LABORATORY INSTRUCTION MANUAL

Mechanical Behaviour of Materials Laboratory

(Course code: MM304)

III Year B. Tech. Metallurgical and Materials Engineering

I Semester

Course Instructors
Dr. Ajoy Kumar Pandey
&
Dr. Bonta Srinivasa Rao

Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering

National Institute of Technology Warangal
Warangal-506 004, Telangana
 CONTENTS

Contents ii

Course details iii

Course outcomes
CO-PO Mapping for the course
Syllabus
Readings

Lab Report Requirements iv

General and Safety Instructions v

Experiments
1. Brinell Hardness Test 01

2. Rockwell Hardness Test 05

3. Rebound Hardness Test 10

4. Poldi Hardness Test 12

5. Charpy & Izod Impact Test 15
6. Erichsen Ductility Test 21

7. Tensile Test using UTM 25

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 COURSE DETAILS
Code Name of the Subject/Laboratory LTP Credits
MM304 Mechanical Behaviour of Materials L0:T0:P3 2

Course outcomes
CO1 Operate instruments for measuring hardness and impact strength of ferrous and non-
ferrous alloys.
CO2 Determine the flow curve using Hounsfield tensometer/UTM
CO3 Understand the ductility of ferrous alloys and non-ferrous materials through Erichson
ductility test.
CO4 Interpret hardness and strength of the materials.

CO-PO Mapping

COs PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12

CO1 3

CO2 3

CO3 3

CO4 2 1

1. Slightly 2. Moderately 3. Substantially

Syllabus
Determination of Brinell hardness, Rockwell hardness, Poldi impact hardness, Shore
Scleroscope hardness values of given materials. Determination of n and k of given materials,
Erichson Ductility test, Standard impact tests, Tension test using Hounsfield tensometer, To
draw the true stress-strain curve using the data.
Readings:
1. Mechanical Behavior of Materials Laboratory Manual
2. ASM Metals Handbook, Vol 08 - Mechanical Testing and Evaluation
3. Hardness Testing Principles and Applications-ASM International (2011), Konrad
Herrman

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 LAB REPORT REQUIREMENTS
This laboratory course is designed to understand several material properties through laboratory
experiments. Normally the whole class is divided into three batches and each batch students
will be subdivided into groups having 1-2 students. Each group will do a different experiment
every week until all the required experiments are completed.
Students are required to appear in the laboratory with lab notebook, lab sheets, lab manuals,
calculators and necessary items to write lab reports in the lab itself. It is advised to read the lab
manual before appearing to the lab for experiments. Specimens after tests, needs to preserve
and produce during end exam.
The laboratory instruction manual will indicate necessary requirements to conduct a particular
experiments. However, following is a typical lab report format can be followed if specific
instructions are not available in the manual.

FORMAT
Title: Name of the experiment, experiment number, group number, students in the group and
date of experiment should be mentioned in the title page.

Abstract: This section should typically contain brief of the experiment and major conclusions
of the experiment.
Introduction: This section is dedicated to generate general interest in the subject as well as
specific interest and justification for conducting the experiment. Organisation of the report also
can be mentioned.
Theory: Theoretical basis for the experiment and important equations used with clear
indication can be mentioned in this section. Variables need to be measured or calculated can
also be mentioned.
Experimental Apparatus: Schematic diagram along with proper labels of the experimental
set-up illustrating the general relationships among the various components of the system should
be mentioned here.

Test Procedure: Mention stepwise experimental process in this section.

Results and Data Analysis: Systematically represent results and explain what is being
presented. Attach necessary tables, figures, charts, graphs etc. with proper number and suitable
captions.
Discussion: Interpret and discuss results. Mention the most important features and trends, etc.
and state your opinion on the results. Support your opinion with demonstration, illustration or
evidence from literature.

Conclusions: Itemize the most important points of your findings.

Bibliography: Mention your references in a proper format.

Appendices: Pages of standard reference materials can be attached here.

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 SAFETY AND GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

Your personal laboratory safety depends mostly on YOU!!

1. Follow all safety instructions given in the class and in the laboratories.

2. Charpy/Izoid machine can be lethal. Never leave the hammer in the up position until

ready to break a specimen.

3. During the tensile/compression test, specimens can fly out during fracture.

4. Use safety eye shield when grinding specimens. Do not remove specimens from abrasive

cut-off machine until the wheel has stopped.

Common Sense

Students should work responsible and use common sense to resolve an emergency situation. If
you still cannot make out a situation, please ask the Teaching Assistant or Instructor available,
for advice. It is advised not to touch anything if you are not familiar to it.

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 Experiment No. 1
BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
The aim of the Experiment: To determine the Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) of the given
metallic specimens.
Apparatus Required: Brinell Hardness Tester, Weights, and Portable hand microscope.

