Chapter 1st

Physics and Measurement

Physics:-
Definition:-
Physics can be defined as “the study of properties (physical behavior etc) of matter and
energy and also their mutual relationship.
Branches of physics:-
Initially physics was divided in to two main branches.
1. Classical physics 2. Field theory
But now it is divided also in to two branches.
1. Classical physics 2. Modern physics.
Classical physics is further subdivided in to the following branches.
1. Mechanics 2. Kinematics 3. Kinetics 4. Electricity 5. Magnetism 6. Fluid physics. 7. Blastics.
Modern physics is also further subdivided in to following branches.
1. Atomic physics 2. Nuclear physics 3. Quantum physics 4. Elementary particle physics. 5. Plasma
physics.
The applied branches of physics are 1. Electronics, 2.Geophysics, 3.Astrophysics, 4.Sesmology.
Other branches are light physics, heat and thermodynamics, and acoustics.
Scope:-
The scope of is so giant that man is not able to cover it on the paper. its scope is not just limited to the
atom or neutron proton but it is ranged from subatomic particles like proton neutron to the huge galaxies
of the universe. it also ranges from the study of nonliving objects to the study of the livings objects in
biophysics.
Importance of physics
The importance of physics can not be explained in two or three lines. However there are some points of
the importance of the physics.
1. Through the mathematical equations physics gives us accurate measurements and also some new
predictions.
2. It expresses the theoretical models in the form mathematical terms.
3. Due to physics applications, now we can use electricity and electrical applications.
4. Due to physics the man become able to convert the hours distance in to seconds.
5. Due to the applications of physics the modern man is able to invent new medical devices used in
serving humanity.
Measurement:-
Definition:-
Measurement of a quantity or thing is its comparison with some standard called its unit that how
much it is big or small than that standard.
Unit:-
The standard with which things are compared is called a unit.
Magnitude:-
The numerical ratio of the thing measure to the standard unit with which it is compared is called
magnitude of the thing measured.
Or
The magnitude of a thing is the numerical ratio of the thing and the standard.
Measurement always requires a number and the proper unit.
Explanation:-
The two things are most important to be specified in measurement. 1st is unit and the other is the
numerical no like 4 or 6 kg sugar.
Use:-
The measurement is very important to the physical world and without measurement the
physical world is totally paralyzed.
Physical quantities:-
Definition:-
All measurable quantities are called physical quantities.
Explanation:-
There are numerous, physical quantities like volume, speed, mass, density, temperature, electric
current etc. all of these physical quantities are defined by their magnitude.
Units:-
All physical quantities have different units like that of length is meter, mass is kg, temperature is
Kelvin etc.
Types:-
There are three types of physical quantities. 1. Basic or base quantities 2. Derived quantities. 3.
Supplementary quantities.
Basic quantities:-
Those quantities which are not derivable are called basic physical quantities and their units
are called basic units.
Or
The minimum number of those physical quantities in terms of which other ohyscial quantities can be
defined are called base quantities.
Examples:-
Length:-
The shortest distance between two end points is called length.
Representation:-
It is represented by l.
Unit:-
The standard unit of length is meter.
Meter:-
Definition;-
Different definitions were given to the meter before 1961 and also in 1961 and they did not further
prolong.
Before 1961:-
Before 1961, meter was defined as the distance between two finely drawn lines on platinum-irridum
metal bar placed in the international Bureau of Weights and measures at Sevres, France.
Draw backs:-
This bar meter was however unable to fulfill the accuracy requirements of the modern precision
science and technology, so it can not proceed long as the standard unit.
In 1961:-
In 1961, the wavelength of the orange radiation of krypton-86 identified by the transition 2p10 – 5d5
was taken as the standard unit of length. So in terms of these wavelengths, meter can be given as
1,650,763.73 wavelengths = 1m
draw backs:-
the demand of high precision increased, and it was found that this standard cannot meet the
requirements of science, so it also did not further prolong.
Now a days:-
and now a days meter is defined as
“The distance converted by the light on vacuum in 1/299792458 sec.
