1st Experiment

Internal Combustion lab

Energy Balance
Objective
To know what is the benefit of Engine Energy Balance and how we made engine test
and knowing its performance.

Discussion
• Why do we need to do Engine Energy Balance?
• How can we test the engine performance?
• What are the tools that used in testing the engine?

Engine Energy Balance

There are many reasons to perform an energy balance study on an engine. The
knowledge of how the energy is lost will help in finding means to improve the
performance of the engine in terms of efficiency and power output. This seems to
be the main reason behind most energy studies performed on engines. By improving
the efficiency of the engine, the result is a higher percentage of the fuel’s energy
getting converted into power output. This is noticed as improved performance.
Although the goal of understanding engine operation to improve efficiency is
common, there are many different reasons an energy balance study helps to reach this
goal. Energy balances studies help characterize the impact a change has on the overall
system. Once the impact is identified by the energy balance, one can attempt to either
maximize or oppose its use due to the benefits and drawbacks. These changes include
variations in fuel, physical changes to engine design, or adjustments of engine
settings.

Energy balance Equation Qcoolant

Fuel power ( m. f QH .V ) ENGINE Pb

Qsurroundings QExhaust

m. f QH .V = Pb + Qcoolant + QExhaust + Qsurrounding

Where
m. f Is mass flow rate of the fuel (Kg/s)
QH .V Is the heating value of the fuel (KJ/Kg)
Pb Is the Brake Power of the engine (KW)
Qcoolant Is the heat loss to the coolant (KW)

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QExhaust Is the heat loss from the exhaust (KW)
Qsurrounding Is a loss to surroundings that cannot be calculated (friction, oil, radiation)

Now we will take each term and explain how to measure it

Fuel Power
This is the Power which we take from the Fuel. This power is resulted from the
chemical reaction of fuel which gives us the heat and explosion we need. We
calculate it from the product of mass flow rate multiplied by the Heating value of the
fuel .
Fuel Power = m. f *QH .V
QH.V (diesel) = 43.1 Mj/Kg
Density of diesel fuel = 830 Kg/m3

How to measure Fuel Power

Fuel flow rates (mf) were measured with flow meters or else by measuring the
volume of fuel consumed and the specific time of consumption.

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Brake Power (Pb)
Brake power is the measure of an engine's power without the loss in power caused by
the gearbox, alternator, differential, water pump, and other auxiliary components. We
get it from the product of the torque multiplied by the RPM of the Engine

Brake Power =  b  
BP(KW) = load(lb) * N(rpm) * 0.746 / 2800

How to measure Brake Power

In order to measure the brake Torque (τb) of the engines dynamometers were
used. Hydraulic brake dynamometers were used in most cases examined, however, it
should be noted that other dynamometers such as water brake, fan brake, prony brake,
eddy current, direct current, or electric motor/generator.

We can measure engine speed (ω) by using tachometers

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Coolant Losses (QCoolant)

This is the heat loss to the coolant. We may name it losses but actually we need to do
it to reduce the temperature of the engine. To measure the energy transferred through
conduction of engine components, the losses to the coolant, are calculated by:

Coolant Losses = mc  c p  (Tc,o − Tc,i )

mc = 0.0533292 * sqrt( h )
Where
mc is the coolant mass flow rate (Kg/s)
cp is the specific heat at constant pressure (for water = 4.186 KJ/Kg.k)
Tc, o is outlet coolant temperature
Tc, i is inlet coolant temperature
h is manometer reading in ( mm )

How to measure Coolant Losses (QC)

Heat loss to the engine coolant was usually measured by finding the difference in
coolant temperature at the engine’s inlet and outlet.