Basic Theory: Hardness is generally considered as resistance to penetration. The harder the
materials, the greater the resistance to penetration. Hardness is directly related to the strength of
the material. Factors influencing hardness include microstructure, grain size, strain hardening, etc.
Generally, as hardness increases so do yield strength and ultimate tensile strength (UTS), thus
specifications often require the results of hardness tests rather than tensile tests. The most popular
methods are Brinell, Vickers and Rockwell hardness tests for metals and alloys.

Introduction: Brinell hardness test is used for determining the hardness of a given specimen.
Among all the hardness tests, the Brinell ball makes the deepest and widest indentation, so the test
averages the hardness over a wider amount of material which will more accurately account for
multiple grain structures and any inhomogeneity of the alloy. The Brinell hardness test consists in
indenting the metal surface with a 10 mm diameter steel ball at a specific load as per the specimen
used. The load is applied for a standard time, usually 30 sec and the diameter of the indentation is
measured with a low power microscope after the removal of the load. The average of two readings
of the diameter of the impression at right angles should be taken. The figure below shows the
Brinell hardness test schematic and the fundamentals.

Fig.1. Brinell hardness test fundamentals.

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The BHN is expressed as the load divided by the surface area of the indentation which is
expressed by the following formula

Where BHN= Brinell hardness number in kg/mm2,

P= Applied load in kg,
D= Diameter of Indenter in mm,
d= Diameter of indentation in mm.

1. machine body 2. loading handle 3. elevation handle 4. hand wheel, 5. elevating screw rod sleeve
(elevating screw rod inside) 6. specimen to be tested, 7. main shaft 8. smaller lever 9. larger lever
10. adjustment block, 11. position mark 12. hoist ring 13. screw 14. weight changeover support
bracket, 15. weight 16. oil needle 17. oil carpet 18. rear cover 19. buffer,
20. unloading handle 21. indenter 22. top cover 23. indication dial gauge, 24. load changeover
handle 25. worktable
Fig.2. Figure showing different parts of Brinell hardness tester.

Test Specimen:
The selected specimen shall have a thickness at least 10 times the depth of indentation to avoid
the deformation to be extended to the opposite surface of a specimen. After the test, no
deformation shall be there on the surface of the test piece opposite to the indentation. The

2 
 
surface of the test specimen shall be smooth and even, free from oxide scale, foreign matter and,
in particular completely free from lubricants. 
           

Figure 3: Schematic of Test Specimen

Procedure:
1. Initially clean the surfaces of the given specimen with suitable emery paper.
2. Raise the specimen, which is placed on the spherically mounted test pad against the
indentation ball using the-hand wheel.
3. The release valve is closed and the load is applied by uniform strokes of the pump until
the oil pressure raises the yoke with the weight.
4. Apply the constant load for 15 seconds and release the valve.
5. Measure the diameter of indentation.
6. Take an average of two readings on each material.
Precautions:
1. The surface on which the indentation is made should be relatively smooth and free from
dirt or scale.
2. The release valve on the cylinder must be tightly closed before pumping.
3. After indentation, the specimen must be brought down by turning hand-wheel in an anti-
clockwise direction.
4. Both pans on the yoke must be simultaneously loaded with the equivalent dead weights
before application of the load.
5. The distance between two adjacent indentations or an indentation and the edge of the
sample must be at least 2.5 times and the thickness of the sample be at least 10 times the
diameter of the indentation.
Observations:
S.No Specimen Load Diameter of Diameter of Mean BHN
(Kg) indenter indentation diameter of (kg/mm2)
(mm) (mm) indentation
d1 d2 (mm)
1. Mild Steel 3000 10 
2500 10 
2000 10 
2. Brass 1500 10 
1000 10 
500 10 
3. Copper 1000 10 
4. Aluminum 500 10 

3 
 
Calculations:
From Meyer's law, P = kdn,
Where, P = applied load, kg; d = diameter of indentation, mm
n = a material constant related to strain hardening of the metal
k = a material constant expressing resistance of the metal to penetration.

Applying log on both sides, log P = log k + n log d

The plot of log P vs. log d is a straight line from which n and k are obtained.

Sl. No. Specimen logP logd Value of n Value of k

Mild Steel

Brass

Graphs to be plotted:
• log P vs. log d

Questions:
1: What is the limitation of Brinell hardness test and why?
2: What is the unit of B.H.N?
3: Can we predict the tensile strength of material if its hardness in known?
4: How hardness is important from the design point of view?
5: How does the surface preparation of the materials affect the hardness results?