this definition of meter was adopted as standard by the 17th General Conference on
Weights and Measures in about 1983 A.D.
Represention:-
It is represented by m.
Time:-
It is defined as the interval between two events.
Representation:-
It is represented by t.
Units:-
The standard unit of time is second.
Definitions:-
The second was also defined in different ways.
Before 1960:-
Before 1960, one mean solar second (M.S) was the standard unit of time.
I second (M.S) = 1 / 60 x 1 / 60 x 1 / 24 mean solar day
This time is called universal time.
Draw backs;-
As this standard of time depends on the rotation of the earth about its own axis but the motion of the
earth varies with the time.
For precise measurement an invariable and presice unit is rqured so it does not procedd as the
standard unit.
Modern standard:-
modern definition of second is the time in which Cs-133 completes 9,192,631,770 vibrations.
This definition was adopted in 1967 by 13th General Conference on Weights and Measures.
Representation:-
It is represented by “s”.
Temperature:-
Degree of hotness and coldness of a body is called temperature.
Representation:-
It is denoted by T.
Unit:-
Its standard SI unit is Kelvin.
Definition:-
It is 1/273.12 part of the triplet point of water. The triplet point means the temperature at which the
water exists in all three physical states in equilibrium. This unit was established in 1967.
Representation:-
It is represented by K.
Electric current:-
Rate of flow of charge is called electric current.
Representation:-
It is represented by “I”.
Unit:-
The standard unit of current is Ampere.
Definition:-
When a charge of one coulomb flow through any conductor for one second then the current passing
through the conductor is called one ampere.
Or
It is the current produced, when two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible
circular cross section and placed a meter apart in vaccum. Here some should be confirmed.
Representation:-
It is represented by A.
Light intensity:-
Energy transmitted by the light per second per unit area is called light intensity.
Representation;-
It is represented by IL
Unit:-
Its standard unit is candela.
Definition:-
The radiation emitted by the black body thorough 1/600, 000 m2 area at the solidification temperature of
platinum under standard atmospheric pressure.
This definition was adopted in 1967.
Definition:-
It is represented by “cd”.
Amount of substance:-
Definition:-
The number of entities is called amount of substance.
Representation:-
It is represented by n.
Unit:-
Its standard unit is mole.
Definition;-
When atomic mass or molecular mass of substance or compounds is expressed in terms of grams then it
is termed as mole.
Represention:-
It is represented by mol.
In mole there are 6.0225 X 1023 entities which can be ions, electrons, atoms etc.
This definition was adopted in 1967 A.D.
Mass:-
Total quantity of matter contained in a body is called mass.
Representation:-
It is denoted by m.
Unit:-
The standard unit of mass is kilogram.
Definition:-
It is the mass of the platinum-iridium cylinder having diameter and length equal to 39mm
which is placed at STP. (Standard condition of temperature and pressure placed at the International
Bureau of weights and measures at Sevres, France.
Representation:-
It is represented by kg.
Derived quantities:-
Definition:-
The quantities which are the combination of basic physical quantities are called derived physical
quantities
Examples:-
speed, momentum, torque, acceleration density etc.
Units:-
Their units are called derived units.
Examples:-
The units of accerlaeration, voltage and charge are m/s2, volt, coulomb etc.
Supplementary physical quantities:-
Definition:-
Those quantities are neither basic nor derived are called supplementary physical quantities.
Examples:-
There are two supplementary physical quantities. Plane angle and solid angle.
1. plane angle;-
definition:-
The angle between two lines is called plane angle.
Representation:-
It is represented by 0.
Unit:-
the standard unit of plane angle is radian.
Radian:-
Definition:-
The angle subtended when the length of the arc become equal to radius, then that angle is called 1
radian.
0=s/r
As 0 is the ratio therefore it is purely a number without any unit.
Explanation through Figure:-
In the fig. the length of the arc AC is equal to the length of the radius OA, so the angle 0 is equal to
one radian.
Other units:-
The other units are revolution and degree.
Revolution:-
As the circumference of the circle is 2 r, and according to the definition of the radian, the angle
subtended will be equal to 2 radian = 360 = one revolution.
1 rev = 2 radian = 360