Exhaust Losses (QExhaust)

It is the heat that is released from the exhaust system which contains heat that can be
used in any other process in the car. The losses through the exhaust were determined
by measuring the air and fuel flow rates, and determining the exhaust gas temperature

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 Exhaust Losses = me  c pex  (Tex − Tamb )
me = mair + mfuel

mair = ρair  Cd  Ao  sqrt( 2  g  hw  ρw / ρair)

Where
me is the Exhaust mass flow rate
cp ex is the specific heat at constant pressure (if not given assume it = 1.13 KJ/Kg.k)
Tex is exhaust temperature
Tamb is ambient temperature
Cd is coefficient of discharge ( 0.658 )
ρair assume 1.23 kg/m3
Ao is area of orifice ( value is 0.001353 m2 )

How to measure Exhaust Losses (QE)

For measuring losses to the exhaust, finding the mass flow rate of the exhaust by
direct measurement or from adding the air and fuel flow rates into the engine, then
maximum heat can be found from cooling the exhaust to ambient temperature.

Air flow rates were measured with either some kind of flow meter or by a pressure
change (manometer) in a flow element.

Losses to surrounding (Q surrounding)

This term we can not measure it but we can calculate it from the difference of the fuel
power and the other losses. This type of losses may go to the oil or friction or by
radiation from the cylinder block or anything we cannot calculate easily

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 Energy balance for the Engine
We will make a variable load test for the engine. All sensors are connected to the
engine and all indicators are working.

Procedure:
1. Start the engine
2. Open the throttle valve until the speed reach 1000 rpm
3. Wait while the engine is running until you reach steady state
4. Read all the data shown in the table from the indicators
5. Repeat the same procedures with load varying between (0, 5, 10, 15, and 20)lb

Speed Load
NO. hcw Tc, i Tc, o hw_air Tex Vfuel time
(RPM) W (lb)

Requirements

1. Fill the table and calculate all types of losses

2. Draw relationship between the types of losses and Load on the engine
(Load on X-axis , Energy on Y-axis)
3. Calculate the percentage of each type of losses to the fuel power at a given
load ( say 10 lb)
4. Report about one type of dynamometer.

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 FUEL ENERGY DYNO. COOLING LOSSES EXHAUST LOSSES

N Vol. time mf* F.P W B.P h mcw* Tin Tout Qcool h mair* mex* Tex Qexh. Qsurr
(RPM)

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 2nd Experiment
Gas Dynamics Laboratory
Experiment title: Calibration and Performance of Choked Nozzle Meter
Objectives:
The aim of this experiment is to emphasize the effects of area change in compressible
flow. The student is expected to understand, appreciate and analyse the choking phenomena due
to area change in air flow.
1. The student will measure and calibrate the convergent nozzle mass flow rate and identify
the critical pressure ratio with reference to a standard orifice flow meter.
2. The student will also readjust the calibration results for some other gases (Butane,
Methane, Hydrogen and Arogon).

Background:
• The gas mass flow rate for the convergent nozzle flow meter is given by:
k M Po1
m'  Ath k 1
R To1
 k 1 2  2  k 1
1  M 
 2 
where:
k = ratio of specific heats of gas
R = gas constant, J/kg K
Ath = exit area of the nozzle , m2
Po1 = absolute stagnation pressure upstream of nozzle, N/m2
To1 = absolute stagnation temperature upstream of nozzle, K
M = mach number at nozzle exit

• The critical pressure ratio, the pressure ratio under choked conditions (M=1), is given by:
k
Po1  2  k 1
 
Po 2  k  1 

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 • Therefore, the mass flow rate for the convergent nozzle under choked conditions
becomes:
k 1 k 1
k  2  2k 1 Po1 k  2  2k 1 Po1
m  Ath    C d A*  
R  k  1 To1 R  k  1 To1
where A* = minimum nozzle area under choked conditions = Ath ,
Cd = is the nozzle discharge coefficient, to account for the nozzle geometry and other
factors.
• Note that A* and Cd are constant for a certain nozzle. Note also that k and R are gas
constants; i.e. independent of the mass flow rate. Therefore, for a certain nozzle and a
certain gas, the mass flow rate depends on the upstream stagnation pressure and
temperature only. This is obviously a convenient method for measuring mass flow rates
for gases.
• The air mass flow rate can be simplified by the following form:
Po1
 air  MFair
m
To1
k 1
k 2  k 1
2 
 