References:

1. Standard Test Method for Brinell Hardness of Metallic Materials, ASTM E10
2. Davis, Troxell, and Wiscocil – Testing and Inspection of Engineering Materials.
3. Dieter, Mechanical Metallurgy.
4. Method for Brinell Hardness Test for Metallic Materials, IS 1500

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 Experiment No. 2
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
The aim of the Experiment: To study the Rockwell Hardness testing machine and perform the
Rockwell hardness test.
Apparatus Required: Rockwell Hardness Tester.
Specimens used: Aluminum, Brass, Copper and Mild Steel.
Introduction: The Rockwell test is widely accepted as compared to the other hardness tests due
to its speed and freedom from personal error, so that finished heat-treated parts can be tested
without damage. This test utilizes the depth of indentation, under constant load, as a measure of
hardness.

The testing procedure starts with indenting a flatly ground metal surface with a diamond or
hardened steel ball with a small (minor) load of 10 kgf to position the metal surface as shown in
figures.

  

Fig. (a) Diagram showing Rockwell hardness tester and Fig. (b) Rockwell hardness measurement
showing positions to apply the minor and major loads
Here the difference in the depth of penetration produced by a minor load and a major load is a
measure of the hardness, which is indicated directly on the dial of the machine. The dial contains
100 divisions. Each division represents a penetration of 0.002 mm. The minor load of 10 kg is first
applied to seat the specimen. This minimizes the amount of surface preparation needed. Depending
on the major load and the indenter combination used, the hardness scale on the indicator varies.
The hardness numbers are designated HRX, where X indicates the scale used (i.e., 50 HRC for 50
points on the C scale of the dial). It should be noted that a Rockwell hardness number is
meaningless unless the scale is not specified.

5 
 
Where H is H1-H2 and M is the maximum scale which equals 100 in general for testing with the
diamond indenter (scale A, C, and D). The M value equals 130 when testing with a steel ball for
Rockwell scales B, E, M, and R.

This hardness test uses a direct reading instrument based on the principle of differential depth
measurement. Rockwell testing differs from Brinell testing in that the Rockwell hardness number
is based on an inverse relationship to the measurement of the additional depth to which an indenter
is forced by a heavy (major) load beyond the depth resulting from a previously applied (minor)
load. Initially, a minor load is applied, and a zero datum position is established. The major load is
then applied for a specified period and removed, leaving the minor load applied. The resulting
Rockwell number represents the difference in depth from zero datum position as a result of the
application of major load. The entire procedure requires only 5 to 10 seconds. Use of a minor load
dramatically increases the accuracy of this type of test, because it eliminates the effects of backlash
in the measuring system and causes the indenter to break through slight surface roughness. The
1200 sphero-conical diamond indenter is used mainly for testing hard materials such as hardened
steels and cemented carbides. Hardened steel ball indenters with diameters 1/16, 1/8, 1/4, 1/2 inch
are used for testing softer materials such as fully annealed steels, softer grades of cast irons, and a
wide variety of nonferrous metals. In Rockwell testing, the minor load is 10 kgf, and the major
load is 60, 100 or 150 kgf. In superficial (used for testing case hardening and thin sheet) Rockwell
testing, the minor load is 3 kgf, and major loads are 15, 30 or 45 kgf. In both tests, the indenter
may be either a diamond cone (called the "brale") or steel ball, depending principally on the
characteristics of the material being tested.

How it Works:

The key to the process is the uses of pre-loading and measurements taken before and after the
major load is applied. This cancels out elastic effects - which include elasticity in the tester itself,

6 
 
and in the job. The leverage system: also includes a dashpot (damper) to let the load down
smoothly.  

Fig2. Dead‐Weight Rockwell Hardness Tester 

Rockwell Hardness Scales:

There are 30 different Rockwell scales, defined by

the combination of the indenter and minor and
major loads. The majority of applications are
covered by the Rockwell C (hard materials) and B
(medium materials) scales for testing steel, brass,
and other materials.

Choosing a Test Location on the Part:

If indentation is placed too close to the edge of the

specimen, the workpiece edge will bulge, and the
hardness number will decrease accordingly.

 The distance from the center of the

indentation to the edge of the specimen
must be at least two and-a-half diameters.
 An indentation hardness test cold works the
surrounding material. If another indentation is placed within this cold worked area, the
reading usually will be higher than the real value. Generally, the softer the material, the

7 
 
 more critical the spacing of indentations becomes. Must also be five diameters from
another test location.