here we can get,

1 radian = 360 / 2 = 57.32o
degree:-
when length of the arc is equal to 1/360 of the circumference of the circle, then the angle subtended
at the centre of the circle is one degree.
A minute is 1/60 of a degree, and a second is 1/60 of a minute.
Solid angle:-
Definition:-
The angle subtended by the volumetric element is called solid angle.
Explanation:-
If r is the radius, then solid angle is given as
Sold angle = surface area of the element/ r2
It is denoted by .
Unit:-
Its unit is called Steradian.
Steradian:-
Definition:-
The solid angle subtended by the volumetric element or sphere at its centre when the area of the surface
of the sphere or volumetric element is equal to the square of the radius of the sphere or volumetric
element is called 1 Steradian.
As it is the ratio of the two quantities, so it is purely a number without any unit.
For sphere:-
The surface area of the sphere is 4 r2, and by dividing with r2, we get 4 , which is the solid angle of the
sphere equal to one Steradian.
A closed surface subtendes and angle of 4 , at any point of its interior.
Prefixes:-
Definition:-
Prefixes are the numbers added before the standard units to express too small or too large quantities.
Explanation:-
In the physical world, there lies so many small or so many large things that they cannot be
measured with the standard units, so small and large unit are required. For example of diameter of an
electric wire is measured in mm, and mass of trucks and heavy steels are expressed in tons, so for this
purpose prefixes are used.
They are given special names and symbols and they are always in powers of 10. For
example kilo = 1000 = 103, centi = 0.01 = 10-2.
Examples:-
1 centimeter = 1 cm = 10 m.
I microfarad = 1 uf = 10 f .
1 giga volt = 1 GV = 10 V.
Scientific notation:-
Definition:-
When the number is expressed in the form of powers of 10, then the notation is said to be
scientific notation.
If N is any small or large number, then
N = M x 10n
Where M is the number in which first digit from the left side to the right side is non-zero, it is also
followed by the decimal. The remaining number which are all zeros are given the number n, and n is
written as the power of 10.
The powers of 10 can be negative or positive. For example:-
s = 150000m = 15 X 105 m
s = 0.01m = 1 X 10-2m
Error:-
Definition:-
Differing of calculated result from the actual result is called error.
Explanation:-
in any type of measurement, the actual and the calculated result never becomes same. There is
always is a difference in them and this difference is called error.
Reason:-
 The reason can be the inexperience, negligence, and imperfections of the experimenter.
 Fault, limitation and inaduqdancy of the appartatues,
  The anavoiadable or significant changes in the experimental conditions.
Types:-
There are three types of error.
1. Personal Error 2.Systematic Error 3.Random Error.
Personal error:-
The error which arises due to personal fault is called personal error.
Examples:-
Errors in measuring the fruits or other stores materials by the shopkeepers, and errors in the laboratory
measurements(vernier calipers etc.) due to the lack of the experience and knowledge i.e. applying wrong
method.
Correction:-
Personal error can be reduced by repeating experiment again and again.
Systematic error:-
The error which arises due to the fault of the instrument is called systematic error.
Examples:-
The zero error in the vernier calipers and screw gauge etc.
Correction:-
The errors are corrected by making corrections in the final result or by using the other instrument.
Random error:-
The error which arises due to change in the experimental conditions is called random error.
Examples:-
The increase in the amplitude of the simple pendulum due to the fast air, increase or decrease of
temperature or pressure in some precise experiments etc.
Correction:-
These errors can be reduced by maintaining strict controls in the experimental conditions.
Precision:-
Definition:-
Magnitude of the error is called precision.
Explanation:-
In measurement: “the smaller is the least count, the more precise is the result.”
If in measurement or result the error is 0.2 and in the other the error is 0.3 then the second result
will said to be more precise.
It is always measured by the instrument which is used in the experiment.
Accuracy:-
Definition:-
Relative error i.e. error divided by the measured value, is called the relative error or accuracy.
Accuracy is defined as “how much closer is the measured value to the actual value.
Examples:-
If the error is 0.5 and the measured value is 6 then the relative error is
Relative error = error / measured value
0.5 / 6 = 0.08
explanation:-
the result which are precise may not be accurate and the result which are accurate may not be
precise*.
By decreasing the relative error, the result can be made more accurate.
Its measuremtn is depedendent upon the fractrional uncertainty in the measurement or result.
Uncertainty:-
Definition:-
Fluctuation in the result due to error is called uncertainty.
Explanation:-
If L is the actual length & delta L is the error in this length, then uncertainty can be written as:-
L+- delta L.
Example:-
If we measure the diameter of a pencil by simple ruler( marked in mm) having least count is 0.1 cm,
having actual diameter is 3.5 cm , then the measured result may come 3. 6 cm or 3.4 cm. so the
precision is +- 0.1 cm which is least count of the simple ruler marked in mm.
Compound uncertainty:-
When two or more than two physical quantities are added, subtracted, multiplied or divided, then
the fluctuation in the result due to the error is called compound uncertainity.
Calculation:-
How to calculate Compound uncertainty:-
Rule No. 1
If two physical quantities are added or subtracted, then their error will be added.
i.e.
L1 +- delta L1
L2 +- deltaL2
Addition
(L1 + L2) +- (delta L1 + delta L2)
Example:-
If the distance s1 is 3.8 cm and the uncertainty is +-0.1 and the distance s2 is 1.2 cm and the uncertainty
is also +-0.1 cm. then.
 s = s1 + s2 = 3.8cm + 1.2cm (+-0.1 + +-0.1) = 5cm +- 0.2 cm.
Subtraction
(L1 – L2) +- (delta L1 + delta L2)
Example:-
If the distance s1 is 3.8 cm and the uncertainty is +-0.1 and the distance s2 is 1.2 cm and the uncertainty
is also +-0.1 cm. then.
s = s1 - s2 = 3.8cm - 1.2cm (+-0.1 - +-0.1) = 2.6cm +- 0.2 cm.

Rule No. 2
If two physical quantities are multiplied or divided, then their relative error will be added.
i.e.
L1 +- delta L1
L2 +- delta L2
Multiplication:-
(L1 X L2) +- (delta L1/L1 + delta L2/L2)

example:-
if the distance s1 is 3.9cm and the incerainty is +- 0.1 and the distance s2 is 1.4cm and the
uncertainty is +-0.2 cm then
s = (s1)(s2) = (3.9)(1.4) ( +-0.1 + +- 0.2 ) = 5.46 +- 0.3
Division:-

(L1 / L2) +- (delta L1/L1 + delta L2/L2)