*
where MFair is called the air Meter Factor , and is equal to C d A
R  k  1
• For any other gas, the mass flow rate is directly given by:
Po1
 gas  MFgas
m
To1
where MFgas can be obtained from:

 k 1

 k  2  2k 1 
 
 R  k  1 
  gas
MFgas  MFair
 k 1

 k  2  2k 1 
 
 R  k  1 
  air

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 • The mass flow rate of a compressible flow through an orifice meter is typically given by:

  Y C M A 2 2 1 P1  P2   Y K A 2 2 1 P1  P2 
m
where:
C = discharge coefficient of the orifice
M = velocity of approach factor = 1/ ( 1 - (A2/Al )2)1/2
K = flow coefficient = C M
 = diameter ratio of orifice = d /D
1= upstream density
Y= expansion factor  1
Note that details of the various coefficients of the orifice may be obtained from standard tables
and charts such as those included in ASME or BS standards.

Equipment Required and Description:

1. The main screw compressor, dryer, receiver tank and pipe distribution system up to the
the Gas Dynamic Laboratory. The compressor capacity is 8.2 m3/min and a rated
operating pressure of 9.8 bar.
2. The experimental set up consists of an isolating ball valve , a regulating needle valve, the
choked nozzle meter, and different types and sizes of convergent nozzles. Also, a surge
tank is used (located downstream of the nozzle meter) to damp out any fluctuations
resulting from the choked nozzle or the orifice meter.
3. The measuring equipment includes calibrated pressure gages, pressure
manometers, barometer and thermometers.

Safety Precautions :
1. Observe all safety requirements posted at laboratory entrance.
2. Wear your safety helmet.
3. Read and understand all the experiment instructions before you start the experiment. Ask
advice whenever necessary.
4. Must follow the No Smoking rule.

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Experimental Procedure:
1. Remove all tools and any obstructions from around the experiment area for access to all
controls.
2. Select a specific nozzle and register its type and size. Screw it tightly between the two
flanges of the nozzle meter.
3. Read and register the barometric pressure and ambient temperature in the laboratory.
4. Switch on the compressor and wait untill the system is pressurised to the upper
experiment pressure level.
5. Adjust the air flow by turning the reglating valve to 1.5 bar (absolute). Wait for steady
state to be maintained. Then record all the required readings of the instruments.
6. Increase the flow rate by the regulating valve in steps of 0.5 bar, up to the upper pressure
level of the experiment. For each setting, record the data after establishing steady state
flow as in step number 5.
7. The nozzle mass flow rate obtained from the orifice meter (equal to that of the nozzle) is
plotted versus Po1/ (To1)1/2
8. The nozzle air meter factor, MFair , is obtaied from the graph for the specified nozzle.
9. The nozzle meter factor for any required gas, MFgas , is then calculated and the nozzle
calibration for the mass flow rate of that gas is predicted.
Note that for any gas, the ratio (Po2 / Pol) should not exceed the critical value for choking
conditions to be established.

Results:
Results are to include:
1. Recorded data of the experiment.
2. Tabulated results.
3. Calibartion curves for the air and the other selected gases.

Comments and Conclusions:

The student must carefully study the recorded data and predicted results and make his own notes,
comments and conclusions.

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 Data of Experiment
Date: Gas: Air Orifice Size: 12.9 mm
Barometric Reading (mm Hg): Ambient Temperature:

Nozzle Orifice
Upstream Upstream Downstream P Upstream Density Mass
Stag. Stag. Stag. Press.
Po1 / To1 Manometer Conditions (kg/m3) Flow
Press. Po1 Temp. To1 Po2 Reading, Press. Temp. Rate
( kgf /cm2) (C) (kgf / cm2) (kPa/K1/2) mm H2O mm C (kg/s)
H2O

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 Properties of some gases at 300 K

Chemical R Cp k
Gas
Formula (kJ/kg K) (kJ/kg K) (Cp/ Cv)
Butane C4 H10 0.14304 1.7164 1.091
Methane C H4 0.51835 2.2537 1.299
Air 0.287 1.0035 1.4
Hydrogen H2 4.12418 14.2091 1.409
Argon Ar 0.20813 0.5203 1.667

Viscosity of air at some selected temperatures

Temperature (C) 10 20 30
 (kg/m s) 17.69*10-6 18.17*10-6 18.65*10-6

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