
(8-80)
, (a,a)
This, coupled with Eq. (8-79), represents the va.riational solution to the
problem. If the .trial current is taken as real, then (s,a) is real beca.use
E• is reaL Equation (8-80) can then be written a,g
and Eq. (8-79) becomes

(c,c) 1 r (a,a)*
X,, + 2X 0 Im (a,a)
(8-81)
Zo (a,a)
This formula applies only when J.º is real, which is usually the case. The
change of sign in going from Eq. (8-79) to Eq. (8-81) can be explained by
noting that J,• is not real for the given E•, but is usually at sorne constant
phase.
1
The obste.ele may be a. conductor, a. nonmagnetic dielectric, or a magnetic dielec-
tric (µ ,¿µo). In the latter case the term - f H• • dM• must be added to the right-
hand side of Eq. (8-77).
406 TIME-HARMONIC E.L ECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
We define odd excitation of the waveguide (Fig. 8-lOa) as the case of

equal incident waves from both z < O and z > O, phased so t hat E1 = O
and H 1 is maximum at z = O. By symmetry, the E, scattered by the
obstacle must a lso be zero in the z = O cross section, and so an electrio
conductor can be placed over the z = O plane without changing t he field.
This divides the problem into two isolated parts, one of which is shown in
Fig. 8-12c. The excitation is provided by a dominant-mode magnetic
source M., which, together with the electric conductor covering the
z = O plane, is dual to Fig. 8-11. The equivalent circuit of Fig. 8-12c is
shown in Fig. 8-12d. (T he electric conductor at z = Ois equivalent to a.
short circuit, and the M. is equivalent to a series voltage source V.)
The analysis of Fig. 8-12c is dual to that used for Fig. 8-12a. Hence,
dual to Eqs. (8-73), in the region -z < z < O we ha.ve a source field
H,• = 2C cos h
(8-82)
El= - sin e
JYo
where Y o = 1/ Z 0 is the characteristic admittance of the dominant mode.
Dual to Eq. (8-79) we have
j 1 I m (c,c)
(8-83)
Y oZb = YoXb = Re (c,c)
where (c,c) is the self-reaction of the obsta.ele currents radiating in the
presence of an electric conductor over the z = O cross section (see Fig.
8-12c). Finally, for a variational solution, cun:ents J,G are assumed on
the obstacle, and their self-reaction (a,a) is calcúlated. If t he Jl is real,
then dual to Eq. (8-81) we have
1 Im (a,a)
Y oX., : : : : - Re (a,a) (8-84)
where (a,a) is calculated with an electric conductor over the z = Oplane.

8-7. Posts in Waveguides. Sorne variational solutions for circular
posts in rectangular waveguides can be carried out relatively simply.
Figure 8-13 illustrates three classes of obsta.eles: (1) those cylindrical to y,
.__ __ w _
..................... ___, X
w
X
w
X
F1a. 8-13. Posts in a. rectangular wa.veguide, (a) cylindrica.l to y, (b) cylindrica.l to :.

and (e) otherwise.
MlCROW AVE NETWORKS 407
-Jy Jy - Jy -Jy - Jy
o o o o X
F10. 8-14. Imagc system for the circular post in a rectangular wa.veguide.
(2) those cylindrical to x, and (3) ali other cases. [The cylinders are not
necessarily circular, and case (1) is different from case (2) only because of
the excitation.] It is assumed tbat the incident wave in each en.se is the
dom.inant mode with E parallel to y and H , parallel to x. Then the field
of case (1) will be TM to y, expressible in terms of a single wave function
A 11 = t/I (see Sec. 4-4). The field of case (2) will be TE to x, expressíble in
terms of a single wa.ve function Fe = t/I. Type (3) problems require two
sea.lar wave functions to exprcss the field (see Sec. 3-12).
We sha.11 consider only the centered circular post, as shown in the insert
of Fig. 8-15. For even excitation (Fig. 8-12a), assume a. constant current
on the post
I
J.º= u., -
1t'd
(8-85)
The field produced by J.º in t he waveguide closcd by the magnetic con-

ductor will be tbe same as the free-space field from the image system of
Fig. 8-14. Hence, we can write
E11º = E11po•t + E11•"'ª'"
where tbe first term is the free-space field of ] ,º and the second term is
the frce-space field from all its images. The self-reaction of J,ª in the
waveguide with magoetic conductor is ooe-half tha.t for the complete
post in a waveguide ¡ hence
(8-86)
408 TlMFrHARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
Now the "post 11 term is independent of <P since the J,º is independent of
q,. The "image" term is a source-free field in the vicinity of the post and
can therefore be expressed as
..
E.¡/'"a&•• = l AnJ
(see Seo. 5-8). Thus,
fo2" E,/ =•au dcp = 2?1-Ar;J o ( k = 27rJ o ( k E 11imaa.. ,p_O
(a,a) = al [E11Po•i d
2 -2
l + J o(k2 E11lmacu I ]
p- 0
(8-87)
The field of a single cylinder of constant current was calculated in Seo. 5-6.
Abstracting from Eq. (5-92), we have
E 11 poet = - ¡ kIJo (k Ro<2>(kp) P >

-2
d
-
The field from each image is also of the above forro, with p replaced by the
distance to the image. Hence, Eq. (8-87) becomes
2L(-l) H >(nkb) J (8-88)

co
(a,a) = K [H (k 2
0< > + J0 ( k
,n -1
11
0<
2
where K =- kaJIJ 0 ( k
is an unimportant constant. Equation (8-88) is an exact evaluation of

(a,a) for the assumed current of Eq. (8-85).
Unfortunately, the Hankel function summation in Eq. (8-88) converges
slowly and is not convenient for computation. However, we shall now
show t bat it can be transformed to
.. 1
\ ' (-l)nH 0< 2 >(nkb) = [ - :!
,,,. y(2b/ 'A)2 - 1 4
n- 1
·(1
+ J 2 log T2yb - 1 + s)] (8-89)
wbere y = 1.781 and Sis the rapidly convergent summation

The free-space field of a filament of current is given by Eq. (5-84) .
Hence, the left-hand side of Eq. (8-89) is the E 11 from all images of the
filament
-2
l =-
'l)k
across the center of the original waveguide. problem is Fig. 8-14
with J.º replaced by the above /.) Then, by the method of Sec. 4-10,
we can find the total field in the z = O cross section due to the a.hove I.
It is
..
E tota1 = [ sin (7íX/b) + . \' sin (n7r/2) sin (n1íX/b) ] (8_91 )
11
7r V (2b/>.) 2 - 1 J L¡ 2 - (2b/X) 2
n•2
vn
where only the first term is real beca.use it is assumed that 1 < (2b/X) < 2.
For large n, the a.hove summation has terma equal to those of
.. ..
¿ ( sin [ n + o) J = ¿ cos nó
n
n• l
.. n-1,3,5, .. .
= Re . \'
L¡
6
(ei )n
n
= Re (!2 log 11 +- e 1v
= Re (!2 log 1 j- sincos°o)
n.• 1,3,5, ...
1 . ) 1 o
= Re ( 2 log tan Co/2) = - 2 log tan 2
Hence, letting x = (b/2) + p in Eq. (8-91) and o = ?rp/b in the above
identity, we can add and subtract the latter from the former and obta.in
E
11 -;::;t;2 [ v (2b/x)2
1
- 1
+ J. (12 1og 1rp
2b
-
1+ s)]
The free-space E 11 from the same filament I is
E 11 = 0<
2
>(kp)
p-+O
+ j ! log 'Y2kp
7r
When this is subtracted from the total E 11, and p set equal to zero, we
have the right-hand side of Eq. (8-89).
Returning now to the self-reaction, we substitute Eq. (8-89) into Eq.
(8-88) and obta.in
Re(aa)=C
2 X
' V(2b/X) 2 - 1 b
(8-92)
7rNo(kd/2) 2-yb ]
Im (a,a) = C [ - 2J o(kd/2) + log T - 2 + 2S
where e is the unimporta.nt constant,
C = - -r¡ka I2J o1 ( k d)
-
411' 2
Equation (8-92) is still exact for t he current assumed in Eq. (8-85).

H owever, because of the crudeness of our initia.l trial current, we can
expect our rcsult to be va.lid onlx_ for small d/ X. Hence, we use small-
argument formulas for the Bessel functions a.nd obtain
Im (a,a) - + 2s)2 (8-93)
Now, substituting from Eqs. (8-92) and (8-93) into Eq. (8-81), we ha.ve
Xb +Zo2Xa Ag
[ 1og 4b - 2
1rd
+ 28 >..
(8-94)
where Sis given by Eq. (8-90).

For odd excita.tion (Fig. 8-12c), we a.asume a current
J.º = u 11 sin <!> (8-95)
induced on t he post. The appropriate variational formula is Eq. (8-84),
1.2
=e
1 1
' ' 1
1.0 I§jl_d
.i.f
X,,'A.g/ Zob
Top view End view
0.8
11(---!
-:e;-
:'\. jX,,
1
jX,,
Zo j "X Zo
0.6 1J IJ
'A/b = 2.0 '\ -

-
r --
' '
1
1.4 -- V -;;::. i'... Equivalent circuit
0.4
1.2 -
---
"'
............
t:::::::: ..._ K
----
- ..........
...._
--
0.2 ........
XJ).g/ Zob
1 ' -
o 0.05
-t---r 0.10 0.15 0.20
d/ b
F10.8-15. The centered circular inductive post in e. rectangular waveguide. (A/ter
Marcuuitz.)
MICROWA.VE NETWORKS 411
the exact evaluat ion of which follows steps T
similar to those used to derive Eq. (8-94).
Tbe result is 6
xb : : : _ !!_ (Trd)z (8-96)
1
Zo Xg b
Flo. 8-16. A small obstacle
Figure 8-15 shows X 0 and Xb as calculated in a wa.veguide.
from a second-order variational solution. 1
Our solution [Eqs. (8-94) and (8-96)] is accurate for small d/b, tbe error
being of the order of 10 per cent for d/b = 0.15. Formulas and calcula-
tions for off-centered posts are also available. 1 A solution for the circular
capacitive post (Fig. 8-13b) is given in Prob. 8-12.
8-8. Small Obstacles in Waveguides. Figure 8-16 represents a small
obstacle in a waveguide of arbitrary cross section. If the obstacle is
symmetrical about a transverse plane, the equivalent circuit is as sbown
in Fig. 8-lOb. If the obsta.ele is loss-free, the Z's arejX's. The formula-
tion of the problem for a conducting obstacle is that of Sec. 8-6. An
approximate evaluation of the reactions, made possible beca.use the
obstacles are small and not too near the guide walls, will now be discussed.
Consider even excitation of the guide (Fig. 8-12a). The effect of a
small obstacle is small; hence Zb is small and Z 0 is large. Equation (8-81)
is then
Xo 1 Im (a,a)
(8-97)
Zo :::::: 2 Re (a,a)
where (a,a) is the self-reaction of the assumed currents in the wavegujde.
Let us first make some qualitative observations. In a rectangular
waveguide, the reaction (a,a) is the free-space self-reaction of the obsta.ele
plus the mutual reaction with ali its images. For real current, the imagi-
nary part of the free-space self-reaction becomes extremely large as tbe
obstacle becomes small. Hence, for sufficiently small obstacles, we can let
Im (a,a) Im (a,a),••• opaec (8-98)
In contrast to tbis, the real part of tbe free-space reaction approaches a
constant, independent of the size of the obstacle, as the obstacle becomes
small. The mutual reaction between the obsta.ele and its images there-
fore cannot be neglected. However, beca.use the real part of the reaction
is independent of the size and shape of the obstacle, we can calculate the
dipole moment Il of the free-space obstacle and let
Re (a,a) :::::: Re (Il,Il) (8-99)
1
N. Ma.rcuvitz, "Wa.veguide Ha.ndbook," MIT Ra.dia.tion Laboratory Series, vol.10,
pp. 257-263, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1951.
x'f-- b--J
.l_
T
2c O
z
Tlol
Side view End view
FIG. 8-17. A sma.ll conducting sphere centered in a. rectangular wa.veguide.
The righ t-hand term represents the self-reaction of a current element Il in

the waveguide.
As an example, consider the small sphere of radius e in the center of a
rectangular waveguide, as shown in Fig. 8-17. As our trial current,
assume J,4 is that which produces t he dipole field external to the sphere.
This current, even though we shall not need it explicitly, is approximately
Il SlD. ()
J," = -Ug -
27rc 2
(8-100)
where 8 is measured from t he x direction. Because the a.bove current

produces the same field as an x-directed element of moment Il, the
imaginary part of the free-space self-reaction is the imaginary part of
Eq. (2-115) evaluated at r = c. Hence,
Im (a,a),.•• •P"4• = _.,.., 237r " (klc)3

Equation (8-98) is therefore
(8-101)
For t he real part of (a,a), we can use the analysis of Sec. 4-10 for a
current sheet
= Jl Ó (X- Ó (v-
B ecause the current is real, we can set Re (Il,ll) = -Re (P) of Eq. (4-87)
and obtain
ab
Re (Il,Il) = - 4 Zo(J 01) 2
where, from Eq. (4-86),
2
Jo1 = - ll
ab
Hence, Eq. (8-99) becomes
Re (a a) - Zo (Jl)2 = - 11>-o (Jl) 2 (8-102)
' ab abX
Substituting from Eqs. (8-101) and (8-102) into Eq. (8-97), we ha.ve
Xa >. 2ab
Zo - U.,...t>.,,c• (8-103)
This is the small-obstacle approximation for a centered sphere in a rec-
tangular waveguide. Our free-space reaction is the Rayleigh a.pproxi-
mation [Eq. (6-106)), which is valid for e/ >. < 0.1. Hence, we should
expect Eq. (8-103) to be accurate when e/>. < 0.1 ande« a/2.
Now consider odd excitation of the guide (Fig. 8-12c). The evaluation
of can then be roa.de a.ccording to Eq. (8-84). Taking the ci.rrrent a.e
real, we evaluate the imaginary part of (a,a) a.ccording to the free-spa.ce
approximat ion [Eq. (8-98)]. However, beca.use of the symmetry of the
obsta.ele and of the excitation, there can be no net electric dipole moment,
a.nd Eq. (8-99) does not apply. There will be a magnetic moment Kl
(unless the obsta.ele has zero axial thickness), which can be calculated
from the assumed current. Then, analogous to Eq. (8-99) , we use the
approximation
Re (a,a) Re (Kl,Kl) (8-104)
where the right-hand tenn represents the self rcaction of a magnctic
current element Kl in the waveguide.
Return now to the specific problem of a conducting sphere in a rectan-
gular guide (Fig. 8-17). It is evident from symmetry that, for odd
excitation, the resultant magnetic dipole will be y-directed. For t he
trial current, assume t hat which produces the magnetic dipole field
externa! to t he sphere. The free-space self-reaction of this current is then
just the dual of that for the electric dipole, given by Eq. (8-101). Hence,
X(Kl)2
I m (a,a) Im (a,a),,.. '"'"°' =
121f'2ea
.,,
(8-105)
For the real part of (a,a), we evalua.te the right-hand side of Eq. (8-104)
by metbods dual to those used to establish Eq. (8-102). For the centercd
y-directed magnetic cur.rrent elemcnt in the rectangular guide, we obtain
Re (a,a) Re (Kl,Kl) = (Kl) 2 = (Kl) 2
Substituting from this a nd from Eq. (8-105) into Eq. (8-84), we have
(8-106)
The accuracy of this formula is a.t least as good as t hat of Eq. (8-103).
The eva.luation of other small-obstacle equivalent circuits can be found in
the literature. 1
1
A. A. Oliner, Equivalent Circuits Cor Small Symmetrical Longitudinal Apertures
a.nd Obstacles, I RE Trans., vol. MTT-8, no. 1, January, 1960.
T T T
(a)
z
I
F10. 8-18. (a) A diapbragm in a wa.vegujde, and {b) a.n equivalent circuit.
{b)
8-9. Diaphragms in Waveguides. Figure 8-18a represents a cylindri-

cal waveguide of arbitrary cross section with a.o infinitely thin electrio
conductor covering part of the z = O plane. This conductor is ca.lled a
diaphragm, and the opening in it is called a window. The diaphragm plus
the window cover the entire z = O cross section. The exact equivalent
circuit is justa sbunt element, as shown in Fig. 8-18b. Depending upon
the sha.pe of the dia.phra.gm or window, the suscepta.nce may be positive
(capacitive), negative (inductivc), or change from positive to negative as
the frequency is varied (resona.nt when B = O).
To eva.luate the shunt susceptance, we can use t be method of Sec. 8-7.
Taking the case of cven excitation (Fig. 8-12a), tbe diaphragm problem
reduces to Fig. 8-19a. The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 8-19b.
The appropriate stationary formula is Eq. (8-81), which reduces to
2Yo R: _ Im (a,a) (S-l07)
B Re (a,a)
where (a,a) is the self-reaction of the a.ssumed current J." on the dia-
¡J.
.. $
Diaphragm
guide
Mag.
con d.
B/2c 1
l.. l ....1z l.. l ,.!