example:-
if the distance s1 is 3.9cm and the incerainty is +- 0.1 and the distance s2 is 1.4cm and the
uncertainty is +-0.2 cm then
s = s1 / s2 = 3.9 / 1.4 ( +-0.1 + +- 0.2 ) = 2.7 +- 0.3
percent uncertainty:-
the compound uncertainty can also be written in the form of percent(%).
Example:-
Let the value of voltage and current measured by the ammeter nad voltmeter are
V = 5.3 +- 0.3V
T = 0.78 +- 0.007 A
Then percent of the relative error can be calculated as
V = 0.3V/ 5.3V x 100
= 6%
I = 0.007A / 0.78A x 100
= 1%
dividing:-
as when the value are results are divided their relative error are added, so
R = V/R +-( 6% + 1 %)
= 5.3 / 0.78 +-8 % uncertainty
= 6.7 +-8% Ohm
power of a quantity:-
should be made with hands and then written.
Other topic also
Significant figures:-
Definition:-
All accurately known figures and 1st doubtful figure are called significant figures.
Rules:-
1. All digits from one to 9 are significant.
2. 0 may or may not significant.
Significant zero:
1. If zero lies between two significant figure, then zero is significant.
100004.
2. If zero lies after significant figure and before decimal, than that zero is significant.
1000.
3. If zero lies after significant figure and decimal, than that zero is significant.
1000.00
4. If zero lies after significant figure and parameter is defined than that zero is called significant
zero.
1000m
Non-significant zero:-
1. If zero lies before significant figure and after decimal, than that zero is non-significant.
0.0001
2. If zero lies after significant figure with out decimal and parameter, than that zero is non-
significant.
1000
3. Zeros in power of 10 are non-significant if parameter is not defined.
9.108
other rules:-
1. In case of Computations made with the numbers, which are obtained experimentally, the number of
digits in the data is determined by the quantity in data, having least number of significant figures.
Rounding of non- significant figures:-
The process by which we reduce number of digits after decimal, that process is called rounding of data or
significant figures.
Rules:-
1. If dropping digit is greater than 5 then digit before dropping digit.
8.83797 = 8.84
2. If dropping digit is less than 5 than digit before it remain same.
8.83497 = 8.83
if dropping digit is equal to 5, than if digit before dropping unit is odd number then it will remain same, and
if it even number then it is increase by one.
8.83597 = 8.83
8.84597 = 8.84
addition and subtraction should also made by hands.

Dimensions:-
Definition:-
The process of writing any equation or formula in form of basic physical quantity is called dimension
analysis.
Explanation:-
It represents the nature of physical quantities. Through it we can know that how the physical
quantities are related to the units of length, mass and time etc. for examples mass is measured in
kilograms but its dimension will also be mass not kg and is written as [M]. square brackets [] are used to
denote the dimensions. The dimensions of the derived quantities will be the products of the dimensions
from which they are derived. For example:-

Dimension of speed = dimension of distance

Dimension of time

Representation:-
Dimension of length is denoted by M, length by L, time by T, temperature by K, current by A, light
intensity by I, amount of substance by N.
Examples:-
Dimension of area A = [L2]
Dimension of volume V = [L3]
Dimension of speed V = [L1T-1]
Dimension of acceleration a = [L1T-2]
Dimension of force F = {M1L1T-2]
Dimension of momentum p = [M1L1T-1]
To find dimensions.
Dimension can be fined from the unit of the quantity or by the equation.
Force:-
As force is F = ma, and its unit is kgm/sec2, so
F = ML/T2
Dim of F = [M1L1T-2]
Applications:-
There are two applications of dimensions;-
1. Dimension analysis is used to check the homogeneity of physical equation in order to check the
correctness of the equation or formula.
Homogeneity principle:-
The principle states that if dimension on the both sides of physical equation are same, than that equation
is called homogenous equation and the principle is said to be homogeneity principle.
Every true physical equation is homogeneous. For example:-
1. vf = vi + at
Vf = m/s + m/sec2.sec
m/s = m/sec + m/s
[L1T-1] = [L1T-1] + [L1T-1]
so the equation is homogenous.
2. to derive a possible formula:-
by using dimension analysis we can derive possible formula.
Example:-
Q. find out time period of simple pendulum by using dimension analysis.
Proof:-
Let is consider a simple pendulum which’s mass is m, length is “l” and g is the acceleration due to
gravity,
Let
Chapter 2nd
Directed quantities Vectors
Physical quantities:-
All the quantities which are measurable are called physical quantities.
They may have direction or may not have direction but they always have magnitude.
Magnitude:-
Number with proper unit is called magnitude.
Types of physical quantities:-
There are two types of physical quantities.
1. Scalar 2. vectors
Scalar quantities:-
Those physical quantities which have only magnitude are called scalar quantities. They can be added,
subtracted and also multiplied by common algebra. For example:-
Distance, time, speed, mass, density, temperature.
Vector quantities:-
Those physical quantities which have magnitude as well as proper direction are called vectors. Vectors
can not be added, subtracted and multiplied by common algebra. For vector we use vector algebra.
Simple arithmetical addition and subtraction of vectors can be carried out in case of parallel and
antiparallel vectors.
For example:-
Displacement, velocity, acceleration, linear momentum, force, angular momentum and torque etc.
Types of vectors:-
Vectors have the following types:-
1. Parallel vectors:-
The vectors having same direction are called parallel vectors.
2. equal vectors:-
The vectors having same magnitude and same direction are called equal vectors.
3. Antiparallel Vectors:-
The vectors which are opposite in direction are called antiparallel vectors.
4. Negative vectors:-
The vectors having same magnitude & opposite direction, are called negative vector. Let A and B are two
vectors which are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, so they are called negative vectors. i.e.
A = -B
A , B
5. Coplanar vectors:- h
The vectors which lie in same plane are called coplanar vectors. Let us consider two vectors A & B which
lies in XY plane, so these two vectors are called coplanar vectors.