Procedure:
1. A selection of parts is to be measured using the Rockwell Hardness tester. Record your
results, including any misreadings and "off-scale" measurements (these occur when the
wrong scale is used)
2. Choose the appropriate scale to suit the material to be tested (probably B or C)
3. Check the machine especially after the indenter has been changed and has not "seated"
yet. Use a calibrated block
4. Select a location for the test (see notes). Remove oil or dirt, but the surface does not need
to be polished, etc.
5. Make sure the part can be held securely. Use the "V" anvil for round parts.
6. Raise the needle according to instructions
7. Initially, a minor load is applied by raising the specimen against the indenter until the
small pointer on the dial stands on the black dot.
8. The major load is then applied on the specimen by depressing a handle on the front of the
machine.
9. The crank handle on the side of the machine is pulled forward to apply the load.
10. When the load is applied, the pointer on the dial rotates and as it remains constant wait
for 15 sec and then pull back the crank handle to release the major load.
11. The value on the appropriate scale indicated by the big pointer on the dial, after the major
load is released, is the Rockwell hardness value of the specimen.
12. Take a reading. The C scale should be between 20 and 70. A and B scales may be 0 to
100.
Precautions:
1. The indenter and anvil should be clean and well seated.
2. The surface to be tested should be clean and dry, smooth and free from oxide.
3. The surface should be flat and perpendicular to the indenter.
4. The thickness of the specimen must be at least 10 times the depth of the indentation.
5. The specimen must be carefully supported because any uncovered vertical motion will change
the hardness by one unit for every 0.002 mm displacement. Therefore, the supported surface of
the specimen must be flat and not covered by any scale, grease, etc.
6. Ensure that the crank handle is pulled back before the application of minor load.

8 
 
Observation and Calculation:
Test piece material:

HRA = 100-(t/0.002)

HRB = 130-(t/0.002)

HRC = 100-(t/0.002)

Questions:
1. Explain how the leverage system works with the aid of a diagram (sketch).
2. What is the limitation on the thickness of specimens for a hardness test? Explain. Calculate
the minimum thickness for one specimen for the Rockwell test and one for the Brinell test.
3. What are the limitations for the distance from specimen edge to indentation and distance
between indentations? Explain why these limitations exist in both cases.
4. What surface condition is necessary for Brinell, Rockwell, and Vickers?
5. Why is the mean pressure (stress) under the indentor much higher than the yield stress? How
much higher is it?

References:
1. Standard Test Methods for Rockwell Hardness of Metallic Materials, ASTM E18
2. Davis, Troxell and Wiscocil – Testing and Inspection of Engineering Materials.
3. Dieter: Mechanical Metallurgy.
4. D.Tabor: The Hardness of Metals

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 Experiment No. 3
REBOUND HARDNESS TEST
Aim of the Experiment: To determine Shore Scleroscope hardness (rebound hardness) values
of given metallic specimens.
Apparatus required: Shore Scleroscope hardness tester.
Specimens used: Aluminium, Brass, Copper and Mild Steel.
Introduction:
Shore’s Scleroscope hardness test is a dynamic indentation hardness test performed using a
calibrated instrument that drops a diamond-tipped hammer from a fixed height onto the surface of
the material under test. The height of rebound of the hammer is a measure of the hardness of the
material. Testing must be performed as per ASTM E448-82(2008) standards, which is a standard
procedure for Scleroscope hardness testing of metallic materials.
The Scleroscope test consists of dropping a diamond-tipped hammer, which falls inside a glass
tube under the force of its self-weight from a fixed height, into the test specimen. The height of
the rebound travel of the hammer is measured on a graduated scale. The scale of the rebound is
arbitrarily chosen and consists of “Shore units,” divided into 100 parts, which represent the %
rebound from pure hardened high-carbon steel.

In regular use, the shore Scleroscope test does not mark the material under test. The standard
hammer is approximately 1/4 inch in diameter, 3/4 inch long and weighs 2 gm, with a striking
diamond tip rounded to a 0.01 inch radius. The Shore Scleroscope measures hardness in terms of
the elasticity of the material, and the hardness number depends on the height to which the hammer
rebounds, the harder the material, the higher the rebound. Advantages of this method are
portability and non-marking (indentation) of the test surface.

10 
 
Procedure: The Scleroscope in the laboratory is of dial recording type in which the dial hand
remains at the rebound height until reset. The instrument is leveled using leveling screws until the
plumb line is vertical. The glass tube containing the hammer is brought to intimate contact with
the specimen by lowering the clamp. The hammer is allowed to fall on the specimen by turning
the knob provided at the side. This operation automatically resets the dial hand at zero. After
rebound, the hardness value can be obtained on the dial by turning back this knob to the original
position.

Precautions:
1. The specimen surface should be flat and smooth and free from grease, etc.
2. Several hardness readings must be taken to get a fair average, but the hammer should not be
dropped on the same spot more than once.
3. Correct manipulation of the knurled operating knob is essential if satisfactory results are to be
obtained.
4. The foot pedal must be depressed gently and thoroughly.
5. The pointer in the dial must be at zero, every time before a reading is taken.