(a) (b)
guide M,f
1..
(e)
Mag. cond.
Elect. cond.
l .1 z
'+
: B/29 1..
(<l)
l .1
Fta. 8-19. Symmetrical excitation of Fig. 8-IOa is represented by (a), whicb has an
eqwvalent circuit (b). Symmetrical exoitation of Fig. 8-lOa is also represented by
(e), whicb has ao equivalent circuit (d).
MlCROW AVE NETWORKS 415
phragm. We can think of Fig. 8-19a as being constructed by placing
pieces of electric conductor on top of a magnetic conductor.
Beca.use the diapbragm problem is self-dual, we ha.ve the alternative
representation of Fig. 8-19c. This can be viewed as a construction of
the window by placing pieces of magnetic conductor on top of an electric
conductor. The source has been changed t o a magnetic current sheet,
instead of t he electric current sheet of Fig. 8-19a, so that complete dualit y
is preserved. Then, dual to Eq. (8-107), we ha.ve
B Im (a,a),,.
(8-108)
2Yo Re (a,a),,.
where t he subscripts m are added to emphasize that (a,a)m is the self-

reaction of assumed magnetic currents M ,0 on the window, tba.t is,
(a,a),,. = - JJ H 0
• M .0 ds (8-109)
Beca.use the M ,ª is related to t he tangential E in the window of the

original problem according to
M ,11 =u. X E (8-110)
Eq. (8-108) is known as an aperture-field formulation of t he problem.

This is in contrast to Eq. (8-107) which is an obstacle-current formulation.
Note that Eq. (8-108) can also be viewed as a specialization of Eq. (8-84).
To illustrate the theory, considera capacitive diaphragm in a rectangu-
.Iar waveguide (Fig. 8-20). (Note that it must be capacitive, beca.use it is
a special case of Fig. 8-13b.) Take the E -field formula [Eq. (8-108)] and.
note that
(a,a)m =- JJ H ª • M ,ª ds = - JJ E X H · u,. ds
= ( - ff E X H* · uz ds) * = P*
beca.use E is real. Hence, the problem is the same as those treated in
T ª ·I T T
T oy¡>-
0- -1--
.B- y¡o
Side view
b
End view
o
T)
(a) (b)
Flo. 8-20. (a) Capacítive dia.phragm, and (b) an equiva.lent circuit.

Sec. 4-9. In particular, if we assume

. 1rX
E11º = sma Y< e (8-111)
1s-o { o y>c
in the window, we t hen bave precisely the problem of Fig. 4-17. Hence,
from Eq. (4-77), we ha.ve
(a,a),,. = P* = IVl 2 Yo = IVl2 (Yo;b + jBo)

where Yo is the aperture admittance. Finally, substituting from the
above into Eq. (8-108), we obtain
(8-112)
where tbe quantity in parentbeses is plotted in Fig. 4-17.

A more general treatment of the problem proceeds as follows. We
know from the discussion of F ig. 8-13b that the fi.eld must be TE to x, and
so the most general forro for the tangential :field in the window is
E11º 1 = { f(y) sin 71": Y <e (8-113)

e- o o y>c
Then, by the methods of Sec. 4-9, we calculate
..
ab 1
(a,a},,. = P* = 2 L.¡ E,.. (Yoh.. IE1...
n-o
where, by Eq. (4-73), the Fourier coefficients Ei ... are
En [e n1ry
Ei... = b }o J(y) cos T dy
and the characteristic admittances of th e TEX1n modes are
y) _ j2bYo
( 0 1 (8-114)
" - >.0 V n2 - (2b/ X0 ) 2
The Y o and >.0 perta.in to the dominant mode, which is the only mode
having real characteristic impedance, because of our assumption that only
the dominant mode propaga.tes. Hence, Eq. (8-108) becomes
which, upon substitution from the preceding equations, becomes
..
B
1 [ re
Bb b vfn2 - (2b/'A,)2 }o f(y) cos b dy
n1fy ]2
>-o [lº f(y) dy r (8-115)
Equation (8-112) representa the special case f(y) = l. Better a.pproxi-

mations to B/Yo can be obtained by using a better choice for f(y), or by
applying the Ritz procedure.
The sta.tiona.ry formula. in terms of obstacle current [Eq. (8-107)] is
specialized to the capacitive diaphragm as follows. The field is TE to x,
given by Eqs. (4-32) with
•
1" = sin ?rX A cos n1fY e.,••
af_¡" b
n-0
where
The currcnt on a diapbragm ba.cked by a magnetic conductor (Fig. 8-19a)

is then
J. = H 11
1•-O
irr
= -ab
wµ.
2
cos -
a
1!"X ¿.. n"fr'V
nA,. sin-b
¿..
n-0
(7í/a) t - kt '1fX n-.ru

J 11 = -H,, = . sin -
a
An cos-"-u
b
1
z,.0 JWJI.
n-o
Hence, thc current has both x and y components, but the A,. can be deter-
roined from the y component alone. The x component then adjusts
itself to make the field TE to x. If we assume a current
J 11° = g(y) (8-116)

a
and define Fourier coefficients
En (b n7ry
J,. = b }e g(y) cosbdy (8-117)
then
418 TIME-HARMON IC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
5 Also, at z = O, the t angential electric

(b) / intensity is given by E: = O, and
4 /
¡../
:.-'
..
... -
........
¡...-.....
E 11 = - sm
•
a f,.¡ ;-nAn cos nry
1rX \ '
-b-
(el,.- n-o
- .,..,
---- ---
----11,__(d)- Hence, in the same manner as Eq.
1----- (4-74) was derived, we :find the self-
react ion of J." as
..
ab \ ' 1
1 (a,a) = 2 L.¡ t,. (Zo)nl,. 2
n- 0
where t he characteristic impedances
o 0.1 0 .2 0.3 0.4 (Z 0),. are the reciprocals of Eqs.
b/'>..g (8-114). Because only the dominant
Fio. 8-21. The capacitive diaphragm mode propagates, only the n = O
with e = 2b. (a) Exact solution, (b) term of the summation is real, and
erude aperture-field varia.tional solu-
tion, (e) crude obst.acle-current va.ria.-
..
tional solution, and (d) crude quasi-
sta.tic solution.
2Yo
¿
n• l
(Zo)nJn 2
B = _2_Z_r>f
__ o2-
Substituting for J n from Eq. (8-117) and for (Zo)n = 1/ ( Yohn froro Eq.
(8-114), we finally have
(8-118)
Tbis is the stationary formula in terms of obstacle current for the capaci-
tive diaphragm of Fig. 8-20.
Figure 8-21 compares various solutions to the capacitive diaphragm
problem for the case of a diaphragm covering half the guide cross sectíon.
Curve (a) is called the exact solution beca.use the estimated error is less
than the accuracy of t he graph. This solution is obtained by finding a
quasi-static field and then using it in the variational formula, Eq.
(8-115). 1 Curve (b) is the crude aperture-field variational solution, Eq.
(8-112), which is also Eq. (8-115) with f(y) = l. Curve (e) is a crude
1 N. Ma.rcuvitz, "Wa.veguide Handbook," MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, vol.10,
secs. 3--5 a.nd 5-1, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1951.
obstacle-current variational solution, Eq. (8-118), with
g(y) = sin 7r(Y - e) (8-119)

2(b - e)
(If the case g = 1 is tried, the solution diverges, because the boundary
condition that the current vanishes at y = e is violated.) Curve (d) is
a first-order quasi-static solution to the problem1
B 8b 7rC
Yo >-o log ese 2b (8-120)
In practice, waveguides are usually opera.ted with b/>..0 < 0.25; so this
last solution is a good approximation for most purposes.
Note that the aperture-field variational solution, curve (b), is above the
true solution, and the obstacle-current variational solution, curve (e), is
below the true solution. That this is so for any trial functions f(y) and
g(y) follows from the fact that Eqs. (8-115) and (8-118) are positive
definite and hence are an absolute mioimum for the true fields. Since
Eq. (8-115) gives B/ Yo and Eq. (8-118) gives Yo/B, the former yields
upper bounds and the latter yields lower bounds to the true B/Yo. The
existence of variational formulas for both upper and lower bounds is not
very common and is a consequence of the self-duality of the problem plus
the positive-definite nature of the resulting varia.tional formulas.
Our crude variational solutions give an error of the order of 20 per cent,
but it is remarkable that they are as close as that. A quasi-static solution
to the problem is
f( ) = cos (1nJ/ 2b) (8-121)
y vsin (7rc/ 2b) - sin2 (7ry/2b)
2
which actually has a singularity at y = c. Hence, our approximation

f(y) = 1 was an exceedingly crude choice, yet it led to usable results.
Our approximation to g(y) [Eq. (8-119)} is equally crude. If we were to
use Eq. (8-121) in Eq. (8-115), the result would be very close to the true
solution.
It is interesting to note that the three diaphragms shown in Fig. 8-22
all ha.ve the same equivalent circuits. This is evident, beca.use the image
systems for ali three cases are identical.
The treatment of the inductive diaphragm. (Fig. 8-23) is similar to that
of the capacitive diaphragm. The general variational formulas for upper
and lower bounds a.re given in Proba. 8-14 and 8-15. For a crude aper-
ture-field solution, we assume Eq. (4-75) for E 11° in the aperture.
1W. R. Smythe, "Static and Dynamic Electricity," 2d ed., Sec. 15-10, McGraw-
Rill Book Compa.ny, Inc., New York, 1950.
420 TIME- RARMONIC ELECTROMA.GNETI C FIELDS
(a) (b) (e)

F10. 8-22. These thrce diaphragms give riso to t.he same sbunt capacitance.
T
T T
Yo jB Yo
Side view End view

(a) (b)
Frn. 8-23. (a) Inductive diaphragm, and (b) an equivalent circuit.
Thls procedure gives

[ 11'ª 1.- (c/a) (.,"Ab B)ª
YB = _ >-o
2 2
] (8-122)
0 a e s10 (11"c/a)
where Ba is the apertura susceptance plotted in Fig. 4-19. The values of
-B/Y 0 calculatcd from Eq. (8-122) will be higher than the true values
(of tbe order of 20 per cent bigher). The problem can also be treated by
quasi-static methods, a first-order solution being1
B
Yo
=- Ao
a
(i + csc 2
2a
cot2 11'C
2a
(8-123)
A combination of the qua$-static and variational methods can be used to

obtain solutions of high accuracy. 2
8-10. Waveguide J unctions. We shall now consider waveguide junc-
tions formed by butting two cylindrical guides togethcr, possibly with a
dia.phragm covering ¡pa.rt of the z = O cross section. Figure 8-24 repre·
sents tbe general problem. No longer is there symmetry a.bout tbe z = O
cross section; so the methods of Sec. 8-6 do not apply directly. We there-
1 W. R. Smythe, "Sta.tic and Dynaroic Electricity," 2d ed., p. 555, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950.

' N. Marcuvitz, "Waveguide Handbook," MIT Re.diation Le.bora.tory Series, vol. 10,
sec. 5-2, McGre.w-Hill Book Compe.ny, lnc., New York, 1951.
fore take the more fundamental approach of constructing complete solu-
tions in ea.ch region and enforcing
.[[ E+ X H + · ds =,.[/ E- X H- · ds (8-124)
where superscripts + and - refer to regions z > O and z < O, respec-

tively. In terms of the reaction concept, we can think of Eq. (8-124) as
stating that the reaction is conserved at the junction.
An equivalent network for the junction is shown in Fig. It is
evident that only a shunt element is rcquired to represent the junction,
beca.use an electric conductor placed across the entire z = O cross section
presenta a short circuit to both waveguides. The cbaracteristic admit-
tances of tbe equivalent transmission lines are taken to be tbe character-
istic wave admittances of the guides, and the ideal transformer representa
the change in admittance level. If the characteristic admittance of the
right-band transmission line were chosen as n 2 times the characteristic
wave admittance of the guide, then the transformer would not be needed.
We sh all use Eq. (8-124) to obtain sta.tionary formulas for B and n•.
It is assumed tbat the excitation is at z = - oo ¡ hence in the region
z< O
E,- = (e-if.ls + r &P•) l :o r eo+ ¿ Viea••e,
:o r ¿
i
(8-125)
H ,- = Y o- (e-;i'• - fe iP•) l ho - Y,V,eª••h,
i
where e;, h; are the mode vectors, ª• are the cutoff mode-attenuation con-
stants, y , are the characteristic admittances, and r is the reflection
coefficient for tbe doroinant mode. The subscripts O denote dominant-
mode parameters. Matched conditions are assumed at z = oo ¡ hence in
T 1 :n T
Side view End view

(a) (b)
Fto. S..24. (a) A wa.veguide junction, and (b) an equivalent circuit.
the region z >O

E,+ = f + l f;e-ó·•e;
2:
i
(8-126)
H,+ = Y 0+f oe-i8•fi o + ?;l";e-á••b,
;
where the careta distinguish t he various parameters from tbeir z < O

counterparts. The application of Eq. (8-124) to the above field expres--
sions yields
Yo+f o2 + ¿ f,17, i
i
2
= Y o-Vo2 -1 i
Y,V,2 (8-127)
N ow the relative admittance seen from the left-hand guide is

1-r Y G . B
1 +r = Y o- = Yo-+ J Y o-
(8-128)
Remembering that the Y o are real and the Y;, i O, are imaginary, for
real V, and 17, we have
jB _ ;
l Y,v,: + l f,f, 2
Y o- - (8-129)
G Yo+fo 2
Y o-= Y o-Vo 2
From our equivalent circuit, with matched conditions at z = oo, it is
evident t hat
hence (8-130)
Finally, to obtain the V; and 9',, we need only specialize Eqs. (8-125) and
(8-126) to z = O and, using the methods of Sec. 8-2, obtain
V, = JJ E, · e, ds
(8-131)
f, =
apen
ff E, • e; ds
Note that the integration extends only over the aperture, because E,= O
on the conductor. Equations (8-129) and (8-130), with V, and f, given
by Eq. (8-131), are formulas stationary with respect to small varia.tions
in the aperture E, about the correct field. Alternative stationary for-
mulas in terms of current on the conducting wall at z = O can also be
obtained (see Prob. 8-18). Note that Eq. (8-129) specialized to the case
of two identical guides is the diapbragm solution of the preceding section.
To illustrate the theory, consider the rectangular waveguide junctions
of Sec. 4-9. For the capacitive junction (Fig. 4-16), the dominant-mode
vectors are
,. =
eo -sm-
1"%
ab a
Hence1 regardless of our assumed tangential E in the aperture
El• = ll,¡f(y) (8-132)

a
we ha.ve by Eqs. (8-130) and (8-131)
e
n2 = b (8-133)
This is therefore the exact transformation ratio of the ideal transformer.

In Sec. 4-9, we calculated the aperture susceptance corresponding to the
crude choice f(y) = l. The fust summation in the numerator of Eq.
(8-129) then vanishes, and the second summation is related to the
aperture susceptance of Eq. (4-78) by
l f, = jjVj 2B 0 = jc1B 0
'
But, for f(y) = 11 we have Vo 2 == ac/ 2; hence, by Eq. (8-129),
J!.. = 2c Bo
2
= 4c (X Zo Ba)
0
(8-134)
Yo acYo X0 2a
where the qua.ntity in parentheses is plotted in Fig. 4-17. The general
expression [Eq. (8-129)] is positive definite in our particular case; so
Eq. (8-134) gives values of B/ Yo higher than the true values. However,
beca.use the field in tbe a.perture is less singular at the edge of a step than
at a knife edge, we should expect the assumption f(y) = 1 to give better
resulta in the junction problem than in the corresponding diaphragm
problem. Our approximate answer [Eq. (8-134)] gives a.n accura.cy of
the order of 10 per cent, as illustra.ted by Table 8-3. This can be com-
pared to the 20 per cent accuracy in the corresponding dia.phragm prob-
lem, illustrated by Fig. 8-21.
The inductive junction of Fig. 4-18 is treated in a similar manner. In
general, the field in the aperture is of the form E 11 = f(x), and for the
424 TIME-BARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC F IELDS
TABLE 8-3. CoMPARtsoN oF .EQ. (8-134) TO THE ExACT Sot.uTJoN' FOB TBE cAs1
c/b = 0.5
b
>.o
Exact Approxima.te
o l.57 l.63
0.2 l.69 1.84
0.3 1.93 2.10
0.4 2.44 2.67
1
N. Marcuvitz, "Wavcguide Handbook," MIT Radiation Labora.tory Series, vol. 10,
sec. 5-24, McGra.w-Bill Book Company, Jnc., New York, 1951.
solution of Sec. 4-9 we assumed
Eeª = u"f(x) = Uv sin 1l"X (8-135)

e
By Eq. (8-130), we then :find the transformation ratio of the ideal trans-
former as
2
n2 4c [ sin (7rc/a) ] (8-136)
7f a 1 - (c/a)
2 2
and, by Eq. (8-129), the normalized shunt susceptance as

_.!!._ _ 2Xo (- 11b B) (8-137)
Yo- e X ª
where the quantity in parentheses is plotted in Fig. 4-19. Note that,
in contrast to Eq. (8-133), the transforma.tion ratio [Eq. (8-136)] depends
on the assumed aperture field and is therefore a.pproximate. Note also
that the characteristic wave impedances of the two guides, z < O and
z > O, are now different; so the superscript - has been retained on Yo- in
Eq. (8-137). Finally, the value of -B/Yo- obtained from Eq. (8-137)
will be larger than the true solution, beca.use of the positive definiteness
of the variational formula.
The alternative equivalent circuit of Fig. 8-25 illustrates a very useful
way of viewing the waveguide junction
T l:n T of Fig. 8-24a. We bave separated the
shuntsusceptanceinto two parts, which,
Yo- jB- by Eq. (8-129), can be identified.,
Fxo. S-25. Alterna.tive equivalent