6. Non-coplanar vectors:-
The vectors which lie in different plane are called non-coplanar vectors.

7. Null vectors:-
The vectors whose magnitude is zero is called null vector. Null vectors or arbitrary directed. It is
graphically represented by “.” And symbolically by 0.
Unit vectors:-
The vectors whose magnitude is one is called unit vector. Unit vector is represented by an alphabet
having cap on it.
I.e. A

Let A is any vector and A or A is magnitude of that vector that vector, then unit vector’s direction and
magnitude is given as

This equation is the mathematical form of unit vector.

So unit vector can be obtained on dividing the vector by its magnitude.
There are three fixed unit vectors along three axis i.e. i is the unit vectors along x-axis, j is the unit vector
along y-axis and k is the unit vector along z-axis. A unit vector is used to indicate direction.
Position vector:-
The vector which is used to represent position of any point in a plane or space with respect to some
reference point or origin is called position vector.
Representation:-
It is represented by a straight line directed from point to origin having head at the point and the tail at the
origin.
Let us consider any point p. which lies in space as shown in fig.

Now the line which joins point p with “O” is called position vector.
i.e.

This equation shows position vector. Now magnitude of position vector is given as

Similarly if the vector is A having components ( Ax, Ay . Az ) is expressed as

Addition of vectors:-
The process by which two or more than two vectors combined together to get a single vector & this single
has same effect to that all vectors which are to be added. This process is called addition of a vector.
Addition of a vector is carried out by a specific rule which is called head to tail rule.
Head to tail rule:-
The process by which tail of second of vector joins which head of first vector without disturbing or
changing direction of that vectors. Then resultant vector is obtained by joining the tail of 1st vector to the
head of the 2nd vector. This process is called head to tail rule.
Same rule is also applied in case of more than two vectors.
Let us consider two vectors A & B as shown in fig.

Now to add these two vectors by head to tail rule, first we draw a vector A, then from its head we draw a
vector B without changing direction, then we join the tail of the vector A with the head of vector B by
means of vector = R which is called the resultant vector.

i.e.
R=A =B
If vector are more than two then,
R = A + B + C………
Resultant vector:-
The vector which joins the tail of the 1st vector to the head of the last vector, is called resultant vector.
R = A + B + C………
Length and orientation of the resultant vector can be measured with the help of ruler and protector.
Point:-* the ordeer of the vector in which they are added is immaterial. i.e.
A + B = B + A

Subtraction of vectors:-
The process in which negative of a vector is added to given vector, that process is called
subtraction of vectors.
Let us consider two vector A & B as shown in Fig. to find out A - B, first we will consider vector of
B i.e.
-B.
now first we drew a vector A then from head of vector A, we will draw vector –B. Now by head to tail rule,
we joins the tail of vector A with head of –B, we get a reaultant vector R as shown in fig.

i.e.
R = A + (-B )
R=A–B
Resolution of a vector:-
The process by which a given vector is split up in to two or more than two two components, that
process is called resolution of a vector.
Components of a vector:-
The vectors which are obtained by the resolution of vectors are components of the original vector.
It is an opposite process of addition of vectors in which two or more than two vectors are added to get a
single vector.
Rectangular components:-
The components of a vctors which are perpendicular to each other are called rectangular components.
If a vector lies in opane, then it will have two rectangular components. If a vector lies in space, then
it will have three rectangular components.
Example:-
Resolving a vector F in to its rectangular components which makes and angle 0 with X-axis:-

Let us consider a vctor F which makes an angle 0 with X-axis. To resolve this vector, in to its rectangular
ccomponents, let us take projection of F on X-axis as well as on Y-axis as shown in fig.

Let Fx is the X component of vector f & Fy is the Y components of vector F, then from triangle ACB.

Cos0 = AC/AB
Cos0 = Fx/F
Fx = FCos0----------------------------1
This equation gives the X components of a vector F.
Similarly,
Sin0 = BC/AB
Sin0 = Fy/F
Fy = Fsin0--------------------------2
This equation gives the Y component of vector F.
Now by squaring 1 & 2 and then by adding we get.
i.e.
Fx2 + Fy2 = F2Cos20 + F2Sin20
Fx2 + Fy2 = F2 ( Sin20 + cos20 )
Where sin20 + cos20 = 1
== Fx2 +Fy2 = F2(1)
F = Fxx2 + Fy2
This equation give magnitude of resultant vector in term of its rectangular vectors.
Vector multiplication:-
The process by wgich we multiply two vectors is called vector multiplication. There tare two types of
vector multiplication.
Scalar product or sot product
Vector product or cross product.
Scalar product:-
If the product of two vector quantities is a scalar quantity, then that is called scalar product. This product
is also called dot product because we use dot to represent this multiplication. Explanation:-
Let us consider two vector \A & B. which makes and angle 0 with each other is shown in fig,

Now dot product between these two vectors is given as

A.B = (Magnitude of A ) ( Parallel components of B)
i.e.
A . B = A ( B Cos 0 )
] A . B = AB Cos 0
this equation is the mathematical form of scalar product.
Examples:-
Work
W=F.S
Power
P=F.V
Electric flux