Observations:
S.NO Specimen Readings Mean Reading Shore Scleroscope
1 2 3 Hardness Number
1 Mild Steel
2 Brass
3 Copper
4 Aluminum

Questions:
1. What are the applications of rebound hardness test?
2. What is the information that can be drawn from the rebound hardness value of a material?
3. Is rebound hardness testing a destructive hardness test method?
4. What are the limitations of rebound hardness test?
References:
1. Standard Practice for Scleroscope Hardness Testing of Metallic Materials, ASTM E778
2. Davis, Troxell and Wiscocil – Testing and Inspection of Engineering Materials 
3. Mechanical Testing and Evaluation, ASM Metals Handbook, Vol 08

11 
 
 Experiment No. 4
POLDI HARDNESS TEST
Aim of the Experiment: To determine the Poldi Hardness Number of the given specimens using
Poldi hardness tester.
Equipment: Poldi Hardness Tester, Portable hand microscope and hammer.
Test Specimens: Aluminium, Brass, Copper and Mild Steel.
Introduction:
Poldi hardness test is a dynamic hardness test and can be used at any stage of processing of
meterials. The instrument consists of a hardened steel ball of 10mm diameter fixed to a hollow
cylindrical casing and a moveable plunger is fixed rigidly in the casing by means of a spring. A
standard test bar is inserted in the gap provided between the plunger bottom and the steel ball. The
test bar is hardened for a predetermined value and is tapered for easy insertion.
A swift blow with hammer produces impression both on the standard and test specimen. The
diameter of the indentation on the test surface and the standard bar are correlated in the
manufacturer's table and the hardness number is measured in BHN.
Principle: Load is applied on the specimen and a standard test bar in linear direction through a
special Brinell Ball of 10 mm diameter by a hammer blow. The impact load being same, the extent
of indentations obtained on the specimen and the test bar depend on their hardness, harder the
material less is the depth of indentation. The two diameters of indentations are measured by a
special “Magnifiscope" measuring magnifier supplied with the tester. By referring to the table
provided, the hardness of the specimen can be determined. Some of the advantages of this hardness
testing method are,
 It is fast and simple
 It is portable and can easily be operated
 It can be used at any stage of processing of metals and is most useful when the specimen
is too large and cannot be mounted.
The only disadvantage of this method is that the value is not very accurate, with about 10%
deviation.
Applicability: The hammer type Poldi impact hardness tester is useful for simple and quick
determination of Brinell hardness of metals such as steel, Cast Iron, Brass, Aluminium, Copper
etc. Due to easy handling and maneuverability, this tester is most suitable for testing heavy
castings and other components, difficult to be carried to a table type hardness tester.

12 
 
Procedure:
1. Insert the tapered end of the standard test bar into the space between the ball and the
plunger and slide it further beyond the tapered position such that the test bar will thus be
firmly gripped between the ball and the plunger pressed against by spring.

13 
 
 2. The specimen to be tested should properly ground or filed and polished at the surface where
it is to be tested to ensure accurate readings.
3. Place the tester with standard test bar inserted, vertically on the specimen so that the ball
touches the polished surface.
4. Hit the top end of the plunger with a hammer, the blow not being very hard and should be
as vertical as possible.
5. The blow delivered by hammer will produce simultaneous indentations, one on the
standard test bar and the other on the specimen.
6. The diameters of these indentations are then to be measured using microscope corrected to
0.01mm.
7. Poldi hardness number of the specimen is to be found out using the table supplied with the
tester.

Precautions:
1. The hammer blow should be moderate.
2. The instrument should be held vertically.
3. The gap between the neighbouring indents should be at least 15 mm.

Observations:
S.NO Specimen Diameter of Diameter of Poldi Hardness
indentation on indentation on Number
standard test bar specimen
1 Mild Steel
2 Brass
3 Copper
4 Aluminium

Questions:
1. What is the use of Poldi hardness tester?
2. Can tensile properties of a material be calculated from this test?
3. Why does the test equipment use a Brinell ball?
References:
1. Dynamic Hardness Testing Procedures, ASTM MNL46-EB
2. Mechanical Testing and Evaluation, ASM Metals Handbook, Vol 08