.
JB-
l
i
Yi v ,2 .
;B+
l
i
.?¡t\2
circuit for Fig. 8-24a. Y o- = Yo-V o2 Yo+ =
(8-138)
MICROWA.VE NETWORKS 425
T T n: 1 T
Yo.
1 1
Side view End view
(a) (b)
F10. 8-26. (a) A thin coax-to-wavcguide feed, and (b) an equivalent circuit.
where the V, and f, are given by Eq. {8-131). Note that B- depends
only on guide z < O, and in particular is one-half the shunt susceptance
of a diaphra.gm, assuming Et in t be aperture is unchanged. This assump-
tion is, of course, incorrect, but our formulas are stationary; so B- in the
junction problem is approximately B/2 in the corresponding diaphragm
problem. Similarly, B+ is approximately B/ 2 for the diaphragm prob-
lem corresponding to the guide z > O. Hence, by defining a.perture sus-
ceptances according to Eqs. {8-138), we effcctively divide the problem
into two parts, each part relatively insensitive to the other. An aperture
susceptance calculated for the apertura and one guide, such as Figs. 4-17
and 4-19, thereby becomes useful for a wide variety of problema.
8-11. Waveguide Feeds. We shall now consider thin coax-to-wa.ve-
guide feeds, as illustrated by Fig. 8-26a. By thin, we mean that the
dimension in thc axial (z) direction is small. The analysis will be exact
only for zero-thickness junctions. An equivalent circuit when only one
mode propagates is shown in Fig. 8-26b. Wben more than one mode
propaga.tes, say N modes, there will be N ideal tra.nsformers in series,
each coupling to one mode. The justification for this equivalent circuit
will be found in the analysis.
Let the feed be viewed as a sheet of current J. in the z = O cross sec-
tion. (This neglects the effect of the gap, which is usually small.) Then,
in the region z > O, we have
(8-139)
where r,+ is the +z refiection coefficient of tbe ith mode referred to

z = O. Similarly, for z < O,
E,- = 4'\" l +V·'r,- (e'Y•• + r,-e-'Y;•)e,

i
(8-140)
where re is the -z reflection coefficient of t he ith mode referred to

z = O. We have ensured continuity of E, at z = O by choosing coeffi-
cients V, the same in both Eqs. (8-139) and (8-140). The boundary con-
dition on H at z = O is
J. = X (H,+ - H,-) le- o
=
'4\" v,y, (11 +- r.- 1- r,+)
r.- + 1 + r,+ u. x h, (8-141)
i
Multiplying each side by e, and integrating over t he guide cross section,

we bave
+ = - JJ J, · e, dB (8-142)
The field is t hen completely determined if the r 's and J, are known.
We now use t he stationary formula of Eq. (7-89) to determine the
impedance seen by the coax. This formula is
Z10 = - l 2 ff E • J, ds
where the integra.tion extends over the z = O guide cross section and
110 is the current a.t the reference plane T'. Using the first of Eqs.
(8-139) for E, and Eq. (8-141) for J,, we obtain
_
Z;o -
1
JIA2 4 vi Y, (t1+r,-+1
- r.- I +- r,+
2
r,+
)
i
Finally, substituting for V, from Eq. (8-142), we have
1 '\" z, (JJJ, ·e, ds )2

(8-143)
z.º = 11º 4
2 (1 - r,-)(1 + r,-)-1 + (1 - r,+)(1 + r,+)- 1
i
where z, is t he characteristic impedance of the ith mode. This is a. ster

tiona.ry formula for the input impedance of a zero-thickness coax-to-wave-
guide f eed. We can put it into a slightly different form by noting tha.t
the wave impedance of an ith mode referred to z = O is
h.=
LJ,
z. 11 +
•
r,
- r, (8-144)
Hence, Eq. (8-143) can also be written as
(8-145)
This shows tha.t the guides z > O a.nd z < O appear in parallel for ea.ch
mode. N onpropagating modes decay exponentially from the junction
and their r, ma.y be taken as zero unless sorne obstacle is close to the feed.
If we assume tha.t only one mode propaga.tes, then all z, are imaginary
except i = O, anda.U r.: = O except i = O, provided the terminations are
not too close to the feed. Equation (8-143) or (8-145) can then be
written as
(8-146)
where
(8-148)
Equation (8-146) is, of course, just that for the equivalent circuit of
Fig. 8-26b.
As an example, consider a probe in a rectangular guide (Fig. 8-27).
Assume
], = { k(d - x) o(y - e) x<d
(8-149)
x>d
where k = 21r/ >. is the wave number of free space. The dominant-mode
vector is
eo = u" '\J/2 . 7rY

ab sm -¡;
Equa.tion (8-147) is therefore
-v21ab ['1 rb
n = sin kd Jo dx }o dy sin k(d - x) o(y - e) sin'?
giving n 2 = - 2 sm
k2ab
. 2 ?rC
-
b
tan 2 ( k-
2
d) (8-150)
The summation for X [Eq. (8-148)] diverges, beca.use the ourrent was
TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
xt. . ---'--b---·I taken as filamentary. If the probe is

taken as circular in cross section, the
T a
reactance can be evaluated by methods
similar to those used inSec. 8-7. How-
1 _ _ _ ____,
ever, if the probe is very thick, we sha.11
have to modify the equivalent circuit
of Fig. 8-26b. The reactance of a short
probe can be estimated by the small-
F 10. 8-27. Probe in a rectangular b l · · fS 8 l
waveguide. o stac e approximat1on o ec. -8. t
is evident from the analy-
sis that X is capacitive (negative) for a short probe and is of the order of
magnitude of X for a probe overa conducting ground plane.
Note that our present solution [Eqs. (8-146) to (8- 148)], specialized to
a rectangular waveguide matched in both directions, is the same problem
treated in Sec. 4-10. From our equivalent circuit (Fig. 8-26), it is evi-
dent that the coa.x sees
Ria= n2
under matched conditions. Hence,
n2 2R1º
= - (8-151)
Zo
where R10 is the quantity calculated in Sec. 4-10. For example, when
the probe is connected to the opposite wall of the waveguide, as in Fig.
4-20, we have from Eq. (4-91)
n=
2 - (-
2a tan-
b ka
ka) sm-b2
• 2 'ITC
(8-152)
Other possible feeds are shown in Fig. 4-28.

8-12. Excitation of Apertures. We now wish to consider conducting
bodies conta.ining apertures excited by waveguides. The general prob-
lem is represented by Fig. 8-28a. As far as the waveguide is concerned,
the aperture appears simply as a load a.cross the reference plane T. A
va.riational solution to the problem can be obtained by assurning tangen-
tial E in the aperture, calculating the resultant fields on ea.ch side of the
aperture, and then conserving the flu x of reaction by
ff (E X H • ds).,.t = ff (E X H · ds) t
apert apert
1.. (8- 153)
This is the same approach that we took in Sec. 8-10 for the waveguide
junction. Indeed, we can think of our present problem as a junction
between the wa.veguide and externa! space.
MICROW AVEl NETWORKS 429
Once the tangential E in the aperture is assumed, the problem separa.tes
into two parts, externa.l a.nd internal. We ha.ve anticipated this separa-
tión by tak.ing the equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 8-28b, where jB
represents the internal susceptance of the diaphra.gm and Y•P••' the
external admittance of the aperture. The ideal transformer accounts
for possible differences of impedance reference in the interna! and externa!
problema. The interna} problem is identical to one-ha.lf of the wave-
guide-junction problem. Let us therefore abstract from Eq. (8-138)
l' Y,V, 2
-jB =-=,...,...- 2 (8-154)

Yo YoVo
where v, = JJ E," · e,ds

aput
(8-155)
Tbese formulas give the internal shunt susceptance B in terms of a.n

assumed E, in t be aperture. For tbe externa} problem, we define a.n
0
aperture admitta.nce as
Yapert = ti ff
ap«t
Ec" X H 0 • ds (8-156)
wbere V is sorne reference voltage a.nd H" is the externa! ma.gnetic field
calculated from the assumed E,•. Examples of some aperture-admit-
tance calculations are given in Sec. 4-11. (These calculatíons were roa.de
on a conservation oí power ha.sis, but, beca.use E0 waa assumed real, they
are the same as variationa.1 solutions.) To determine n 2 we note tha.t the
dominant-mode voltage coupled to the aperture is Vo, but we ha.ve
referred the aperture admittance to V; hence
n2
v2
= -Vo2 (8-157)
where Vo is given by Eq. (8-155) applied to the dominant mode.
T 1: n
Yo jB Y.. Aperture
( Aperture
Side view End view

(a) (b)
Fto. S-28. (a) An aperture excited by a waveguide, and (b) an equivalent circuit.
430 TIME-HARMONIC ELECl'ROMAGNETIC FIELDS
0.004
.....
o
<:!>
-0.002
I¡
- 0.006 ,_____....__..__....__.__.__ _..__.._--L_-L---l
FIG. 8-29. Aperture a.dmittance for rectangular apertures in ground planes, referred
to the domina.nt-mode voltage of a rectangular wa.veguide of the ea.me dimenaiolll!.
(After Cohen, Crowley, ana Levia.)
An a.perture of practica! importance is t he rectangular apert ure in a
conducting ground plane, as shown in the insert of Fig. 8-29. The aper-
ture admittance has been calculated for the assumed field
. 'lf'X
E eº= (8-158)
a
in t he aperture, referred to the volts.ge
V - fab (8-159)
- '\} 2
which is the dominant-mode voltage for a. waveguide of t he sa.me dimen-
sions as the a.perture. Hence, when the aperture is simply t he ftanged
open end of a rectangular waveguide, then n = l. The field due to E;°
in the aperture can be f ound by the methods of Sec. 3-6, a.nd the aperture
a.dm1ttance calculated by Eq. (8-156). The mathematica.l details are
tedious but can be found in the literature. 1 Figure shows the aper-
ture admittances for a square aperture and for a rectangular aperture
with sides in tbe ratio 1 to 1 and 2.25 to l. 2
1 Cohen, Orowley, a.nd Levis, T he Aperture Admittance of a Rectangular Waveguide
Radiating into Half-space, Ohio State Univ. Antenna Lab. Rept. a.e 21114 SR no. 22,
1953.
1 AdditionaJ calcula.tions have been made by R. J . Tector, The Cavity-backed Slot
Antenna, Uni11. Illinois Antenna Lab. Rept. 26, 1957.

AB an example, suppose we have a square wa.veguide of height and
width a feeding a rectangular aperture with sides in the ratio a/b = 2.25,
as shown in Fig. 8-30. The waveguide is oxcited in the dominant y-pola.r-
ized mode, for which
v'2 . 'lr'X
eo - a a
Hence, by Eqs. (8-155) and (8-158), we ha.ve
Vo = - v/21º
ªo o
1b . dx dysm 2 'lr'X
-
ª
= -b
v'2
and so, by Eqs. (8-157) and (8-159),
a
n2 = b = 2.25
The shunt susceptance Bis one-half that for the dia.pbra.gm of Fig. 8-22b.
An approximation to Bis therefore given by Eq. (8-120) with B replaced
by B/ 2, b by a/ 2, a.nd e by b/ 2, giving
B 8a 'lrb a
- R: - log ese - = 3.54 -
Yo >-o 2a Xo
Hence, the tenninating admittance seen by the waveguide is
Y j3.54 :O + 2.25 Yapert

where Yapert is given by the a/ b = 2.25 curves of Fig. 8-29.
8-13. Modal Expansions in Cavitles. Consider a oavity formed by a
perfect conductor enclosing a dieleotric mediu.m. Each mode must
Side view End view

Fxo. 8-30. A square waveguide feeding a rectangular aperture in a ground plane.
432 TIME-BA.RMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
satisfy the field equa.tions

V X E,= -j(.o),µH¡ V X H¡ = jw,"EEi (8-160)
where i is a mode index. Either E, or H; may be elimina.ted from the
a.hove pa.ir of equations, giving the wave equations
V X (14- 1V X E,) - w¡2EEi = 0
(8-161)
V X (E- 1V X H,) - w,2µH, = O
va.lid even if E and µ. are functions of position. Ea.ch of these wave equa-
tions, coupled with the boundary condition
n X E, = n X (E-1V X H,) = 0 on S _(8-162)
where nis the unit normal directed outward from the cavity boundary S,
is an eigenvalue problem in the classical sense. 1 Hence, for E and µ. real
(no dissipation), the eigenvalues w; (resonant frequencies) are real, and
the eigenf unctions E,, H, form a complete orthogonal set in the Hermitian
sense. Furthermore, we wish to normalize the mode vectors, so that the
orthogonality rela.tionships are
fff EE¡ • Ej dT = { i = j
(8-163)
which can be d,e rived from Eqs. (8-160) in the usual manner. Normal-
ization of the E¡ also normalizes the H,, beca.use
that is, the time-average electric and magnetic energies are equal.
Hence, the orthogonality rela.tionships for the H, corresponding to the
orthonormal E, are
ffJµH, • H7 dT = { i=j
(8-164)
We ha.ve airead.y shown in Sec. 8-4 that if E, is chosen real, then the cor-
responding H , is imaginary, and vice versa.
Now suppose electric sources exist within the cavity, as suggested
by Fig. 8-31a. The field equations are then
V X E= -jwµH V X H = jwEE +J
and the wave equation is
V X (µ- 1V X E) - w 2EE = -jwJ (8-165)
1 Philip M. Morse a.nd Herm&ll Feshbach, "Methods of Theoretical Physics,"
chap. 6, part I, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1953.

MICROW A.VE NETWORKS 433
FIG. 8-31. A cavity con-

taining (a) electric sources,
and (o) magnetic sources.
(a) (b)
Because t he E, are a complete set, we can let
E = l A ,E,
i
(8-166)
Substit uting this into Eq. (8-165), we ha.ve
l A,[V X (µ- 1V X E,) - w2EE,] = -jwJ

'
which, by Eq. (8-161), can be written as
l A¡(w,
i
2
- w2 )EE¡ = -jwJ
If each side is now multiplied scalarly by Ej and integrated over t he

volume of the cavity, a.U terms except i = j vanish beca.use of orthogo-
nality [Eq. (8-163)], and we ha.ve
(w,2 - w2)A, = - jw JJJ J ·E: d'T (8-167)
which determines the A,. Hence, Eq. (8-166) becomes
(8-168)
and the corresponding H , obtained from the field equations, is
(8-169)
Note that t he field becomes extremely large as w approaches so me

resonant frequency. In fact, the field becomes infinite ata resonant fre-
quency in the loss-free case, which is to be expected. Actually, in any
physica.l problem t here will always be some dissipation¡ so the "'• are com-
plex. Hence, the field is large, but finite, at all real resonant frequencies.
The dual problem is that of magnetic sources in a cavity, represent ed
by Fig. 8-31b. In t his case, t he wave equation in H is
(8-170)
434 TlME-RARMONl C ELECTROMA.GNETIC FlELDS
We then expand H in terms of the orthonormal mode vectors lit as
(8-171)
where, dual to Eq. (8-167), the B, are given by
(c,,,,2 - w2 )B, = -jw JJJ M • H t dT (8-172)
Hence, the expansion of H dueto magnetic currents M is 1
H = \' jwH ,
L.¡ w 2 - wi'· }}
i
¡·(( M • H t dT (8-173)
and the corresponding E :field is

E= \ '
f_¡
iw•E•
w2 - w,i
¡·rr}}
M . HTdT (8-174)
i
If both electric and magnetic sources exist within the cavity, we can
superimpose Eqs. (8-168) and (8-174) for a solution.
8-14. Probes in Cavities. Mathematically, we can representa probe
in a ca.vity in terms of electric currents in the cavity, as shown in Fig.
8-31a. The impedance seen at the input termina.Is to the probe can then
be calculated by the variational formula
(8-175)
where Jº is the a.ssumed current distribution on the probe, and 1 is the

corresponding input current. AH mode vectors E; will be chosen real¡
so tbe field produced by J" is given by Eq. (8-168) with the * dropped.
Substituting this equation into Eq. (8-175) , we obta.in
Zm = - jw \ ' a.2 (8-176)

¡ z L.¡ w2 _ w/l
i
where (8-177)
The analysis neglects the effect of the aperture through which the probe
is fed. This effect is usually negligible and can be taken into account by
the methods of the next section.
As long as there is no dissipation, the input impedance will be purely
reactive. However, if the cavity is lossy but high Q, the effect of dissipe.-
1 The eigenvalue "'' = O must be included in both Eqs. (8-168) e.nd (8-173). The
modes associated witb "'' = O account for the irrotational parts of E and H . See, for
example, Teichmann a.nd Wigner, J . Appl. Phy., vol. 24, March, 1953.
435
te
MICROWA VE NETWORKS
tion can be taken into account by

let ting t he resonant frequencies be
complex, according to 1
jX
1
f R L
w;.2 = wr 2 ( 1 + b) (8-178) 1------"---__.__ ___,

where Q is the quality factor. In t he FIG. S-32. An equivalent circuit for a
probe-fed ca.vity in the vicinity of
vicinity of a resonant frequency, say resona.nce.
w0 (not necessarily the dominant reso-
nant frequency), we can approximate E q. (8-176) by
. jw(ao/ 1) 2
Z 10 -;::;; JX - w2 _ wo 2 (l + j/Q) (8-179)
where X is the reactance due to all modes except the i = O mode
(8-180)
The effect of dissipation in modes not near resonance is negligible ¡ hence,

it is not included in Eq. (8-180). An equivalent circuit which representa
Eq. (8-179) is shown in Fig. 8-32. To determine the values of R, L, and
O, we need only compare the formula for the impedance of the parallel
RLC circuit
1
wo2 = -
Z=
jw/ C LO
w2 - wo 2 (1 + j / Q) R R
Q =-= -
wL waL
with the last term of Eq. (8-179). It is then evident that
R = Q
wo
(ªº)2
I
L = lwo e= (;º)2 (8-181)
where ao is obtained from Eq. (8-177).