0=E.A
characteristics of scalar product:-
parallel property
let us consider two vectors A & B which are parallel to eaxh other. Then dot product between then is
given as
A …. B ABcos 0
Where 0 = 0
====
A.B = ABCos0
Where Cos 0 = 1
====
A.B = AB
i.e
dot product maximum.
Perpendicular or orthogonal property:-
Let us consider rwo A & B which are perpendicular to each other, theb dot product ibetween them is
given as,
A.B = ABCos)
Where 0 = 90
===
A.B = AB Cos90
Where Cos90 = 0
===
A.B = 0
i.e
dot product minimum.
Antiparallel property:-
If A and B are two vectors which are antipralled to ech other then their dor product is given as
A.B = AB Cos 0
Where 0 = 180
A.B = AB Cos 180
Where Cos180 = -1
A.B = AB ( -1 )
A.B = -AB
i.e
dot product negative.
Dot product between two similar unit vector:-
Let i is the unot vector along X-axis, j is the unit vector along y-axis and k is the unit vector along z-
ais then
i .i = | i | | i | Cos 0
where | i | = 1 and Cos 0 = 1
===
i . i = 1.1.1
i.i=1
similarly
j.j=1
k.k=1
dot product between two different unit vectors:-
let i is the unot vector along x-axis , j is the unit vector along y-axis and k is the unit vector along z-
axis then,
i . j = | i | | j | Cos 90
where Cos 90 = 0
===
i . j = 1.1. 0
i.j= 0
similarly
j.k=0
k.i=0
commutative law:-
let A & B are the two vectors then,
A.B = ABCos 0---------------------1
B.A = BACos0
B.A = ABCos0 ----------------------2
Comparing 1 & 2 we get
A.B = B.A
This equation shows that commutative law holds in case of dot product.
Distributive property:-
Let A and B C are the thre vectors then
A. ( B + C ) = A.B + A.C
Proof:-
L.H.S
A. ( B + C = A ( B + C ) Cos0
= (AB + AC ) Cos0
= AB Cos0 + AC Cos0
where AB Cos0 = A . B
AC Cos0 = A.C
===
A. ( B + C ) = A.B + A.C
Proved.
This equation shows that sidtributive lae hold in case of dot product.
Associative Property:-
And product of vectors in the space are remaining.
Vctor product or cross product:-
If the product of two vector quantities is another vector quantity then that product is called vector
product.
This product is also called cross product because we use cross to represent this multiplication.
Wxplanation
Let A and B are two vectors which makes an angle 0 with each other as shown in th fig

Now the cross product between Vector A and B is given as

A x B = (magnitude of A ) ( perpendicular component of B ) n
A x B ( A ) (Bsin0 ) n
A x B = ABsin0 n
This equation is th mathemeatical form of the cross product where n is the unit vector which is
perpendicular to the plane of the A and B. the direction of resultant vector ca nbe find out by using R
. H . R or Right Hand Rule.
Right Hand Rule:-
Let us join the tail of two vector and place our right habd in such a wat that curved fingures
insicate order of multiplication. Then thumb will indicate direction of resultant vector.
Examples:-
Torque
T=Fxd
Angular momentum
Special symbol = r x P
Magnetic force
F=q(rxB)
Characteristics of cross product:-
Topics remaining
Addition of two vectors by their rectangular components:-
Let us consider two vector A and B which makes an angle 01 and 02 with X-axis
respectively.
To add these to vectors by their rectangular components.
Let us first draw vector A then from the head of the vector A we draw vector B without
changing direction, then resultant vector is obtained by joining the tail of vector A with head of
vector B which is called resultant R.
Now resolve these vectors in to their components as shown in fig.

Now from fig:-

OE = OC + CE
RX = AX + BX---------------------1
This equation give X-component of resultant vector.
Again
 EB = ED + DB
RY = Ay + BY---------------------2
This equation gives Y-component of resultant vector.
Now magnitude of resultant vector is given as
R = √Rx2 + Ry2
R = √(Ax + Bx)2 + (Ay + By)2
This equation gives magnitude of resultant vector, in term of component of the vector.
Now from fig.
Tan0 = Ry
Rx
0= Tan-1 ( Ry )
Rx
Putting value
0 = Tan -1 (Ay + By)
(Ax + Bx)
this equation gives direction of resultant vector.
Chapter 3
Equilibrium
Equilibrium
If a bodu is eirher at rest or moving with uniform speed, then the bodu is said to ve in
equilibrium.
Types of eqyilivriym
There are two types of equilibrium
1. static equilibrium
If a body is at rest then the body will be in equilibrium which is called static equilibrium.
Examples:-
Book on the table is in static equilibrium.
2. dynamic equilibrium:-
if a body is moving with uniform speed, then the body is in equilibrium which is called dynamic
equilibrium.
Example:-
A paratrooper is in dynamic equilibrium.
There are two types of dynamic equilibrium.
1. translational dynamic equilibrium:-
if a body is moving with uniform speed in straight line, then the body will be in equilibrium which is
called translational dynamic equilibrium.
For example:-
Motion of a paratrooper.
Rotational dynamic equilibrium:-
Rotational dynamic equilibrium:-
If a body is moving woth uniform speed in circle path, then the body will be in equilibrium
which is called rotational dynamic equilibrium.
Examples:-
A rotating fan etc.
Conditions of equilibrium:-
There are two conditions of equilibrium.
1st condition of equilibrium:-
if sum of all the forces acting on a body is equal to zero, then the body will be in equilibrium which is
called 1st condition of equilibrium.
Let F1, F2, F3 ……….. Fn are the n number of forces then,
F1 + F2 + F3 + ……… + Fn = 0
i=n
∑Fi = 0
i=1
this is called 1st condition of the equilibrium.
First condition of equilibrium gives the concept of static equilibrium.
2nd condition of equilibrium:-
if sum of all the torques acting on a body is equal to zero, then the body wull be in wquilibrium,
which is called second condition of equilibrium.
Let T1, T2, T3 ……… Tn
i=n
∑Ti = 0
i=1
this is called second condition of the equilibrium.
In second condition of equilibrium, sum of all anti clock wise torque will be equal to the sum of all
clockwise torques.
i.e.
T anticlockwise = T clockwise
When a body satisfy, 1st condition of equilibrium then it is either in static equilibrium or rotational
dynamic condition.
Torque:-
Turning effect of a bodu about fixed point is called Torque.
Explanation
Diagram from rough 4