14 
 
 Experiment No. 5
CHARPY & IZOD IMPACT TEST
Objective: Determination of the ductile to brittle transition temperature of given specimens using
a impact testing machine using Charpy and Izod specimen geometries.
Apparatus: impact testing machine
Specimens used: Standard Charpy & Izod test specimens.
Introduction:
The ductile-brittle transition is exhibited in bcc metals, such as low carbon steel, which become
brittle at low temperature or at very high strain rates. FCC metals, however, generally remain
ductile at low temperatures. In metals, plastic deformation at room temperature occurs by
dislocation motion. The stress required to move a dislocation depends on the atomic bonding,
crystal structure, and obstacles such as solute atoms, grain boundaries, precipitate particles and
other dislocations. If the stress required moving the dislocation is too high, the metal will fail
instead by the propagation of cracks and the failure will be brittle. Thus, either plastic flow (ductile
failure) or crack propagation (brittle failure) will occur, depending on which process requires the
smaller applied stress. In fcc metals, the flow stress, i.e. the force required to move dislocations,
is not strongly temperature dependent. Therefore, dislocation movement remains high even at low
temperatures and the material remains relatively ductile. In contrast to fcc metal crystals, the yield
stress or critical resolved shear stress of bcc single crystals is markedly temperature dependent, in
particular at low temperatures. The temperature sensitivity of the yield stress of bcc crystals has
been attributed to the presence of interstitial impurities on the one hand, and to a temperature
dependent Peierls- Nabarro force on the other. However, the crack propagation stress is relatively
independent of temperature. Thus, the mode of failure changes from plastic flow at high
temperature to brittle fracture at low temperature.
The ductile to brittle transition is characterized by a sudden and dramatic drop in the energy
absorbed by a metal subjected to impact loading (Fig.1). This transition is practically unknown in
fcc metals but is well known in bcc metals. As temperature decreases, a metal's ability to absorb
energy of impact decreases. Thus, its ductility decreases. At some temperature the ductility may
suddenly decrease to almost zero. This transition is often more abrupt than the transition
determined by the energy absorbed. This temperature is called the nil-ductility transition
temperature (NDTT). The NDTT is lower than the fracture energy transition temperature and is
generally more narrowly defined. The difference between these two transition temperatures is

15 
 
related to the high rate of loading during impact testing rate sensitive metals. Increased loading
rates cause the yield stress to increase while increasing temperature causes ductility to increase.

Fig.1. Impact Testing machine

T1: Fracture is 100% fibrous. Fracture Transition Plastic (FTP)
T2: 50% Cleavage – 50% ductile (Fracture Appearance Trans. Temp. (FATT)
T3: Average of upper and lower shelf values
T4: Ductility Transition Temperature
T5: 100% Cleavage fracture (Nil Ductility Temperature – NDT)

Energy absorbed before failure when there is a defect in the material can be studied using either
Charpy impact or Izod impact test (Fig. 2). Although the Izod impact test has long been used as
the standard form of test for checking the brittleness of metals, the need has arisen for the test at
elevated and subzero temperatures. For this purpose, the CHARPY IMPACT test is more
convenient. The specimen need not be clamped and it can be quickly positioned without significant
change of temperature.
The standard shape of the test specimen is as shown in figure 3, which is being tested in bending
with a standard notch in this Charpy test. Under this test, the notch on the specimen sets up stress
concentrations, which ensures that fracture, does occur.
The Charpy impact test, also known as the Charpy V-notch test, is a standardized high strain-rate
test which determines the amount of energy absorbed by a material during fracture. This absorbed
energy is a measure of a given material's notch toughness. In an impact test, a specially prepared
notched specimen is fractured by a single blow from a heavy hammer. Impact load is produced by
swinging of an impact weight (hammer) from a height h. Release of the weight from the height h
swings the weight through the arc of a circle, which strikes the specimen to fracture at the notch.
The drop angle of the pendulum for Charpy is 140o, and the initial potential energy in Charpy

16 
 
testing is 300 joules with a least count of 2 Joules. When the striker impacts the specimen, the
specimen will absorb energy until it yields. At this point, the specimen will begin to undergo
plastic deformation at the notch. The test specimen continues to absorb energy and work hardens
at the plastic zone at the notch. When the specimen can absorb no more energy, fracture occurs.
Kinetic energy of the hammer at the time of impact is mv2 /2, which is equal to the relative
potential energy of the hammer before its release (mgh), where m is the mass of the hammer and
v = √2gh is its tangential velocity at impact, g is gravitational acceleration (9.806 m/s2) Energy
used can be measured from the scale given. The difference between potential energies is the
fracture energy. In the test machine this value indicated by the pointer on the scale.

Fig.2. Impact Testing machine

Specification of the Machine

Its specifications along-with their typical values are as follows:
Impact capacity = 300 Joule, 164 Joule for Charpy and Izod geometries respectively
Least count of capacity (dial) scale = 2 Joule
Weight of striking hammer = 18.7 kg.

17 
 
 Swing diameter of hammer = 1600 mm.
Angle of the hammer before striking = 140°, 90o for Charpy and Izod geometries
respectively
Distance between supports = 40 mm.

Sample specifications:
A Charpy specimen of 10 mm  10 mm square cross-section and 55 mm length, with a V-notch
45 angle, 2 mm deep and 0.25 mm root radius along the middle of the length according to ASTM
E23. For a U-notch specimen, the dimensions are 5 mm deep, 2 mm width and 1mm root radius
according to ASTM E23. The specimen is kept as a simply supported beam in a horizontal position
and loaded behind the notch by the impact of a heavy swinging pendulum. The angle of drop of
the pendulum is 140. The impact velocity is approximately 5.3465 m/sec. The specimen bends
and fractures at a high strain rate.