To illustrate the theory, consider a probe in a rectangular cavity
(Fig. 8-33). The normalized mode vector of the dominant mode is
2 . 11"Y • 11"Z
Eo = U:a: - - sm - sm - (8-182)
b e
where the normalization factor obtained from Eq. (2-97). For the
current on the probe, we assume
J=º= ¡ I sin
o
smkd
- x) o( - b')o( - e')
Y Y
x<d
x>d
(8-183)
1 M. E. Van Valkenberg, "Network Ana.lysis," p. 364, Prentice-Ha.ll, Inc., Engle-
wood Cliffs, N.J., 19ó5.

436 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNE'I'IC FIELDS
_ tx
____,T
t a
.;_....______ . .d......____.J
FIG. 8-33. Probe in a. rectangular cavity.
Then, by Eq. (8-177), we have
-ao =
1
2
k VEabc
t an (k-ü
2
· ("' -b'b ) s1n· (TrC'-e )
s1n (8-184)
The other parameters needed to evaluate R, L, and C are the resonant

frequency f,, = w 0/2Tr, given by Eq. (2-95), and the quality factor Q, given
by Eq. (2-101). The evaluation of the series reactance X is a much more
diffi.cult problem. We cannot, of course, use the filamentary current of
Eq. (8-183) to evaluate X, since the resulting reactance would be infinite.
The actual día.meter of the stub must be considered. To a. very rough
a.pproximation, X will be of the same order of magnitude as for a stub
over a ground plane. Hence, for short stubs, the reactance is capacitive.
When the stub is bent into a small loop and joined to the cavity wall,
the system is often called a loop feed. The treatment of loops in cavities
is essentially t he same as t he treatment of stubs, once a current is assumed
on the loop. The series reactance X for small loops is inductive, in con-
trast to the small-stub case, for which it is capacitive. Some explicit
loop feeds are considered in Probs. 8-24 and 8-26.
8-15. Aperture Coupling to Cavities. The general problem of coupling
a cavity to a wa.veguide through an aperture is represented by Fig. 8-34a.
For a variational of the problem, we assume an aperture field.
E, a.nd conserve reaction according to
0
I f (E1º X Hº • ds)suld• JJ(Etº X H

apert
=
apert
0
• ds)cav1t7 (8-185)
For a given E,o, each side of this equation can be considered separately,
which amounts to dividing the original problem into two parta, as shown
in Fig. 8-34b a.nd c. The equivalent current
M. 0 = n X E,0 (8-186)
in the ca.vity part is the negative of the terminating current in the wave-
guide part. The waveguide pa.rt of the problem is identica.l to the prob-
lems treated in Secs. 8-10 and 8-11, and is therefore of the form
ff (Et° X H 0 • ds) 11111d• = - YVo 2 + l Y,. V,. 2

apert n 9'0
where the V,. are the various mode voltages, the Y,. a.re the mode-charac-
teristic admittances, and Y is the admittance seen by the domina.nt mode.
Hence, we can rewrite (8-185) as
= jB,, - fJ
al)C11
(E,º X H 0
• ds).....1i7 (8-187)
where Y o is the cha.racteristic admittance of the dominant mode and
B,, = -j Y,.
L.¡ Yo Vo
(V")2 (8-188)
""º
(a) (b)
(e) (d)
Fra. 8-34. (a) Aperture coupling from a wa.veguido to a ca.vity ca.o be dividcd into two
parts, (b) the cavity, a.nd (e) the wa.veguide. An equivalent. circuit in tho vicinity
of resonance is ehown in (d).
438 TlME-HARMONIC ELECTROJl.UGNETIC F I ELDS
is t he shunt susceptance introduced by the waveguide part of the prob-

lem. The .calculation of B 11 was treated in Sec. 8-10.
For the cavity part of the problem, we can determine the field by Eq.
(8-173) with the current given by Eq. (8-186). T aking the mode vectors
H, as real, we obtain
The right-hand side of Eq. (8-185) is then given by
ff (Etª X H ª • ds).,.va,.. =
\'
f..¡ w2 _
jwb,2
"'•2 (8-1 89)
apert i
where (8-190)
In the vicinity of a resonant frequency, we again take losses into account

by Eq. (8-178), and Eq. (8-187) can be written as
The first term in t he brackets represents t he susceptance due to all non-

resonant modes in the cavity, and the second term giv-es the resonant-
mode effect. The above equation can therefore be written as
Y 'B
Yo :::::: J 0
+ Yo
n
2
[ 'B0
J - w2 -
jw(bo/V)
wo 2 (1 + j / Q)
]
2
(8-191)
where the susceptance dueto nonresonant cavity modes is

B - -
o - v2 \f._¡' b,2
w2 _ W¡2
(8-192)
and, to account for an arbitrary reference-voltage V, we have introduced

the ideal transformer
(8-193)
Finally, we can represont the last term of Eq. (8-191) as a series RLC
circuit, as shown in Fig. 8-34d. The formula for admittance of a series
RLC circuit is
y = -jw/ L
w2 - wo2(1 + j/Q)
Comparing thi8 with the last term of Eq. (8-191), we see that
.!_ = Q
R wo
(bº)2
V
e= Vwo L = (8-194)
where bo is obtained írom Eq. (8-190).

Let us illustrate the above theory by a treatment of the rectangular
waveguide to rectangular cavity junction, shown in Fig. 8-35. The
guide part of the problem is identical to problems previously considered.
In particular, Bg will be approximately one-half of Eq. (8-120) with the
appropriate interchange of symbols, or
B 4a' 1rd
- 11 -logcsc- (8-195)
Yo >.. 11 2a'
For the cavity part of the problem, let us make our often-used assumption
Et° = u,,. sin 'Ir: (8-196)
in the aperture. Also, let us refer the cavity admittances to
V= Jl- (8-197)
which is the waveguide dominant-mode voltage that would be excited by

Eq. (8-196) if the waveguide were the same height as the aperture (n 2
would be 1 in that case). In our particular problem, the waveguide
dominant-mode voltage is V 0 = yba' /2; hence
n2 = -d (8-198)
a'
Rather than calculating Eq. (8-192) directly, let us view the aperture as
the junction between two waveguides of height a' anda. The suscept-
Waveguide Cavity
T b
j_
FIG. 8-35. Aperture cou-
pling from a rectangular e .. ,
waveguide to a recta.ngu- Top view
lar cavity.
1
_i_I
d
+
Side view
I
anee Be referred to the mode voltage of a wa.veguide of height a could

then be approximated by Eq. (8-195) with a' replaced by a. But we
wish to refer it to the V of Eq. (8-197); so we should multiply by d/a
and obtain
4d ?rd
Be Ao log ese 2a (8-199)
Finally, to determine the R, L 1 and C, we need the normalized dominant-

mode vector1 which is
2 ( . 'lfy 'lfZ 'lfY.1rZ) (8-200)

µabc(b2 +c 2) e e
Hence1 from Eqs. (8-190), (8-196) 1 and (8-197) 1 we obtain
(bVº)2= µac(l
2d
+ c/b) 2
(8-201)
The resonant frequency fr = wo/27r is given by Eq. (2-95) and the quality
factor Q by Eq. (2-101). Hence, all pa.rameters of the equivalent circuit
(Fig. 8-34d) have been evalua.ted.
PROBLEMS
8-1. Consider the parallel-plate waveguide formed by conductora covering the
11 = O a.nd
y = b planes. Show that the eigenfunctions, norma.lized on a per unit
width basis, are
'Ito"' =..JI_
0
'Itn"' - '\l2b sin n71'!1
n'lf" b
v'2b
w..• = - n71'!1
- cos-
n'lr b
where n = 1, 2, 3, . . ..
8-2. Consider an x-directed current element Il e.t the point x', y', z' in 11. rec-
tangular waveguide (Fig. 2-16). Show that the field is given by formulas of Table
8-1 where w's are given by Eqs. {8-34) and, for n, m O,
V.,..,•.., -
where
v'Cmb) + (na)
2 2
m11"x' . m·y' _ 'Y l•-•'I
f "'" = ll(z)
o "'" mb' + na' cos a SI.U b e ••
and, for m = O,
8-S. For the general cylindrical waveguide (Fig. 8-1), show that the tixne-average
electric energy per unit length of guide is
and the time-average magnetio energy per unit length of guide is
L., ,,11...11 + µ11,•1• + µ

= 21 '\' (k'') ¡v,•1
1
1
i
Note that these are just the sum of the energies in each mode alone.
8-4. Let the T equivaJent circuit of Fig. 8-lOb representa section of waveguide of
length l, propagation constant j{J, and charaoteristic impedance Z 0• Show that
Z ,. = -iZo cae {Jl

Z6 = iZo tan fJl/2
8-6. Using the usual perturbationa.l method, show that, for general cylindrical wave-
guides, the attenuation constant due to conductor loss is
1 <R
cr.,= - -- k k2
2 11 (J •
(ª'· an
- 11"')' dl
for T M modes, and
a., ... -1 -<R -fJ
2 " k
(ª'-allf•)' dl + fJ'k 4 (it•)' dl ]
for TE modes. <R denotes inVinsic resistance of tbe metal walls, .,, intrinsio impedance
of the dielectric, and the other symbols correspond to their usage in Ta.ble 8-1.
8-6. Use the above formulas to determine the attenuation in rectangular waveguides
(Prob. 4-4) añd-in circular waveguides (Prob. 5-9).
8-7. Considera one.-port network, and define the reflection coefficient r - V•/V'.
Show t hat, for Zo real,
<f>11 - (1 - lrl1)1V'l1/ Zo
and .. - w. == l ¡v•¡1 Im (r )/Zo
"'
Bence, in a source-free network, ¡r ¡ S 1, and, at resonance, r is real.
2
8-8. Derive Eqs. (8-72).

8-9. Let the characteristic impedances of porta (1) and (2) of Fig. 8-7 be norma.1-
ized to unity. Show that the tra.nsmission matrix [TJ is relatcd to the impedance
matrix [z] by
2Tu - zu + -zu1 (1 - zu)(zu - 1)
2Tu = + -zu1 (1 + zu)(zu - 1)

-zu
1
2Tii .,. Zu + - (1 - zu)(zu + 1)
zu
2Tu ... -zu + -zu1 (1 + zu)(zu + 1)
Show that in the loss-free case Tu = T:, and Ta = T:1•
442 TlME-HABMONIC ELECTROMA.GNETIC FIELDS
8-10. Add a magnetic current sheet M, coincident with the electric current sheet. J,
of Fig. 8-11. Determine M, and J, euch tbat t.hey are a unidirectional dominant,.
mode source, sending waves in tbe +z direction only. Determine the selí-reaction
of this source in the presence of tbe magnetic conductor terminating tbe gujde.
8-11. Derive Eq. (8-96).
8-12. Consider the centered capacitive post in a rectangular waveguide, ahown in
Fig. 8-36. Show that the equivalent network parameters are
B. Yo r d 1 1
-•-F:='-
Yo B• 2a>-.
Tbe o.pproximations are good for d/ a. < 0.3 and a./>.,, < 0.2.
jB&
l--b--I T T
.B I 1(jBºJ1
T
Il§
o o
Yo Yo
lI } ºI
o o
Side view End view Equivalent circuit
Fto. 8-36. Centered capacitive post in a rectangular wavcguide.
8-18. Consider the inductive diapbragm of Fig. 8-23. Approximating B1 in the

aperture by
. 11".Z
E1º - sin -e
show that Eq. (8-122) is a crude variational solution for the shunt susceptance.
8-14. The inductive diaphragm (Fig. 8-23) has boundaries cylindrical to 71. The
incident mode is TM to y; hence, the entire field must be TM to y. Express the 6eld
as H = V X 0r.Y where
In the aperture, tangential E must be of the form

E1 • Uy/(z)
Show that
B 2>., "ª2
'1(i)' - /(z) sin n:z dz r
- Yo '"'(J
is a variational formula for the shunt eusceptance. Note that it gives upper bouoda
to -B/ Yo. Problem 8-13 is the special case/(z) ""sin (1rZ/c).
8-16. Consider the inductive diaphragm (Fig. 8-23) and the variational formula.in
terms of obstacle current [Eq. (8-107) ]. On the diaphragm, the current is of the form
], -
Show that
..
y l V(n/2)'1- (a/X)' [le a g(:z;) sin n:z dz]'
o
- B ...
a
2Xo [feª g(:z:) sin -ir; dz r
is the variational formula for lower bounds to -B/ Y 0•
8-16. Show that tbe shunt suseepta.nee of the eapacitive dia.phragm of Fig. 8-37 is
given by the same formula as applies to Fig. 8-22a.
Fxo. 8"37. A ea.pacitive

diaphragm (metal shown
dashed).
8-17. Consider the eapaeitive junetion of Fig. 8-38. Show that the parameters of
the equivalent eireuit are
B+ 4b+ 11'C
Yo ""'"X; log ese 2b+
B- 4b- 11'C
Yo ""'>;" log ese 2b_
b-
n' ""' -b+
Use the approxima.tion of Eq. (8-120).
T T 1 :n T
f r===1
Side view
J_Ju__:
End víew Equivalent circuit
Fro. 8-38. A eapacitive junction.
8-18. Considet the waveguide junction of Fig. 8-24a and the equivalent circuit of
Fig. 8-25. Show that, analogous to Eqs. (8-138),
Yo-
li
Z;/,2
jB- ..
and n 1 .. 101/!02. The mode currents are given by
where H,+ and H,- denote tangential H on the +z and -z sides of the junetion,
respectively. Variational formulas are obtained by a.'lsuming H,+ a.nd H,- subject to
the restriction H,+ .., H 1- in the aperture.
444 TI ME-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
8-19. Let e/t(z,y) ... be a. solution to the two-dimensional source-free Helm·

holtz equation p < a. Prove that
J 0
2
" f(a,q,)einf d.¡, ... t. J,,(ka)[efnD.p(O))
where ei"D is an operator defined by
. D - ..,,_
1 - a 1 a
sin cosD-.--
3k ax 3k az
e.nd el"D.Y(O) means elnD,¡,(x,y) evaluated at z - O, y = O. Tbis is e. kind oí mean-

value theorem.
8-20. Consider the coa.x to waveguide feed of Fig. 4-20. Let d denote the diameter
of the coaxial stub, e.nd let a « X. Show that, for the equivalent circuit of Fig. 8-26b,
2a . 'll'C
n• ""-s1n1 -
b b
a 'Ykd
X "" -,,x log-y
where 'Y = l. 781.

8-21. Let the rectangular aperture of Fig. 8-29 be thin (b « X) and of resonant
length (a ... X/2). Show that
b
""' 0.004 );
Hint: Use the duality concept of P rob. 7-43 and the approximations of Prob. 7-39.
Note that the aperture radiates only into he.lf-space.
8-22. Figure 8-39 represents a pa.rallel-plate tra.nsmission line radiating through e.
slot into half-spa.ce. Let Fig. 8-28b represent the equivalen t circuit, and evaluate the
pa.rameters, using the aperture admittance oí Fig. 4-22.
F10. 8-39. A parallel-

a -¡ plate transm.ission line
b radiating into half·space.
___________ ....!
8-23. Figure 8-40 representa a rectangular waveguide having sides a, b radiating
into half-space through a narrow resonant slot. Using the resulta of Prob. 8-21,
show that reflectionless transmission through the slot occurs when
.,,. 0.54 cos2 (1r>./4b)
>. [1 -
When b/>. < 0.7, the above formula can be approximated by
The wa.veguide is excited in the dominant mode.
FIG. 8-40. A rectangular

r--b
;:-r-------,
'"I
waveguide radia.ting into
a 1 1
half-space throug;h a. reso-
nant slot.
8-24. Consider tbe loop-fed rectangular ca.vity of Fig. 8-41. Assume that the loop
is small, so tbat the current on it may be assumed constant. Show tbat the elemeots
of the equivalent circuit (Fig. 8-32) are given by Eqs. (8-181) where
1 - .y;a;;c sin 1r 0
Cli> 2d . ( b') sm. (,.. ee')
When e' « e, this reduces to
ªº
-[ ""'
211'.Á • (
_ r-::;:: SlD 11'
e vtabc
b')
b
where A = c'd is the area of the loop.
F10. 8-41. A loop-fed

rectangular cavity.
II
446 TIME-HARMONlC E LECTROMAGNETIC FlELDS
8-26. Show tha.t the normalized mode vector for the domina.nt mode of the circular
cavity (Fig. 8-42) is
Eo s::$ U. 1
a v;;b J 1(:z:o1)
J o ( Xo1 -
a
p)
where :t:o1 = 2.405.
(b)
Fta. 8-42. A circular cavity with (a) probe feed, and (b) loop feed.
8-26. Figure 8-42a representa e. probe-fed circular ca.vity. Assume sinusoidal dis-
t ribution of current on the probe, a.nd show that the elements of the equiva.lent circuit
(Fig. 8-32) are given by Eqs. (8-181) where
ao
-
1
e
ka
1
y;;¡; J 1(:z:o1) 2
d) ( ae)
tan ( k - J o :Z:o¡ -
and Xo1 "" 2.405.