Let fF is the force acting on a bodyu at point B. due to this force vody will rotate about point A. due
to this rotation, torque will produce, the perpendicular distance between point A and B is called
moment arm, let r is the moment arm, let 0 is the angle between force and moment arm. There are
two components of force i.e. Fsin0 and Fcos0. the component Fcos0 pass through the axis of
rotation, so no torque will produce due to this component of force. The component Fsin0 is
perpendicular tp force, so this component will produce torque.
Now the torque produce in a bosy is directly proportional to perpendicular component of force.
i.e.
T ∞ Fsin0 -------------------- 1
This torque also directly depend upon moment arm,
i.e.
T r ----------------2
Combining 1 and 2 we get,
T rFsin0
T = rFsin0

T=rxF
This equation is the mathematical form of toeque.
Torque is a vector quantity which is along the axis of rotation.
Types of Torque:
There are two types of Torque.
1. positive torque:-
When a body rotate anticlockwise, then the torque will be produced which is called positive
torque.
2. negative torque:-
when a bosy rotate clockwise then torque will be produced which is called negative torque.
Concurrent forces:-
The forces which are acting at a single point are called concurrent forces.
Let us consifer some fores F1, F2, F3, and F4 which are acting at a single point p, then these forces
are called concurrent forces.

Rough copy 4 diagram

Concurrent forces can be balanced by a single force.

Centre of Gravity:-
The point t which whole weight od the body is appear to act, hat point is called centre of
gravity.

Let us consider a body, which consists of large number of particles. Now weight of the each partivle
is acting towards centre of earth. Now the vector sum of tall these weights will acr at phusical centre
of body, this point at which whole weight of all the particles act is called centre of gravity.
Centre of gravity of rectangular shaped body can be find out by geometry method, where centre of
gravity of irregular shaped body can be find out by free suspension method.
Chapter 3a
Force and Motion
Rest and motion;-
Rest:-
Definition:-
A body is said to be at rest if it is not changing its position with respect to its surroundings
with the passage of time.
Motion:-
Definition;-
A body is said to be in motion if it is changing its position with respect to its surroundings
with the passage of time.
Distance:-
Definition:-
 The length beteen two points is called distance.
OR
Distance is defined as the length of the actual path traversed by a body in a motion.
Brief explanation:-
The lenth between two points can be straingt path and is shown as AB or it can be a curved
path and is shown as AB.
It is a scalar quantity and usually denoted by “s”. Its SI unit is meter.
Displacement:-
The straight and shortest length, distance or path between two points is called
displacement.
OR
The displacement is defined as the change in the position of body from its initial position to
tis final position.
Explanation:-
When ever a body moves from one position to antoher, the chamge in its position is called
displacement can ve represented as a vector that descrtives how foar and in what direction the
body has been displaced from its original position. The tail of the diplalcemnt vector is located at
the position where the displacement vector is located at the position where the displacement started
and its tip or arrowhead is located at the final position whre the displacement ended.
For example, if a body is moving along a curve as shown in fig, with A a its initial position ad
B as its final position then the displacement d of the body is represented by AB. Although the body
is moving along a curve the displacement is differertn from the path of the motion.
If r1 is the position vector of A and r2 that of point B then by head and tail rule it can be seen
fro the figure that
dAB = r2 – r1 = ∆ r
it is clear from the above discussion that what ever is the path of motion, the displacement is
shortest distance between two points.
It is vector quantity and its direction is form initial to final position. Its magnitude is the
straingh line distance between the initial position and the final position fo the body.
Its SI unit is m.