Whereas Izod specimen has 10 mm 10 mm. square cross section and 75 mm length, with a V-
notch 45 angle, 2 mm deep and 0.25 mm root radius along the 28 mm away from the c/s surface
according to ASTM E23 (Fig. 4). The specimen is kept as a cantilever beam in vertical position.
The angle of drop of pendulum is 90. The impact velocity is approximately 3.856 m/sec. The
specimen bends and fractures at high strain rate.

Procedure:
1. Without the specimen in the machine, swing the pendulum to ensure free movement.
2. Lift the pendulum and lock it at 140 for Charpy configuration and 90o for Izod configuration.
3. Place the Charpy test specimen as shown in fig.2 or Izod test specimen as shown in Figure 3.
4. Remove the lock nut and engage the lever.
5. The pendulum will strike the specimen and result will display in the indicator.
6. Repeat the test at room temperature, immersing the sample in liquid nitrogen for 1& 30
minutes and 450oC.

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 Fig.3. Sample Specifications and Configuration

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 Fig.4: Schematic diagram representing specimen configuration.

Observations:
 Initial and final reading on the dial.
 Energy absorbed by the specimen.
Calculation:
 Notch Impact Strength = Absorbed energy/ effective cross sectional area.
 Calculate the impact energy of the hammer just before striking the specimen.
Questions:
1) What is strain energy?
2) How do you measure the toughness of a material?
3) Why notch is prepared in the specimen?
4) How will you determine Charpy impact value for a given material?
5) Will the energy requirements for fracture the specimen remains same by increasing or
decreasing the height of hammer?
6) What is the difference between impact produced by gradually applied load and by suddenly
applied load on a body or a specimen?
7) Why impact test is required for a material?
8) What property of metal does the impact test measure?
9) What are the primary uses of the Charpy test?
10) Explain the relation between fracture toughness (KIC) of steels and impact energy.

References:
1. Standard Test Methods for Notched Bar Impact Testing of Metallic Materials, ASTM
E23
2. Standard Test Method for Determining the Charpy Impact Resistance of Notched
Specimens of Plastics, ASTM D6110

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 Experiment No. 6
ERICHSEN DUCTILITY TEST
Aim of the Experiment: To evaluate the deep drawing properties of given sheet specimens.

Equipment: Erichsen testing machine, micrometer.

Test Specimens: Mild steel sheet and Galvanized iron sheet.

Introduction:
Sheet metals are usually formed in the cold state and hence an idea of their cold formability is
important. There are several methods of evaluating this but the quicker and widely used methods
are the "cupping" tests. Erichsen ductility test is a popular cupping test.
In the Erichsen test, a cup is formed in the sheet metal by forcing a plunger till a crack just appears
and the depth of the cup is taken as a measure of ductility.
The appearance of the surface of the fractured dome gives an indication of the probable surface
quality of the material after deep drawing. Grain size is important in deep-drawing operations and
the effect of grain size is indicated by the surface appearance of the Erichsen dome. For example,
coarse grain size gives the characteristic rough appearance known as the “orange peel effect”.
The sheet specimen is clamped tightly between two steel rings by rotating a hand wheel. There is
a scale attached to this hand wheel on which the thickness of the specimen can be read off in
hundredths of millimeter. The hand wheel is now turned back (anti-clockwise) by five small
divisions on the scale in order to give the test piece certain amount of play. By depressing the
milled ring on the wheel, the gear is shifted so that when the handle is turned now, only the
hemispherical plunger moves forward penetrating, the specimen and thus making a cup. The
formation of this cup can be viewed through a mirror. The depth of impression (or cup) in mm
required to obtain fracture is the Erichsen value for the metal.

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Figure 1: Erichsen Cupping Testing Machine-Photograph and schematic

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Principle: The Erichsen cupping test is a ductility test, which is employed to evaluate the ability
of metallic sheets and strips to undergo plastic deformation in stretch forming. The test consists
of forming an indentation by pressing a punch with a spherical end against a test piece clamped
between a blank holder and a die, until a through crack appears. The depth of the cup is measured.

Fig 2: Principle of the Erichsen cupping test

Procedure:
1. Determine the thickness of the sheet nearest to 0.01 mm.
2. Before operating the machine, lightly grease one face of the test piece.
3. Press the test piece between the clamp spindle and the die.
4. Bring the penetrator without shock in contact with the test piece, but not pressing it, thus
determining the point from which to measure the depth of penetration.
5. Proceed with the cupping, which should take place without jerking and at a speed between
5 to 20 mm/m towards the end of the operation, reduce this speed to the vicinity of the
lower limit, in order to determine accurately the moment when rupture commences.
6. Stop the test at the point of rupture (look into the mirror or note the pressure drop) and note
the depth. This depth, expressed in millimetre, gives the Erichsen Cupping Number.