8-27. Figure 8-42b representa a. loop-fed circular ca.vity. Assume uniform current
on the loop, and show that the elements of the equivalent circuit (Fig. 8-32) are given
by Eqs. (8-181) where
• d J o ( xo1
l a v;;b J 1(:t:o1) ª
Show that, when e <>< a, this reduces to
ao A:z:o1
7 '"'ai y';;b
where A - (a - c)d is the atea of the loop.
8-28. Reconsider Fig. 8-41 for the ce.se of a small loop. Represent the loop by a
ma.gnetic-current element Kl, a.ccording to Fig. 3-3, and evaluate
R s _ Re (a,a) = Kl • H
p p
The result is the sa.me a"8 t he sma.ll-loop answer in Prob. 8-24.

8-29. Reconsidcr Fig. 8-42b by the method outlined in Prob. 8-28. Show that the
result is the same as the small-loop answer of Prob. 8-26.
8-80. Show tha.t the norma.lized H mode vector for the domina.nt mode of tbe
spherical cavity (Fig. 6-2) is
H- u.; O.sao J 1 (2.744 !)
,ya; a
sin 9
APPENDIX. A
VECTOR ANALYSIS
We shall normally orient rectangular (x,y,z), oylindrica.l (p, <1>,z), and

spherioal (r,8,</>) coordina.tes as shown in Fig. A-1. Coordina.te trans-
formations are then given by
x = p cos </> = r sin 8 cos el>

y = p sin = r sin 8 sin el>
z = r cos 8
p = v' x' + y 2 = r sin 8
{A-1)
el> = tan- 1 !!.
X
r = v':t + y' + z' == v'p2 + z!

2
8 = ta.n- 1 v'z2 +y' = ta.n-1 -P

z z
Transformations oí the coordina.te componente oí a. vector among the

three coordina.te systems a.re given by
A,. = A, cos </> - A, sin q,

= A, sin 8 cos </> + A, oos 8 cos el> - A• sin <f>
A 11 = A, sin <1> + A, cos </>
= A, sin 8 sin el>+ A, coa 8 sin q, + A, cos el>
A. = A, cos O - A, sin 8
A, = A,. cos </> + A 11 sin 4> = A. sin 8 + A, cos 8 (A-2)
A, = - A., sin q, + A 11 cos 4>
A, = A,, sin 8 cos + ..4. 11 sin 8 sin + A . cos 8
= A, sin 8 + A, cos 8
A, = A,. cos 8 cos </> + A 11 cos 8 sin 4> - A, sin 8
= A, cos O - A. sin 8
The coordinate-unit vectors in the three systems are denoted by (u..,u11,u,),

(u,,u,,u,), a.nd (u,,u,,u.). Differential elements of volume are
d'T = dx dy dz "" p dp de/> dz = r 2 sin 8 dr d8 dq, (A-3)

447
Fio. A-1. Normal coordi-

nate orientation.
y
y
differential elements of vector a.rea. a.re

ds = u,. dy dz + dx dz + u. dx dy
= u,p dtf> dz + u. dp dz + U.p dp dtf> (A-4)
= u,r 2 sin 8 d8 dtf> + u 1r sin 8 dr dq, + u.r dr d8
and differential elements of vector length are
dl = u,.dx + + u. dz
= u, dp + u•p dtf> + u.. dz (A-5)
= u, dr + u 1r d8 + u•r sin 8 dq,
The elementary algebraic operations are the same in all right-handed
orthogona.l coordina.te systems. Letting (u 1,u2,ua) denote the unit
vectors and (A1,A1,As) the corresponding vector components, we have
addition defined by
A+ B = U1(A1 + B1) + u2(A2 + B2) + ua(Aa + Ba) (A-6)
sea.lar multiplication defined by
A ·B = A1B1 + A2B2 + AsBa (A-7)
and vector multiplication defined by

U1 U2 Ua
A X B = A1 A2 A.a (A-8)
B1 B, Ba
The above formula is a determinant, to be expanded in the usual manner.
The differential opera.tora that we ha.ve occasion to use are the gradient
(Vw), divergence (V · A), curl (V X A), and Lapladan (V 2w). In
rectangular coordina.tes we can think of del (V) as t he vector operator
(A-9)
VECTOR ANALYSIS 449
a.nd the various opera.tions are
V w = u. -
aw + u,, -aw + u -ow
ax ay • é)z
V •A = aA., + aA . . + aA.
ax ay az
(A-10)
In cylindrical coordina.tes we ha.ve
aw liJw aw
Vw = Up op + Uf> po</> + U, oz
V .A = !p dp (pA ) + !p aa<1>
p
A .. + aA,
az
V X A = u
p
(! aA,
o</>
p
- aA.) + (ªAp - aA.)
az
u.
az ap
(A-11)
+ u, [! !._ (pA.) _ _! aAP]

p ap p ª"'
vzw = ! !._ (Paw) + .!_ aaq,2w + a w
p iJp iJp p2
2 2
é)z2
In spherical coordina.tes we ha.ve
aw 1 aw 1 aw
Vw + u, r a8 + u• r sin 8 o</>
= u, ar
1 a ( 2A )
V · A = r2 T
(}r r .1- 8aa8(A 1 sm
, + r- sm
. 8) + - .i- aA.
r sm 8 ª"" 'f'
V X A = u, - .-1 [a - (A• sm . 8) - -aA,]

r Slll 8 08 o</>
+ u, -r1 [ -. aA, - -a (rA•) ]
1- -- (A-12)
sm 8 aq, ar
+ U.p -r1 [a
-
ar
(rA1) - -aA,]
a8
1 a ( 2 aw) 1 a( . aw) 1 a2w2
Vlw = f:i ar r ar + r 2 sin 8a8 Slll Oae + r 2 sin 2 8o</>
A number of useful vector identities, which a.re independent of the
choice of coordina.te system, are as follows. For addition and multiplica-
tion we ha.ve
A2 = A . A
IAl 2
= A·A*
A + B=B + A
A·B = B·A
A X B = -B X A (A-13)
(A + B) • e = A • e B•e +
(A + B) X e = A X e B X e +
A · BXC = B · C X A = C · AXB
A X (B X C) = (A • C)B - (A • B)C
For differentiation we have
V (v + w) = Vv + Vw
V • (A + B) = V •A + V •B
V X {A + B) = V X A +V X B
V (vw) = VV w + w Vv
V • (wA) = wV • A + A · Vw
V X (wA) wV X A - A X Vw
= (A-14)
V • (A X B)= B •V X A - A · V X B
V2A = V(V · A) - V X V X A
V X (v Vw) = Vv X Vw
V X Vw = 0
V·VXA = O
For integration we have
fff A dr = 1fi A • ds
V •
ff A • ds A • dl
V X =
ff f A dr = -1P A
V X X ds (A-15)
JJJ V wdr 1fi wds =
JJn X Vw ds = w dl
Finally, we ha.ve the Helmholtz identity
4irA = - V
rr Ir _ r'I
}}
V' • A
dr' +V X j
r¡ Ir _ r'I
.i
V' X A
dr' (A-16)
va.lid if A is well-behaved in all space and vanishes at least as rapidly as

r- 2 at infinity.
APP ENDIX B
COMPLEX PERMITTIVITms
The following is a table of relative a-e capacitivities and relative

dielectric loss factora where
Er
. E E' . E''
= - = - - J- =
'
Er -
."
JEr
. Eo EO Eo
is the relative complex permittivity. The measurements, along with

many others, were reported in ''Tables of Dielectric Materials" (vol.
IV, Mass. lnst. Technol., Research Lab. Insulation, Tech. Rept.). They
also appear in Part V of "Dielectric Materials and Applications, 11
Technology Press, M.I.T., Cambridge, Mass., 1954.
Frequency, cycles per second
Material TºC
10• 10• 10' 10• 101 101 108 3 X 101 3X 10' 1010
,
Amber (fossil resin) ........ .... 25 Er 2 .7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.65 2.65 .... 2.6 2.6
10
4 t;' 34 49 84 116 148 180 .... 223 234
,
Bakelite (no filler) .. ..... ...... 24 Er 8 .2 7 . 15 6.5 5.9 5.4 4.9 4.4 .... 3.64 3.52
1100 585 410 330 320 360 340 .... 190 130
Beeswax {white) ... . ........... 23 fr ' 2.65 2 .63 2.56 2.48 2.43 2.41 2.39 .... 2.35 2.35
360 310 680 470 205 165 145 .... 120 113
Carbon tetrachloride ........... 25 Er' 2.17 2.17 2.17 2.17 2.17 2 .17 2.17 2.17 2.17 2.17
130 17 0.9 1 1 5 5 3 8 35
""
Clay soil {dry) ................ 25 'r ' 4.73 3.94 3.27 2.79 2.57 2.44 .... 2.38 2.27 2.16
570 470 390 280 170 98 .... 48 34 28
Ethyl alcohol (absolute) . .... .. . 25 'r' .. . . . ... ... . .... 24 .5 24. l 23 .7 22.3 6.5 1. 7
.. .. . ... . .. . .... 220 80 150 600 165 10
--
Fiberglas BK 174 (laminated) .. 24 E, ' 14.2 9.8 7.2 5.9 5.3 5 .0 4.8 4.54 4.40 4 .37
365 255 115 52 24 17 12.5 10 13 16
Glass, phospha.te . ........ . .... 25 Er' 5.25 5.25 5.25 5.25 5.25 5.25 5.24 5.23 5.17 5.00
(2 per cent iron oxide) 115 95 85 80 75 85 105 ' 130 240 210
Gla.ss, lead-barium ........ ... .. 25 Er

I
6.78 6.77 6.76 6.75 6.73 6.72 6.70 6.69 .... 6.64
160 120 100 85 85 95 115 130 .... 470
Gutta-percha. ................. 25
I
f,. 2.61 2 .60 2.58 2.55 2.53 2.50 2.47 2.45 2.40 2.38
lO•/,' 13 10 23 54 105 200 300 270 145 120
Loamy soil (dry) .............. 25 ' 3.06 2.83 2.69 2.60 2.53 2.48 .... 2.47 2 .44 2.44
2100 1400 950 780 460 360 .... 160 27 34
Lucite HM-119 ............... . 23 '

f,. 3.20 2.84 2.75 2.68 2.63 2.60 2.58 .... 2.57 2.57
2000 1250 865 580 380 260 175 .... 126 82
Mycalex 400 (mica, glass) ...... 25 '

f,. 7.47 7.45 7.42 7.40 7.39 7.38 .. . . . . .. .... 7.12
220 140 120 105 95 95 .. .. .... . ... 235
Neoprene compound ..... .... .. 24 '

E, 6.70 6.60 6.54 6.47 6.26 5.54 4.5 4.24 4 .00 4 .00
(38 per cent. GN) 1070 730 750 970 2400 6600 4050 2700 1350 1050
Nylon 66 ... .................. 25 '

Er 3.88 3.75 3.60 3.45 3.33 3.24 3.16 .... 3.03
io•/,' 560 725 840 880 860 790 660 .... 390
Paper (Roya.lgrey) ..... . ....... 25 '

Er 3.30 3.29 3.22 3.10 2.99 2.86 2.77 2.75 2. 70 2.62
lo•/,' 190 250 380 620 1150 1600 1800 1800 1500 1050
Pa.raffin 132° ASTM ... ........ 25 '

E, 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 .... 2.25 2.24
10•/,' 5 5 5 5 5 5 ó .... 4.5 5
81 '
Er 2.02 2.02 2.02 2.02 2.02 2.02 ... . .... 2.00
10 2.4 1 4 4 6 ... . .... 10.4
Plexigla.s .... ..... .. ......... . 27 '

Er 3.40 3.12 2.95 2.84 2.76 2. 71 .... 2.66 2.60 2.59
10•/,' 2050 1450 885 570 385 270 .... 165 150 175
Polyethylene (pure) .... . ....... 24 '

E, 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25 . .. . .... 2.25 2.25
lo•/,' 11 7 7 11 9 7 . .. . .... 7 9
Frcquency, cycles per second
Material TºC
IOt 10ª 10' 10' 10• 107 101 3 X 108 3 X IO• 1010
I
---
Polystyrene (sheet stock) . ...... 25 e. 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.56 2.55 2.55 2 . 55 2 .54
1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.8 5 3 9 8.5 11
I
Porcelain, "1'et process ... ... .... 25 '• 6.47 6 .24 6.08 5.98 5 .87 5.82 5.80 5.75 . ... 5.51
1800 1100 800 630 530 670 780 805 .... 850
Porcelain, dry procesa . . .. . ..... 25

1
lr 5.50 5.36 5.23 5.14 5.08 5.04 5.04 5.02 .... 4.74
1200 550 440 380 850 890 490 .... 1-W
Pyranol 1478 .............. . ... 26
I
e. 4 .55 4.53 4.53 4.53 4.53 4.53 .... 4.50 3.80
.... 680 64 9 23 9 55 ... . 1700 8800
I
Qua.rtz, fuse(! . ... . ........... . 25 e. 3.78 3.78 3.78 3.78 3 .78 3.78 3.78 .... 3.78 3.78
10•e;' 32 28 23 15 7.5 4 4 .... 2.3 4
Resin No. 90S . ... . . . ..... .... . 25
I
e. 3.25 2.94 2.80 2.72 2.64 2 .61 2.58 .... 2.54 2.53
10•,:' 3500 1450 770 450 300 240 215 .... 160 145
Rubber, pale crepe (Hevea) .... 25

I
lr 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 .... 2. 15
67 43 34 34 43 77 120 .... 65
Sandy soil (dry) ........ .. .. ... 25
I
e. 3.42 2 .91 2.75 2.65 2.59 2.55 ... . 2.55 2.55 2.53
6700 2300 940 530 440 410 . .. . 250 160 92
Sea.ling W8Jt (Red Empress) . .. .. 25
1
'• 3.68 3.52 3.40 3.32 3.29 3.27 3.2 .... 3.09
920 530 340 260 260 330 380 .... 380
1
' 1
' 1 1 1
,
Shellac, natural XL ............ 28 f, 3.86 3 .81 3.75 3.66 3 .47 3.26 3.10 ' .. .. 2.86
(3.5 per cent wax) 250 280 480 825 1100 1150 930 .... 730
---
70
1
f, 6.50 5.65 6.10 4. 60 4.33 4 .00 3 .80 .... 3.45
6800 4850 3300 2100 1700 2200 2700 ... . 2500
Styrofoam 103.7 .... . .... . . . . .. 25

1
f, 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.03 . . .. ... . 1.03 1.03
l O•t:' 2 1 1 1 2 2 .. .. .... 1 1.5
Sulfur, sublimed ..... . . .. .. .... 25 f,

1
3.69 3. 69 3 .69 3 .69 3 .69 3.69 . . .. .... 3.62 3.58
104 f:· 11 8 8 8 8 8 .... . ... 1.5 5.5
1
Teflon .... .. .. ... . .. .. . . . . . ... 22 «, 2.1 2. 1 2.1 2.1 2.1 2. 1 2. 1 2. 1 2.1 2.08
lO' e:' 11 7 7 7 4 4 4 3 3 8
Vaseline . ..... . ............ .. 25 1

f, 2 . 16 2.16 2.16 2. 16 2. 16 2. 16 2.16 .... 2.16 2.16
°' 104E:
1
6.5 4.3 4 2 2 7 9 .... 14 22
,
80 e,. 2. 10 2. 10 2.10 2.10 2.10 .... .... . ... 2 .10 2. 10
lO't:' 34 7.5 2 2 2 .... .... . ... 19 46
,
Water ..... . . . . ..• . ...... . . ... 1.5 . .. . .... . ... 87. 0 87.0 87 87 86.6 80.5 38
t:'
f,
102 .. . . .... . ... 1650 165 17 61 280 2500 3900
-- ,
25 •• . . . . . ... . ... 78 .2 78.2 78.2 78 77 .5 76 .7 55
lO't:' . . . . . ... . ... 3100 310 36 39 125 1200 3000
,
55 E, . .. . . ... . .. . ... . 68 .2 1 . ... . .. . 68 67.5 60
101e;' .. . . .... . .. . . ... 490 .... . .. . 63 600 2200
,
85 e,. .... .... , .... , 58 , 58 58 57 56 .5 54
.. .. .... .... 7200 720 73 42 310 1400
1
APPENDIX C
FOURIBR SERIBS AND INTEGRALS
A periodic function f(x) with period a and satisfying the Dirichlet

..
conditions can be expanded in a Fourier series
f(x) = a0
2 + "\' [
an COS
(2n.
a,. X ) + bn . (2n.
a ,. X) ]
Sln (0-1)
n-1
where an = f(x ) cos (

2
:11" x)dx (C-2)
2
b,. = f(x) sin ( :11" x) dx
Such a series converges to f(x) at each point of continuity a.nd to the

mid-point of each discontinuity. Also, a finite Fourier series (n S N)
is a. least-mean-square error a.pproximation to f(x). Alternatively, the
Fourier series can be written as
.
f(.x) = 2:
n•-.:1
c,.ei(2n1'/a)g; (0-3)
where e,. = -1
a o
faª f(x)e- i(2nr/a)z dx (C-4)
A comparison of Eq. (C-1) with Eq. (C-3) reveals tha.t

(C-5)
Equation (C-1) is called the trigonometric form, and Eq. (C-3) t he expo-
nential form of the Fourier series.
N ow consider a nonperiodic function, as represented by Fig. C-la. In
a given interval, say O < x < a, the function can be represented by Eq.
(C-1). However, outside the given interval, the series does not equal
f(x), but instead the series gives a periodic extension of f(x), as repre-
sented by Fig. C-lb. Moreover, we can represent f(x) in t he interval
O < x < a in terms of a Fourier series of arbitrary period b a, but the
series will not be unique until we specify the manner of extending the
function beyond x = a. In particular, if we choose a per-iod 2a and take
456
FOURIER SERIES AND lNTEGRALS 457
1 %
2a
(a)
(b).
-· . 4' %
(e)
- -a .___ a
(d)
Fto. C-1. (a) A function can be represented in tbe interval O <:e < a by (b) a. "com-
plete" Fourier series, (e) a Fourier cosine series, e.nd (d) a. Fourier sine series.
the even extension of f (x) from a to 2a, as shown in Fig. C-lc1 we ha.ve the
Fourier cosine series
.
Ao
f(x} = 2 \ ' ÁnCOS (n?r
+4 a X) (C-6)
n-1
where Án = a1 )o(º f(x) cos (n1r

a ) dx
X (C-7)
Similarly, if we choose n period 2a and ta.ke the odd extension of f(x) from
a to 2a1 as shown in Fig. C-ld1 we have the Fourier sine series
..
f(x) = ¿
n-1
Bn sin ( n; x) (C-8)
where Bn =a (º f(x) sin (n1r

1 Jo a X) dx (C-9)
The representation of Eq. (C-6) converges to f(x) on t he closed interval

O 5 x 5 a, while Eq. (C-8) converges to f(x) on the open interval
O < x < a. At x = O and x = a, Eq. (C-8) converges to zero, which is
the mid-point of t he discontinuity in the extended function (see Fig.
C-ld).
A function f(x) can also be represented as a superposition of sinusoidal
func tions in an infinite interval, say - oo < x < oo. In this case, the
summa.tion must be replaced by an integration, and we ha.ve
1
f (x) = -2?r f._.,. J(w)ei
111
"' dw (C-10)
where J(w) = ¡_. . f(x)e- i111z dx (C-11)
The J(w) is called the Fourier transform of f(x). Equation (C-11) is

called the direct transformation, and E q. (C-10) is called the inverse
transformation . Sufficient conditions on f(x) for J(w) to exista.re
J_"'.. if(x)I dx < oo (C-12)
and f (x) sa.tisfies the Dirichlet conditions. The inversion [Eq. (C-lO)J
then converges to f(x) at all points of continuity and to the mid-point of
points of discontinuity. Fourier integrals corresponding to tbe trigo-
nometric series of Eq. (C-1) also exist, but we shall not consider them here.
A useful relationsbip between the Fourier coefficients a,., b11 , c11 and the
integral of lf(x)l2 over its period, known as Parseval's theorem, is
(C-13)
Thls is readily proved by substituting for f(x) in the left-hand term from
Eq. (C-1) or (C-3) and interchanging summation and integration. All
cross-product terms drop out because of orthogonality. Similarly, for
the Fourier integral, we have a. Parseval theorem
f. _ ,. lf(x)l 2 dx 1
= 2?r !.
_ l/(w)l2 dw
00
(C-14)
or, more generally,

.!-eo f(x)g*(x) dx = 2?r
1 ¡-
_ .. }(w)g*(w) dw (C-15)
FOURIER SERIES AND I NTEGRALS 459
The proof of Eq. (C-15) is summarized as follows
f_ 00
., f (x) g*(x) dx = ¡_. ., [;7r ¡_. ., J(w)eiw: dx ] g*(x) dx
= ..!.. f
2'r
00
-oo
J(w) [J . _.,
g*(x)eiw: dx ] dw
A similar generalization of Eq. (C-13) can also be given.

Finally, the impulse function (delta function) is useful in Fourier
analysis. By definition, t he impulse fu nction o(x) satisfies t he integral
equation
!o.b f(x) o(x - x') dx = 1 a < x' b
for all f(x). It is evident that o(x) is nota function in t he usual sense,
but its use can be justificd by rigorous means. 1 It is helpful to visualize
the impulse f unction as
e e
- - <x<-
2 2
(C-17)
e
lxl > 2
where e is an appropriately small number. Such a picture gives an
intuitive justification of Eq. (C-16). From Eqs. (C-11) and (C-16), it
follows tha.t
(C-18)
that is, t he transform of tbe o function contains all frequencies in equal

a.mounts. The inverse of Eq. (C-18) is
-1
27r - -
! "'
eiw: dw = o(x) (C-19)
which is a particularly simple and useful result. Our use of o(x) will be
primarily as short hand notation for Eq. (C-17).
1 L. Schwartz, "Théorie des distrihutions," Actualities scientiAues et industrielles,
nos. 1091 and 1122, Herma.nn' & Cie., París, 1950-1951.

APPENDIX D
BESSEL FUNCTIONS
Bessel's equation of order v is
x !!:_
dx
(xdxdy) + (x 2 - v2 )y = O (D-1)
Solutions may be obtained by the method of Frobenius, the result being

..
'\' (-l)m(z)2m+t1
J .,(x) = L.¡ m!(m + v) ! 22m+11
..
m-0
\' ( - 1)m(x)2m-11
(D-2)
J_.,(x) = L.¡ ml(m - v)!2 2"'-"

m-o
where m! = r(m + 1) in general. A.13 long as v is not an integer, these

are two independent solutions to Bessel's equation. However, when
v = nis an integer1 we have
(D-3)
and Eqs. (D -2) are no longer two independent solutions. In this case a
second solution may be obtained by a limiting procedure. It is conven-
tional to define another solution to Bessel's equation as
N (x) = J .,(x) cos.tnr - J_.,(x) (D-4)

" Slll V'lf
where, for integral v = n,

Nn(x) =:
-n
lim N.,(x) (D-5)
This limit exists and establishes a second solution to Bessel's equation of

integral order. The J,.(x) a.re called Bessel functions of the first kind of
order v, and t he N.,(x) are called Bessel functions of the second kind of
order v.
460
BESSEL FUNCTIONS 461
Of part icular interest are integral orders of Bessel f unctions. From
Eq. (D-2) a.nd (D-5), one can determine
Jo(x) =
•
\ ' ( - l)m
L.¡ (m!)2
(x)2 2
"'
m-o (D-6)
•
No(x) =;2 log ')'X
Z J o(x) +;2 \L.¡' ( -1)"'+
(ml) 2
1
(x2) 2
"'
</>(m)
m-1
for the zero-order functions, and
\'
. ( - l)"' (X)2m+n
Jn(x) = L.¡ m!(m + n)! 2
m-o
n-1
Nn(x) =
1r
'YX
2
J,.(x) - ! \'
11' f_¡
(n - m - 1)1
mi
(!)"-2"'
X
(D-7)
m-o
•
- ; L.¡
1 \'
+ n)! (x
( -1)"'
m l(m 2
)"+tm [c/>(m) + c/>(m + n)]
m-0
for n > O, where log 'Y = 0.5772 (Euler's constant)

'Y = 1.781
(D-8)
cJ>(m) = 1 + + % + · · · + .!.
m
The Bessel functions ha.ve bcen ta.bula.ted over an extensive range of
orders and argumenta, and ta.bles are a.va.ilable. Figure D-1 shows
1.0
0.8
\ Ji
0.6
0.4
V\ JJ
¡......_
./ Í\.,
/ ) V '
0.2
:/, / \
/ \
\ ) Í\ V Í\I
\
1\. / 1......-
--V¡......_ '--.
f'\. K / [/<
o
\ )< ' V" b( V 1/- V rx
-0.2
-0.4
f\._ /- l./ K._ [/<-- L-/ ' ""' -
i._.....-
-0.6
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Fto. D-1. Bessel functions of the first k.ind.
462 TIMB-RARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
0.6 1 1
0.4
No/ !"\ N1 N2_ NJ
0.2 I / t\ D\T> i.-- t-....... -

/ X/\ \ IX / / VI\¡ r\ ro../""""" l/<
V'\
I
o
I V >( \ V i'x'.
-
I
-0.2 / 1\. ' pc;..__v / N

-
-0.4
I / / / '\
I'--.../ V :.._......-
/ / V
-0.6
-0.8
I J I
-1.0
j / /
-1.2 I / J
o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Flo. D-2. Bessel functions of the second kind.
curves for thc lowest-order functions of tbe first kind, and Fig. D-2 shows
those for the second kind. For small arguments, we ha.ve from the series
Jo(x) ____. 1
- o
2 'YX (D-9)
No(x)--.-. - log-
<t>-tO 7f 2
and, for v > O, J .. (x) -;;t ii (D-10)
N.(x ) ____. - (v - 1) !
2>-+0 11' X
provided Re (v) > O. For large arguments, asymptotic series exist, the
leading terms of which are
J .,(x) -
z- .. '\jf7rX
2 cos ( x - !4 - 2 tnr)
(D-11}
N.,(x)-> [2; sin ( x - !4 - vr)
_ .. ...;; 2
providcd lphase (x)I < 7f.

For the expression of wa.ve pbcnomena, it is convenient to define linear
combinations of the Bessel functions
H .. O>(x) = J.(x) jN .. (x) + (D-12)
H .. <2 >(x) = J .,(x) - jN.,(x)
called Hankel functions of the first a.nd second kinds. Sma.11-a.rgument
BESSEL FUNCTIONS 463
and large-argument formulas a.re obtained from those for J. and N •. In
particular, the large-argument formulas become
H.O>(x) --- (2 j - •é
_. .. '}];X
_..
H.<2>(x) ---
.
f•e-'"
(D-13)
which place into evidence the wa.ve character of the Hankel functions.
Deriva.tive formulas and recurrence formulas can be obtained by differ-
entia.tion of Eqs. (D-2). Letting B.(x) denote an arbitrary solution to
Bessel's equation, we ha.ve
= B ..-1 -
X
(D-14)
B;(x) = -B'*1 + X B.
which, in the special case v = O, become
= -B1(x) (D-15)
The difference of Eqs. (D-14) yields the recurrence formula.
2(v - 1)
B.,(x) = B.,_1 - B,,_2 (D-16)
X
which is useful for calcula.ting B,.(x), n > 1, from a k.nowledge of Bo(x)

and B1(x). The Wronskian of Bessel's equation is often encountered in
problem solving. Tbis is
J.(x)N;(x) - -2
= 'líX (D-17)
from wbich Wronskia.ns for other paira of solutions can be easily obtained.
When x =ju is imaginary, modified Bessel functions of the first and
second kind can be defined as
l.,(u) = j•J.,(-ju)
(D-18)
Tbese are real functions for real u. General formulas for I., and K. can
be obtained from tbe ·c·o rresponding formulas for J., and H.,<'t>. Figure
D-3 shows curves of the zero- and first-order modified Bessel functions.
The la.rge-argument formulas, obtained from Eqs. (D-11) and (D-12),
e"
/.,(u)__. - ¡ -
.. V 27ru
(D-19)
K.,(u) __. / ?r e-
..- .. '\J2u
464 TIM.E-HARMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
illustra.t e the eva.nescent cha.racter of the

modified Bessel functions. Deriva.tive
formula.a a.nd recurrence formula.a can be
readily obta.ined from Eqs. (D-14) to
(D-16).
Bessel functions of order n + are used
in the solution of the Helmholtz equa.tion
in spherica.l coordinates. In scalar-wave
problerns, it is conventional to define
spherica.l Bessel functions as
Fro. D-3.
functione.
Modified Bessel
bn(X) = .Jfx {D-20)
The b,. are given the na.me and letter as the corresponding Bn+J.i· (For
example, j,. is the spherical Bessel function of the first kind, h,. l 2> is the
spherical Hankel function of the second kind, etc.) In a-e electroma.g-
netic field problema, it is convenient to define the alternativa spherical
Bessel functions
(D-21)
where !J,. is given the same na.me and symbol as the corresponding B...+'ri·
The various formulas for b,. and /),.can be obtained from the correspond-
ing formulas for Of particular interest is the fa.et that asymptotic
expansiona for B,.+'ri become exact, giving
J,.(x) = C,.(x) sin ( x - ';") + D,.(x) cos ( x - 7)

fV,.(x) = D,. (x) sin ( x - n;)- C,.(x) cos (x- n;) (D-22)
11,.<t>(x) = j-"[D,.(x) - jC,.(x)]eis
11,.<1>(x) = j"[D,.(x) + jC,.(x)]e-it
2mSn
wbere \' ( -1) ..(n + 2m) !

C,.(x) = L.¡ (2m) !(n - 2m) !(2x)2..
m-o (D-23)
2mSn-l
+ 2m + 1) !
D,.(x) =
2:
m- o
(2m
(- l )"'(n
+ 1) !(n - 2m - 1) 1(2:i::) 2"'+l
Note tha.t (D-24)
which is of interest in radiation problems.

APPENDIX E
LEGENDRE FUNCTIONS
The associa.ted Legendre equa.tion is
1 d( . dy) + [v(v + l ) -
sin 8 dO sm 8 do
mt ]
sin2 8 Y = O (E-1)
T his can be put into e.nother common form by using the substitution
u= cos 8 (E-2)
in Eq. (E-1). The result is
(1 - u 2 ) -d1¡2
du
- 2u -dy
du
+ [ v(v + 1) - mi
1 - u'
Jy = O (E-3)
When m = O, thc associated Legendre equa.tion reduces to the ordinary

Legendre equation
2
(1 - u 2) d y2 - 2u dy
du du
+ v(v + l )y = O (E-4)
We shall first consider solutions to this specia.l case and le.ter generalize
to the associated Legendre equation.
In the spherical coordina.te system, O 8 11'; so we shall be interested
in solutions over tbe range -1 < u l. In particular, for ll - ul < 2,
the Legendre f unction of the first kind can be expressed as
(1- u)"'
N
p . u = \ ' (-l)"'(v m) ! +
.,( ) L¡ (m!)2(v - m) 1 2
m-o
..
_ si:V7r
..
\'
L¡
(m - 1- v) !(m
(m!) 2
+ v) ! (1 - u)"'
2
(E-S)
m-N+l
where N is the nearest integer N As long as v is not an integer,

P,(u) and P,(-u) a.re two independent solutions to Legendre's equa.tion
[Eq. (E-4)). If v = n is a.n integer, Eq. (E-5) becomes a finite series
called the Legendre polynomial of degree n. In this case,
P,.(-u) = (-l)"P,.(u) (E-6)
465
466 TIME-HARMONIC ELECTROM.AGNETIC FIELDS
and we no longer have two independeot solutions. Another solution,

called tbe Legendre f unction of the second kind, is defined as
Q• (u )
= P ,,(u) cos V1I' - P,,(-u) (E-7)
2 " V1I'
sm
When v = nis an integer, the limit
Qn(u) = lim Q,,(u) (E-8)
..-n
exists and defines a second solution to Legendre's equation.

The Legendre polynomials are of particular interest, beca.use these are
the only solutions :finite over the entire range O =::; O =::; ?r. In this case,
only the first summation in Eq. (E-5) remains, which can be rearranged to
¿
M
p u - (-l)m(2n - 2m)l un-2m (E-9)

,.( ) - 2"m!(n - m) l(n - 2m) l
m-0
where M = n/2 or (n - 1)/2, whichever is an integer. An alternative,

and sometimes more convenient, expression for the Legendre polynomials
is given by Rodrigues' formula
1 d"
P " (u)= -2nn! dun
- (u 2 - l )" (E-10)
Some of the lower-degree polynomials a.re

P 0 (u) = 1 P 1 (u) =u P 2 (u) = - 1) (E-ll)
Pa(u) = Yf(5u 2 - 3u) P,(u) = %(35u' - 30u 2 + 3)
or, in terms of O,
P o(cos O) = 1 P1(cos O) = coa 8
P2(cos O) = %(3 cos 20 1) + (E-12)
Pa(cos 8) = %(5 cos 30 + 3 coa O)
P,(cos O) = 764 (35 cos 40 + 20 coa 20 + 9)
Figure E-1 shows curves of the Legendre polynomials plotted against 8.
The Legendre functions of t he second kind for integral v = n are infinite
at O = O and O = 1r, or at u = ± l. They can be expressed as
Q,.(u) = P ,.(u) [ Yí log : - q,(n)]
+ \' (-l)m(n + m) 1 4>(m) (1 - u)"'

"
(E-lS)
f...t (ml) (n - m) !
m•l
2
2
LEGENDRE FUNCTIONS 467
........ 0.2
q)
111
o
u
_.. o
a: - 0.2
- 0.4
- 0.6
Fto. E-1. Legendre Cunctions of the first kind, P ,.(cos 8).
where is defined by Eq. (D-8). Sorne of the lower-order functions

are
log 1- +
'U 1 +u
Qo(u) = - 'U Qi(u) = - log - - - 1
1 - 'U 2 1 - u
(E-14)
3u 2 - 1 1+u 3u
Q 2 ( u) = 1og - - - -
4 1- u 2
or, in terms of 8,
8 8
Qo(cos 8) = log cot
2 Qi(cos 8) = cos 8 log cot
2- 1
(E-15)
8
Q2(cos 8) = .x¡:(3 cos 2 8 - 1) log cot
2 - % cos 8
Figure E-2 shows curves of these functions plotted against 8.