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Precautions:
1. The test piece should be flat and thickness should not be more than 2 mm
2. The grease should be applied at the point of contact on the specimen. 
3. The force should be applied slowly and constantly on the lever. 
4. The reading of dial gauge should be taken carefully
5. Observe the mirror properly such that once the initiation of the crack is observed, stop
rotating the handle.
Observations:
S. Specimen Thickness of the Dome Height Erichsen Cupping
No specimen Number

1 Mild Steel
2 Galvanised Iron

Questions:
1. What is the effect of material properties on formability?
2. What are the other methods to measure ductility of a material?
3. What is cupping number? 
4. What is importance of cupping test? 
5. What is drawing and deep drawing? 
6. Give some example of other forming operations?

References:
1. Standard Test Method for Ball Punch Deformation of Metallic Sheet Material, ASTM
E643
2. Metallic materials -Sheet and strip -Erichsen cupping test, ISO 20482
3. L.R. Hawtin, D.R. Mear & R.H.C. Johnson (1963), “An Appraisal Current Information on
the Erichsen Test”, Sheet Metal Industries, Pp. 495–499.
4. L.R. Hawtin & G.M. Parkes (1970), “Erichsen Test for Formability of Metal Sheet”, Sheet
Metal Industries, Pp. 433- 543.

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 Experiment No. 7
TENSILE TEST USING UTM
Aim of the Experiment: To determine the tensile/compression mechanical properties of
materials using Universal Testing Machine (UTM).
Apparatus required: UTM with Tensile and Compression setup.
Specimens: Aluminium/ Mild Steel.
Basic theory:
The tension test is the most commonly used method to evaluate the mechanical properties of
metals. Tensile properties include the resistance of materials to pulling or stretching forces.
The amount of force required to break material and the amount it extends before breaking are
essential properties. In a tension test, a metallic specimen of specified dimensions according
to relevant standards is pulled under the action of uniaxial forces applied at both ends until the
specimen undergoes fracture. A typical tensile test specimen can be seen in Figure 1. The
"gage length" corresponds to the effective length of the specimen over which the elongation
occurs. The crosshead speed can be varied to control the rate of strain in the test specimen.
Data from the test are used to determine tensile strength, yield strength, and modulus of
elasticity. Measurement of the specimen dimensions after testing also provides a reduction of
area and elongation values to characterize the ductility of the material.

Fig.1: Shape of the specimen at various stages of testing.

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 Procedure:
1. Polish the surface of both tensile and compressive test specimens to remove the scratches,
grease or oil using emery papers and rinse them using ethanol. Dry the specimens using a
clean cloth.
2. Measure the original sample dimensions such as gage length, specimen diameter.
3. Fix the specimen using appropriate fixtures for conducting tensile or compression tests.
4. Record the load vs. displacement data on a computer using the software.
5. Measure the final length of the specimen and diameter at the neck region.
6. Take data from the computer and construct stress-strain curve.

Precautions:
1. The specimen should be of specified dimensions.
2. The specimen should be appropriately placed in between the jaws.
3. Stop the machine after the specimen fails

Observations:

Before the Test

• Material:

• Gage Length (L0) :

• Total length between the grips:

• Specimen Diameter (D0) :

• Specimen Area (A0) :

After the Test

• Gauge length after fracture (L) :

• Diameter of necked region (d) :

• Area of necked region (A) :

• Total length between the grips after elongation:

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Calculate:
• Percentage of elongation:

• Percentage of reduction in area:

 Strain Hardening Component (n):

 Area under the stress-strain curve, i.e., toughness of the material:

 Young’s modulus of samples.

 Yield strength, Tensile strength of samples and breaking strength

Representative Table:
Engineering Engineering True Stress = True Strain = log (True log (True
Stress Strain e (1+) ln(1+) Stress) Strain)
e = P/A0  = L/L0 (N/mm2)
(N/mm2)

Graphs to be plotted:
• Load (N) vs. Deflection (mm)

• Engineering Stress vs. Engineering Strain Curve

• True Stress vs. True Strain Curve

• log (True Stress) vs. log (True Strain) Curve

Questions:
1. If the material is given compare your test results of strength and ductility with book values.
Why is there a significant difference?
2. Which modulus did you find from the initial portion of the stress-strain curve? If did not
use an extensometer but determined strain from the crosshead movement, would the initial
slope still allow you to determine an accurate modulus? Explain.
3. Explain the different deformation mechanisms which are active in the different regions of
the tensile stress-strain curve. (Elastic, yielding, strain hardening, necking, etc.)

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References:
1. Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials, ASTM E8
2. Standard Test Methods of Compression Testing of Metallic Materials at Room
Temperature, ASTM E9
3. Mechanical Metallurgy, G.E. Dieter, McGraw Hill Book Company, 1987.
4. Materials Science and engineering: an introduction, Willam D. Callister, Jr., Wiley, New
York, 2000. 

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