N ow consider the associated Legendre equation, Eq. (E-3). For
simplicity, we first take m to be an integer. If Eq. (E-4) is differentiated
m times, there results
2 d
[ (1 - u ) du2 - 2u(m
d
+ 1) du + (n - m)(n + m + 1) Jdu•
d"'y
= O
Letting w = ((1 - u)"'' 2J d"'y/du"' in the above equation, we obta.in Eq.

(E-3) with y replaced by w. Hence, solutions to the associated Legendre
equation a.re1
1
Sm.ytbe and others omit t he factor ( - 1)"' on the side of these definitiona.
Pn"'(u) = (-1)"'(1 - u 2)"''2

(E-16)
Qn"'(u) = (-1)"'(1 - u 1)"'' 2
Note that all Pn"'(u) =O for m > n. Some of the lower-order associated
Legendre polynomials are
P1 1 (u) = -(1 - Pa 1 (u) = %(1 - - 5u 2 )
P21 (u) = -3(1 - P 3 2 (u) = 15(1 - u 2)u (E-17)
P2 2 (u) = 3(1 - u 2) Pa3 (u) = -15(1 -
while the Pnº(u) = Pn(u) are given by Eq. (E-11). Sorne of the lower-
order associated Legendre functions of the second kind are
Qi 1 = -(1 - _+_: + 1 u2)
Q21 = -(1 - +-3u_2_-_2) (E-18)

1- u 1 - u2
Q22 = (1 - [% log l_+_u + 1- u
5u - 3u2]
(1 - u 2 ) 2
while the Qnº(u) = Qn(u) are given by Eq. (E-14).
When m is not a.n integer, the situa.tion becomes even more compli-
cated. A standard formula for Legendre functions of the first kind,
3
\
2 \\ J
1
........_ __1T1y---
I
.......
CZ>
(1) \ ..............
"'
-ª-e o --....... 1\8
Qf - 1
---........ / t:> .
.........
/ 1T
-2
-3
-4
""I\' \
\
-5
FtG. E-2. Legendre functions of the second kind, Q,.(cos 9).
LEGENDRE FUNCTIONS 469
valid for l1 - ul < 2, is then
sin W7r
P ."'(u) - -?r"-(w - 1)1 u_ (u+ 1)"'' F
1
2
( -v, v + 11 l - w , -
.-
2
1- u) (E-19)
where F is the hypergeometric function

...
_ ('Y - 1)1 (a + m)!(,8 + m) I m+l
F(a,,8,-y,z) - 1 + (a - 1) !(,8 - 1) 1 ml(-y + m) ! z (E-20)
m-o
F or real u, the associated Legendre function of the second kind is defined
as
Q "'(u) = P."'(u) cos (v + w)"" - P."'(-u) (E-21)
• 2 sin (v + w)?r"
The solutions P.,"'(u) and P ,"'(-u) are linearly independent, except when
u + w is an integer. I n this latter case, the limit of Eq. (E-21) provides
a second solution.
P erhaps the simplest way to calculate the Legendre functions is through
the recurrence formulas. Letting Lnm(u) denote an arbitrary solution to
the associated Legendre equation, we have
(m - n - l)L!'+ i + (2n + l)uL,.m - (m + n)L:;'_ 1 = O (E-22)
A recurrence formula. in m also exists and is
2mu
L,.m+i + (l _ L,.m + (m + n)(n - m + l )L,.m-l = O (E-23)
for the range lul < l. Many formulas for derivatives also exist, sorne of
which are
1
L ,.m'(u) = l _ u 2 [-nuL,.m + (n + m)L::'_1 ]
1
=
1
_ u 2 [(n + l )uL,.m - (n - m + l)L::'+i]
(E-24)
= mu L m + (n + m)(n - m + 1) L m.-i
1 - u2 n (1 - n
mu L 1 L +i
1- u2 ,.m - (1 - ,.m
lf m = O in the last formula, we have

L,. 1(u) = -(1 - (E-25)
which is a useful special case.

Finally, sorne specializations of the argument will be of interest to us.
At fJ = O, that is, at u = 1, the Qn"' functions are infinite and

m =O
(E-26)
m >O
At O = ?r /2, that is, at u = O,
(- l)<n+m)/ 2 1 · 3 · 5 · · · (n +m - 1) n + meven
P n"'(O) =
{
O 2 · 4 · 6 · · · (n - m)
n + m odd
n + m even
Qn"'(O) = { -l) M •+llti2 · 4 · 6 · · · (n + m - l) n + m odd
1 · 3 · 5 · · · (n - m)
(E-27)
Sorne specializations involving derivatives are
(E-28)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. Classical Boolcs
l. Abraham, A., a.nd R. Becker : "The Classical Tbeory of Electricity," Blackie
& Son, Ltd., Glasgow, 1932.
2. Hea.viside, O.: "Electromagnetic Thcory, 11 Dover Publica.tions, New York,
1950 (reprint).
3. Jea.ns, J.: "Electric and Magnetic Fields, 11 Cambridge University Press,
London, 1933.
4. Maxwell, J. C.:" A Trea.tise on Electricity and Magnetism," Dover Publica-
tions, New York, 1954 (reprint).
B. l ntrocluctory Boolcs
l. Attwood, S.: "Electric a.nd Ma.gnetic Fields, 11 3d ed., Jobn Wiley & Sons,
2. Booker, H. G.: "An Approacb to Electrica.l Science, 11 McGra.w-Hill Book
3. Harrington, R. F. : "Introduction to Electromagnetic Engineering," Mc-
Gra.w-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1958.
4. Hayt, W. H.: "Engineering Electromagnetics, 11 McGra.w-Hill Book Com-
pany, !no., New York, 1958.
5. Kraus, J. D. : "Electromagnetics," McGraw-Hill Book Company, !ne., New
York, 1953.
6. Nea}, J . P. : " Electrical Engineering Funda.mentals," McGraw-Hill Book
7. Page, L., and N. Adams: "Principies of Electricity," D. Van Nostrand Com-
pany, Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1931.
8. Peck, E. R. : "Electricity and Magnetism," McGraw-Hill Book Company,
9. Rogers, W. E.: "lntroduction to Electric Fields," McGraw-Hill Book Com-
pa.ny, !ne., New York, 1954.
10. Sears, F. W.: "Electricity and Ma.gnetism," Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company, Rea.ding, Mass., 1946.
11. Seely, S. : "lntroduction to Electromagnetic Fields," McGraw-Hill Book
12. Shedd, P. C.: "Funda.mental.s of Electromagnetic Wa.ves," Prentice-Ha.11,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J ., 1955.
13. Skilling, H. H. : "Funda.mentals of Electric Wa.ves," 2d ed., Jobn Wiley &
Sons, lnc., New York, 1948.
14. Spence, D., a.nd R. Ga.lbra.ith: "Fundamenta.Is of Electrica.l Engineering,"
The Ronald Press Company, New York, 1955.
15. Ware, L. A.: "Elements of Electromagnetic Wa.ves," Pitman Publishing
Corporation, New York, 1949.
16. Weber, E.: " Electromagnetic Fields," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
1950.
471
C. I nttrmediate and .Advanced Books

l. Jordan, E . : "Electromagnetic Wa.ves and Radiating Systems," Prentice-
Hall, Inc., Englewood Clifis, N.J., 1950.
2. King, R. W. P.: "Electromagnetic Engineering," McGra.w-Hill Book Com-
pa.ny, Inc., New York, 1953.
3. Mason, M., and W. Weaver: "The Electromagnetic Field," U.niversity of
Chicago Press, Chicago, 1929.
4. Ramo, S., a.nd J. R. Whinnery: "Fields and Waves in Modern Radio," 2d ed.,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1953.
5. Schelkunoff, S. A. : "Electromagnetic Waves," D. Van Nostrand Company,
Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1943.
6. Smythe, W. R.: "Sta.tic a.nd Dynamic Electricity," 2d ed., McGra.w-Hill
Book Compa.ny, Inc., New York, 1950.
7. Stratton, J. A. : "Electroma.gnetic Theory," McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc.1 New York, 1941.
D. Books on Special Topics
l. Aharoni, J.: "Antennae," Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1946.
2. Bronwell, A., and R. E. Beam: ''Theory and Applica.tion of Microwaves,''
McGra.w-Hill Book Company, Inc.1 New York, 1947.
3. Kraus, J. D.: "Antenna"8," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York,
1950.
4. Lewin, L.: "Advanced Theory of Waveguides," Illiffe and Sons, London,
1951.
5. Marcuvitz, N . : "Wa.veguide Handbook," MIT Radia.tion Laboratory Series,
vol. 10, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1951.
6. Mentzer, J. R.: "Scattering a.nd Diffraction of Radio Waves," Pergamon
Press, New York, 1955.
7. Montgomery, C. G., R. H. Dicke, and E.M. Purcell (eds.): "Principles of
Microwa.ve Circuits," MIT Radia.tion Laboratory Series, vol. 8, McGra.w-
Hill Book Compa.ny, Inc., 1948.
8. Moreno, T.: "Microwave Transmission Design Da.ta," Dover Publica.tions,
New York, 1958 (reprint).
9. Reich, H. J. (ed.): "Very High Frequency Techniques," Radio Resea.rch
Laboratory, McGraw-Hill Book Compa.ny, lnc., New York, 1947.
10. Schelkunoff and Friis: "Antenna.s, Theory and Practice," John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 1952.
11. Silver, S.: "Microwa.ve Antenna Theory and Design," Radiation Laboratory
Series, vol. 12, McGra.w-Hill Book Company, Inc. 1 New York, 1950.
12. Slater, J . C.: "Microwa.ve Electronics," D. Van Nostra.nd Company, Inc.,
Princeton, N.J., 1950.
13. Wa.tkins, D.: "Topics in Electromagnetio Theory," John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1958.
14. Wa.it, J. R.: "Electromagnetic Radiation From Cylindrical Structures,"
Pergamon Press, New YorkJ 1959.
INDEX
Boldface numbers in parentheses refer to problema
A-c phenomena, 1 Bessel Cunctions, spherical, 265, 268,

Addition theorems, 232, 292 464
Admittance matrix, 119, 392 zoros of, 205, 270
Admittivity, 19, 23-26 Bibliography, 471-472
law, 4 Biconical ca.vity, 284-286
Antenna concepta, 81-85 Biconical wa.veguide, 281-283, 313(13)
Antenna gain, 83 Bierens de Haan, D., 194
max:imum, 307- 311 Boundary conditions, 34, 55
Apertures, 11 Boundary-va.lue problems, 103
admittance oí, 173, 428-431 Bounds, upper and lower, 335
in cavities, 436-440 Brewster angle, 59
in eones, 306 Brown, G., 351
in pla.ne conductora, 11, 138(17),
139(18, 19), 180-186, 366-371,
428-431, 444(21- 23) Capaoitivity, 5
in spheres, 301- 303 a--0, 24
transmission througb, 366-371 relative, 6
in wa.veguides, 174, 176 Capacitor, 13, 30
in wedges, 250-254 Carter, P. S., 349, 351
Associa.ted Legendre functions, 265, Cavities (see Resonators)
468-470 Characteristic impedance, 62, 65
Attenuation constant, 48, 66, 73, 86 of waveguides, 69, 152, 154, 385
of biconica.l guides, 313(13) Characteristic values, 67, 144
of circular-gttides, 255(9) Chu, L. J ., 278
of guides in general, 376(19), 441(6) Churchill, R. V., 231
intrinsic, 48 Circu.it elements, 13, 29
of para.llel-plate gu.ides, 91 (30) Circuit quantities, 3
of rectangular guides, 86, 189(4) Circular cavity, 213-216
of transmission linea, 90(24) partia.lly filled, 258(23, 24)
with wedge, 259(25)
Circular polariza.tion, 46, 88(8)
Babinet's principie, 365-367 Circular waveguides, 204-208, 389
Bailin, L. L., 249, 303, 306 witb baffie, 208, 255(6, 8)
Berk, A. D., 346, 348 pa.rtially filled, 220, 257(20), 321, 331
Besselfunotions, 199-203, 460-464 Circula.ting wa.ves, 208, 256(10)
modified, 201, 463 Circulator, 26
473
474 TIME-HARMONIC E.L ECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
Closed contour, 2 Corrugated conductor, 170, 193(25)

Closed surface, 2 circular, 223
Coated conductor, 168, 219 radial, 219
Coaxial line, 65 Critical a.ngle, 60
junction, with cavity, 434-436, Crowley, 'l'., 430
445(24-27) Current, 1, 7, .27, 34
with waveguide, 179, 195(33, 34), in cavities, 431-434
425-428, 444(20) ·- conduction, 6, 27
opening onto plane conductor, 111 near eones, 303, 316(30)
spherical, 281 near cylinders, 262(39-41)
waveguide modes of, 254(6) displacement, 7, 27
Cohen, M . H., 362, 364, 430 elements, 78-81, 287
Cohn, S. B., 328 filament (see Filament of current)
Complementary a.ntennas, 380(43) near half-plane, 263(42, 43)
Complementa.ry solutions, 131 impressed, 7, 27
Complementary structures, 136(7), 365 - loops, 93(41, 42), 100, 315(28)
Complex quantities, 13 nen.r planes, 103, 136(12- 14)
constitutive relationships, 18 reactive, 27, 28
permittivities, 18, 451-455 ribbon of, 188, 260(31)
power, 19-23 sheets, 34
Poynting vector, 20 source, 95, 118
Concentric spheres, 321(6, 6) near spheres, 298, 315(26, 27),
Conducting cone, 279 316(29)
aperatures in, 306 surface, 33
current element on, 316(30) in wa.veguides, 97, 106, 134(1-4),
as waveguide, 279- 281 177-179, 194(31, 32), 425-428,
Conducting cylinder, 232- 238 440(2)
and current elements, 262(39-43) near wedges, 263(44)
Conducting sphere, 292-297 Cutler, C. C., 171
apertures in, 301- 303 Cutoff frequency, 68, 150, 166, 169,
a.nd current element, 298-301, 206, 384
315(26) Cutoff wavelength, 68, 150, 206, 384
and current loop, 316(29) Cylinder of currents, 227, 260(30)
with dielectric coa.ting, 315(26) Cylindrical coordina.tes, 198, 447
Conduction current, 6, 27 Cylindrical waveguides, 381-391
Conductivity, 6 Cylindrical waves, 85
complex, 18
Conductora, 6
perfect, 34 Degenera.te modes, 48, 150, 390
Conical ca.vity, 284, 314(18) Delta function, 179, 459
Conical waveguide, 279-281 Depth of penetration, 53
Conjuga.te problems, 64 Dia.magnetism, 6
Conservation, of charge, 2, 4 Diaphragms, 414-420, 442(13- 16)
of complex power, 21 Dicke, R. H ., 392, 400
of energy, 10, 11 Dielectric, 6, 24, 451-455
Constitutive relationships, 5 Dielectric cylinders, 220, 261 (34, 35)
complex, 18 Dielectric loss angle, 24
INDEX 475
Dlelectric obstacles, 362-365 Equivalent circuit, of obsta.eles in
Dielectric rod guide, 221, 257(21} wa.veguides, 402
Dielectric slab guide, 163- 168, 192(22), of resonant cavities, 435, 437
219 of spherical waves, 279
Dielectric spheres, 297 of transm.ission lines, 62
Differential scattering, 360 of waveguides, 386
Dipole, 78 Erdelyi, A., 245
antenna., 81-85 Ether, 26
in conducting wedge, 105 Euler's identity, 15
near ground plane, 104 Evanescent field, 60, 147
magnetic, 259(26, 27) Evanescent mode, 68
two-dimensional, 225
Directional coupler, 135(3)
Displacement current, 7, 27 Fa.raday's law, 4
Dissipated power, 11 Fcrromagnetism, 6, 25
Dissipative current, 27 Feshbach, H., 337, 432
Dominant mode, 69, 75 Field coordina.tes, 80
Dominant-mode source, 402 Field quantities, 3
Dua.lity, 98-100 Fila.ment of current, 34, 81, 223, 243
near cylinder, 230-238
near half-plane, 241-242
Echo, 355, 363 near wedges, 238-242
Echo a.rea., 116, 128, 357 Foster's reactance theorem, 396
Echo width, 358, 359, 364 Fourier series, 45&-458
Effective value, 15 Fourier transforms, 145, 180, 458-459
Eigenfunctions, 144, 384 Fourier-Legendre series, 275
Eigenvalues, 67, 144, 383 Frank, N. H., 163
Electric quantities, charge, 1, 3 Free spa.ce, 5
current, 3, 7, 15, 27 Fundamental units, 1
dipole, 78
fiux, 1, 3
intensity, 1, 15 Gain, 83
sea.lar potential, 77 antenna, maximum, 307-311
vector potential, 99, 129 normal, 309
Elementary wave functions, 144, 200, of dipole near ground plane, 104,
266 137(12- 14)
Elliptical polarization, 46 of dipoles, 84
Emde, F., 272 supergain, 309
Energy, 9, 10, 21, 23 Gauss' law, 4
conservation of, 10, 11 Good dielectric, 24
velocity of, 42 Goubau, G., 223
Equa.tion of continuity, 2 Gray, M. C., 222
Equiphase surfaces, 39, 85 Green's functions, 120- 123
Equivalence principie, 100-110 tensor, 123-125
Equivalent circuit, 62 Green's identities, 120
of coax-to-waveguide feeds, 425 modified vector analogue, 141(28)
of microwave networks, 401 in two dimensiona, 389
476 TlME-HABMONIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
Green's identities, vector analogue, 121 I nstantaneous qua.ntity, 15

Guide phase velocity, 68, 385 Insulators, 6
Guide wa.velength, 68, 384 Integral equations, 125-128, 317
Intrinsic para meters, 39, 40, 48, 87
I solator, 26
H all effect, 35(2) Isotropic matter, 37
Hankel functions, 199-203, 462
spherical, 266, 464
H armonic functions, 144, 199 Jabnke, E., 272
Harrington, R. F., 34, 128, 309 Junctions, coax-to-cavit y, 434-436,
H elmholtz equation, 38 445(24-27)
in cylindrical coordina.tes, 198 coax-to-waveguide, 179, 195(33, 34),
in rectangular coordina.tes, 77 425-428, 444(20)
in spherical coordina.tes, 264 wa.veguide-to-ca.vit y, 436-440
H elmholtz identity, 450 waveguide-to-wa.veguide, 172-177,
H emispherica.l cavity, 284
Hildebra.nd, F. B.1 332
Hogan, C. L., 26
Homogeneous ma.tter, 37 King, R., 351
Hu, Y. Y., 352, 354, 358 Kirchhofi's laws, 4, 12
Hybrid modes1 154, 158
Legendre functions, 265, 465-470

Im opera.tor, 15 associa.ted, 265, 468-470
Impedance, of apertures, 428-431 LePage, W. R., 386
characteristic, 621 65, 69, 152, 154, Levine, H ., 113
385 Levis, C. A., 430
of circuit elements, 29 Linear antenna., 81-85, 94(44-46), 349-
of current loop, 93(42) 355
input, 84 Linear matter, 6, 18
intrinsic, 39, 48, 87 Linear polariza.tion, 39, 45
of linear a.ntenna, 82, 94(44-46), 352 Loop of current, 93(41, 42), 100
matrix, 119, 392, 398 in cavity1 445(24) 1 446(27-29)
surface, 53, 371(2), 375(18) near conduct ing cone, 303-306
wave, 39, 55, 69, 86, 152 near conducting sphere, 315(28, 29)
Impedivity, 19, 23- 25 Loosely bound wa ve, 170
Impressed current, 7, 27 Lorentz reciprocity theorem, 117
Impulse function, 179, 459 Loss angle, of ca.pacitor, 30
Incident field, 113 of dielectric, 24
Index of refra.ction, 58 of inductor, 32
Induced emf method1 349 ma.gnetic1 25
lnduction field, 79 Lossy dielectric, 24
Induction theorem, 113-115
Inductivity1 5, 6, 25
Inductor, 13, 31 Macroscopic sta.ndpoint, 1
Input impeda.nce, 84 Ma.gnetic quantities, conductor, 34
Instantaneous phase, 85 current, 7, 27
INDEX 477
Magnetic quantities, dipole, 100 Oliner, A. A., 413
flux, 1, 3 Orthogonality, 273, 390, 432
intensity, 1, 1.5
loss angle, 25
vector potentia.I, 77, 129 Papas, C. H., 113
Magnetomotive force, 3 Pa.raUel-pla.te waveguide, 90(28),
Magnitude, 85 189(6, 7), 440(1)
Ma.rcuvitz, N., 381, 389, 410, 411, 418, a.nd coaxial feed, 378(35-37)
420,424 opening onto ground plane, 181-186
Ma.trix impedance, 119 partia.lly filled, 190(12, 13), 257(18)
Maxwell's equa.tions, 2, 18 ra.dially, 209, 256(18)
Mentzer, J. R., 122, 306 Paramagnetism, 6
Micr owave networks, 391-402 Parseval's theorem, 182, 458
Mksc units, 1 Pa.r tlally filled ca.vities, circular,
Modal expa.nsions, 171-177, 389-391 258(23, 24)
in ca.vities, 431-434 perturbational formulas for, 321- 326,
Mode, 63, 68, 69, 75 371-373
Mode current, 72, 383 rectangular, 191(16-18), 325
Mode function, 383 spherical, 313(7, 8), 326
Mode patterns, 70 variational formulas for, 331-345,
for circular ca.vity, 215 376-377
for circular guide, 207 Partially filled wa.veguides, circular,
for coa.ted conductor, 169 220, 257(20), 321, 331
for free spa.cc, 277 perturbational formulas for, 326-331,
in general, 387 374-375
for rectangular cavity, 75, 157 rectangular, 158-163, 191 (14-16),
for rectangular guide, 70, 151, 155 345, 348
for slab wa.veguide, 168 variational formulas for, 345-348,
for spherical, cavity, 272 377-378
Mode volts.ge, 72, 383 Particular solution, 131
Modified Bessel functions, 201, 463 Pattcrn, mode, 70
Monopole a.ntenna, 138(15) radiation field, 83
Montgomery, C. G., 392, 400 recciving, 119
Morse, P. M., 337, 371, 432 standing-wave, 44
Multipoles, cylindrical, 226, 259(29) Perfect conductor, 34
spherical, 286-289, 314(19) Perfect dielectric, 24
Permeability, 5, 6, 18
P ermittivity, 5, 18
Neuma.nn's number, 172 Perturbational methods, 73, 76, 317-
Nonpropaga.ting mode, 68 331, 371-377
Normal gain, 309 Phase, 85
Normalization, 383, 432 Phase constant, 48, 85
Notation, 16 Pha.se velocity, 39, 40, 68, 86, 385
Phasor, 15
Pbysica.l optics method, 127
Obsta.eles in waveguides, 402-418 Pincherle, L., 158
Ohm's law, 13 Plane waves, 39, 85, aa, 145-148
478 ELECTROMAGNETIC F I ELDS
Pola.rization, of ma.tter, 27 Rayleigh-Ritz procedure, 339

of waves, 39, 4.5, 88(8) Re operator, 15, 16
Polarizing anglo, 59 Rea.ction, 118, 340
Porta, 391 Reactive current, 27, 28
Posts in waveguides, 400-411, 442(12) R eactive power, 22
Poteotie.ls, 77, 99, 129 Rcalizability conditions, 400
Power, 9, 19, 22 R eceiving pattern, 119
Poynting vector, 10, 20 Rcciprocity, 116-120
Probes, in ca.vities, 434-436, 446(26) for antennas, 120
in wavcguides, 178, 425-428 for circuita, 119
Propaga.ting mode, 68 for microwave networks, 392
Propagation constant, 62, 68, 86, 384 R ectangular cavity, 74-76, 155-157
stationary formulas for, 346-348, partially filled, 191(16-18), 325, 373
378(32) Rectangular wa.veguide, 66-74, 148-
Purcell, E. M., 292, 400 155, 387
partially filled, 158-163, 191(14-16),
192(19), 348, 374
Q (see Qua.lity factor) Reference conventions, 3
Quadrupole, cylindrical, 226, 259(28) Refiection of waves, 54-61
spherical, 288, 314(20) Reflcction coefficient, 55, 421
Qua.lity factor, of biconical cavity, 285 R csonance, 74
of ca.vities in general, 372(3, 4, 6, 7) Rcsonant antennas, 94(45, 46)
of circular ca.vity, 216, 257(16) Rcsona nt slots, 444(21), 445(23)
dielectric, 28 Rcsonators, circular cavity, 213- 216
of hemispherical cavity, 285 concentric spheres, 284
of loss-free a.ntenna, 309 one-dimensional, 44
me.gnctic, 29 rectangular cavity, 74, 155
mínimum anteona Q, 310, 316(31) sources in, 431-434
of rectangular ca.vity, 76, 190(10) spherical ce.vity, 269-272
of spherical cavity, 272, 312(4) spherical sector, 284
of spherical waves, 279 Ribbon of current, 188, 260(31)
Quasi-static, definitions, 79, 298, 419, Ridge wa.veguide, 327, 374(12)
420 Right-hand rule, 2
Ritz procedure, 338, 344
Rodrigues' formula, 466
Radar cross section, 116 Rubenstein, P. J., 371
Radar echo, 115, 355 Rumsey, V. H ., 118, 340, 365
Radial wa.veguides, 208-213, 216-219,
279-283
Radia.tion, 77-81, 242- 245 Saddle point, 335
two-dimensional, 228-230 Saunders, W. K., 245
Radiation conductance, 112 Scattered fi eld, 113
Ra.diation field, 79, 81, 132-134 reciprocity for, 141(24)
Radia.tion resistance, 82, 93(42, 44), Scattering, by conducting plato, 115,
94(46) 128, 140(20, 21)
Ramo, S., 309 by conductors, 355-361
Ra.yleigh scatteriog, 295 by cylinders, 232-236, 261(34, 36), 364
INDEX 479
Sca.ttering, by dielectrics, 362-365 Stationary formulas, 317, 341
cliffer entia.l, 360 for a.per ture admittance, 428-431
by ha.lí-pla.nes, 241- 242, 261 (37, for ca.vities, 331-345
38) for cavity feeds, 434-440
by magnetic obsta.eles, 380(22) for impedance, 348-355
by ribbons, 350, 378(38) for obsta.eles in waveguides, 402-406
by spheres, 292-298 Cor scattering, 355-365
stationa.ry formulas for, 355-365 for transmission, 365-371
by wcdges, 238-242 for waveguide feeds, 425-42$
by wircs, 357, 379(39-41) Cor waveguide junctions, 420-425
Sca.ttering matrix, 399 for wa.veguides, 345-348
Schelkunoff, S. A., 222, 268, 286 Storer, J. E., 354
Schwa.rtz, L., 459 Stra.tton, J. A., 121, 324
Secondary units, 1 Superga.in antenna.s, 309
Sectoral horn, 213 Surface of constant phase, 85
Seely, S., 386 Surta.ce currents, 33
Segmenta! cavity, 284 Surface guided waves, 168-171, 219
Seidel, H., 222 Surface impedance, 53, 371(2), 375(16)
Self-reaction, 118
Separation of variables, 143, 198, 264,
381 T a.i, C. T., 358
Silver, S., 245, 303, 306 TE, TM, TEM, 63, 67, 130, 202, 267,
Simple ma.tter, 6, 18 382
Singular field, 32 T ector, R. J., 430
Skin dcpth, 53 T eichma.nn, T., 434
Slot in ground plane, 138(17, 16), 181- Tensor Green's functions, 123-125, 356
186, 261(32), 370, 430, 444(21, 22), Tesseral ha.rmonics, 273
445(23) Tightly bound wa.ve, 170
Slotted cone, 306 Total reflection, 59
Slotted cylinder, 238 Transmission, 360
Slotted sphere, 302 Transmission a.rea, 368
Smythe, W. R., 324, 419, 420, 467 Tra.nsmission coefficient, 55, 368
Sneddon, l. N ., 252 Transmission lines, 61-66
Snell's law, 58 biconical, 284-286, 313(13)
Source coorclinatcs, 80 equivalent, 386
Source-free regions, 37 modes, 63
Sources, 7, 12, 19, 95, 96 para.llel-plate, 90(28), 91 (31),
Spherical Bessel functions, 265, 268, 189(6, 7), 440(1)
464 raclia.l, 211
Spherical cavity, 269-273 twin-slot, 135(7)
pa.rtially-filled, 313(7, 8), 326 wedge, 212
Spberica.l coordina.tes, 265, 447 Tra.nsmission matrix, 399
Spherica.l wa.ves, 79, 85, 276, 286-289 T ransverse field vector, 382
Standing wave, 42-47, 69 T ransverse fields, 63, 67, 130, 202
Stancling-wave pattern, 44 Traveling waves, 39
Standing-wave ratio, 45, 55 Tria! field, 332
Sta.tic mode, 338 Twin-slot line, 135('1)
Uniform plane wa.ve, 39, 147 Waveguide junctions, 172- 177, 193
Uniform wa.ves, 85 (27- 29), 42o-425, 443(17, 18)
Uniqueness, 100-103 Wa.veguides, 66
Units, 1 biconical, 284-286, 313(13)
circular (see Circular waveguides)
Van Va.lkenburg, M. E., 397, 400, 435 corrugated conductor, 170, 193(25)
Va.ria.tion, 332 corrugated wire, 223
Variational methoda, 317, 331-380 dielectric slab, 163, 192(22)
Vector analysis, 447-450 in general, 381-391
Vector Green's theorems, 121, 141(28) parallel-plate (see Parallel-plate
Vector potential, 77, 99 waveguide)
Velocity, of energy, 42 posts in, 406-411, 442(12)
of light, 5 probes in, 178, 425--428, 446(26)
of phase, 39, 40, 68, 86, 385 radial, 208, 279
Voltage, 3, 15 partially filled, 216
Voltage source, 96, 118 rectangular (see Rectangular wave-
Von Hippie, A., 23 guide)
Wavelength, 40
Wa.it, J . R., 240, 242 cutofJ, 68, 150, 206, 384
Wall impedance, 371(2, 3), 375(18) guide, 68, 384
Wavo equation, 37 intrinsio, 40
for inhomogeneous matter, 88(2) Waves, in dielectrics, 41-48
Wave functions, 85 in general, 85-87
cylindrical, 199- 204 in lossy matter, 51- 54
plane, 143-145 Wedge cavity, 284
spherical, 264-269 wa.veguide, 208, 255(7), 256(14)
Wa.ve impeda.nce, 39, 55, 86 Whinnery, J. R., 309
characteristic, 69, 152 Wigner, E. P., 434
Wave number, 37 Windows, 414
Wave potentials, 77, 129
Wa.ve transformations, 230-232, 289-
292 Zeros, of Bessel functions, 205
Waveguidefeeds, 179, 195(33,34),425- of spherical Bessel functions, 270
428, 444(20) Zonal harmonics, 273

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IEEE PRESS SERIES ON ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE THEORY

D IFFERENTIAL EQUATION M ETHODS ANTENNAS, PROPAGATION, ANO MICROWAVES

BOOKS IN THE IEEE PRESS SERIES ON ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE THEORY

Christopoulos. C., The Transmission-Line Modeling Merhods: TLM

IEEE Antennas & Propagation Society, Sponsor

JOHN WILEY & SONS, lNC.

Fororderingand customer service, call 1-800-CALL-WILEY.

Library o/Congress Cataloging in Publication Data is availuble.

Printed in the United States of America_

IEEE Press Editorial Board

M. Akay M. Eden M.S. Newman

Kenneth Moore, Director <>.f Books & lnformation Services

IEEE Antennas & Propagation Socicty, Sponso1·

IEEE Microwave Theory and Techniques Society, Sponsor

Cover design: William T. Donnelly. WT Design

This book wa.s written primarily as a gra.dua.te-level text, but it should

Chapter l. Fundamental Concepta

Chapter 2. Introduction to Waves

2-1. The Wave Equa.tion 37

Chapter S. Some Theorems and Concepta

3-1. The Source Concept 95

3-7. The Induction Theorem 113

Chapter 4. Plane Wave Functions

4-1. The Wave Functions 143:

Chapter 6. Cylindrical Wave Functions

5-1. The Wa.ve Functions 198

Chapter 6. Spherical Wave Functions

6-1. The Wa.ve Functions 264

Chapter 7. Perturbational and Variational Techniques

7-1. Introduction . 317

Chapter 8. Microwave Networks

8-1. Cylindrical Wa.veguides 381

Appendix A. Vector Analysis 447

Fio. 1-1. dl and de on an open surface. Fio. 1-2. ds on a closed surface.

We sha.ll ca.U a quantity well-behaved wherever it is a continuous function

which expresses the conservation of charge. Note that we ha.ve used

f t · dl = - :, JJ <B • ds 1fa <B • ds = O

v, called the voltage (volts)

A The explicit relationships oí the field quantities to the circuit quantities

v= J& ·dl "' =JJ <B · ds

q= JJJq. dr u=J3e ·dl

i.e·dl= _dl/t <ff>cs·ds=O

Similarly1 the equation of continuity in mixed field and circuit forra is

Finally1 the various equations can be written entirely in terma of circuit

where Eo is the capaci.tivity or permittivity of vacuum, and µo is the induc-

The choice of either Eo or µo determines a system of electromagnetic units

for the mksc system of units.

in simple matter (1-15;

where1 as in t he free-space case, E is called the capacitivity of the medium

= <1& + <11 as-

Even more complica.ted formulas for the constitutive relationships roa.y

Thus, the circuit form corresponding to Eqs. (1-17) is

where these apply to any of the various types of current.

f S · d1 = - JJ mt' · ds f :JC • d1 = JJ JJ' · ds (1-21)

Also, the mixed field-circuit form is