Speed:-
Definition;-
The time rate of distance convered by the body is called speed of the body.
OR
Speed is defined as the distance traveled by the body divided by the time taken for this
journey.
Symbol:-
It is denoted a symbol “v”.
Mathematically:-

let v is the speed of the body, s is the distance covered by the body and t is the time taken by the
body then speed is given as,
v=s/t
Explanation:-
Type of physical quantity:-
it is a scalar quantity.
Unit:-
Its SI unit is meter / sec.
Measurement:-
In order to measure the speed or time rate of any quantity, a limiting process of the quotient
is nessessary, so in this sense speed can also defined as
The speed of the body at any time instant t is defined as the limit of the small distance ∆s
covered by the body divided by ∆t as time interval approaches to zero:
= lim ∆t → 0 ∆s / ∆t
average speed:-
definition:-
it is defined as the total distance covered by the body divided by the total time interval of the
journey.
Symbol:-
It is denoted by a symbol “ <v>”.
Mathematically:-
Let <v> is the average speed of the body, ∆s is the total distance covered by the body and
∆t is the total time interval of the journey, then average velocity is given as:
<v> = ∆s / ∆t
in case of two speed:-
let there are two speed v1 and v2 of the body, then in this case the average speed is given
as :
mathematically:-
<v> = v1 + v2 / 2
same formula is used for more then two speeds in order to find the average speed.
Uniform speed:-
Definition:-
The speed of a body is said to be uniform if it covers equal distance in equal interval of time.
In case of uniform motuion, average speed is always equal to the constant or uniform
speed.
Velocity:-
Definition:-
The time rate of change of displacement is called velocity.
Symbol:-
It is denoted by a symbol “v”.
Mathematically:-
Let v is the velocity of the body, ∆d is the change in the displacement and ∆t is the time
interval then velocity is given as
v = ∆d / ∆t
type of physcial quantity:-
It is a vector quantity having direction in the direction of the displacemtn of the body.
unit:-
Its SI unit is meter / sec.
Explanation:-
for velocity, what ever is the path of motion, displacement is taken in to account which is the
shortest distance between two points. If two position vectors like r1 and r2 are given than
∆d = r2 – r1 as shown in fig.

Average velocity:-
Definition;-
The average velocity of a body is defined as the total displacement ∆d covered by the body
divided by the time taken ∆t required for covering displacement.
Symbol:-
It is denoted by a symbol “<v>”
Mathematically:-
Let <v> is the average velocity, ∆d is the displacement covered by the body, and ∆t is the
time required then average velocity is given as

<v> = ∆d / ∆t

Explanation:-
The magnitude of the average velocity is not usually average speed. Beacure average
velocity is the total displacement divied by time taken where average speed is the distance covered
by the time taken. So there can be a great diffrern in both these parameters of motion in usual
cases.
When acceleration is unitfom:-
When there is uniform acceleration then average velocity is given as
<V> = vi + vf / 2
Instantaneous velocity:-
Definition:-
The instantaneous velocity is defined as the limiting value of ∆d / ∆t as the ime tinterval ∆t,
following the time t, approaches zero.
Symbol:-
It is denoted by a symbol “ v ins”.
Explanation:-
In order to describe the motion of the body in great or more detail, there is need of
describing its motion in so small time interval. For example if a squash ball hit by a player comes
back to its postion after bounicing from the wall, its total displacement becomes zero, and also its
average velocity and time interval for all this is also very small, so in order to descrive the motion of
the ball, its direction, speed instantaneous velocity is used.
Mathematiccaly:-
Let vins the instantaneous velocity, ∆d is the small displacement and ∆t is the so small time
interval then instantaneous velocity is given as
v = Lim ∆t → 0 ∆d / ∆t
the direction of the velocity vector is along the direction of the motion, but as ∆d approaches
to zero, then in this case direction of v is taken tangent to the path of the mtion at every point of the
path. The maginitude of the instantaneous velicity is average speed.
Uniform velocity:-
Definition;-
If the speed as well direction of the body do not change with the time interval, then the
velocity of the body is said to be uniform.
Explanation:-
Condtion for uniform velocity:-
A body moving with the constant velocity must move in a straint line with constant speed.
In this case both instaneous velocity and average velocity are equal.
Variable velocity:-
Definition;-
If the speed or direction of the motion of the body changes, then the velocity is said to be
variable.
A motion with changing velocity is called accelerated motion.
Acceleration:-
Definition:-
Acceleration is defined as the time rate of change of velocity.
Symbol:-
It is deonted by a symbol “a”.
Mathematically:-
If a is the acceleration, ∆v is the change in the velocity and ∆t is the time interval then
acceleration of the body is given as
a = ∆v / ∆t
let v1 and v2 velocites and then change in velocity ∆v is v2 – v1 then acceleration is given as
a = v2 – v1 / ∆t
explanation:-
as the velocity is a vecto so any change in velocity may be due ot chanve in tis magnitude or
a change in tis direction or both.
Let us consider a body whose velocity v1 at any instant t changes to v2 in further small time
interval ∆ t. the two velocity vectors v1 and v2 and the change in velocity, v2 – v1 = ∆v are
represented in fig. the acceleration (average) can be given as
a = v2 – v1 / ∆t = ∆v / ∆t
type of physical quantity:-
as acceleration is the difference of two vectors divided by a scalar ∆t, so acceleration a is also a
vector quantity. Its direction is the same as that of ∆v.
unit:-
the SI unit of acceleration is m / s.
as SI unit of velocity is m / s and SI unit of the time is “s”. so the units can be written as
following in the equation of acceleration in order to get the unit of acceleration.
a = m/s / s
or
a=m/s
average acceleration;-
definition:-
average acceleration is defined as the total change in the velocity divided by the time
interval required for the change of velocity.
Symbol:-
It is denoted by a symbol “ aaver” or “< a >.
Mathematically:-
a avg = ∆ v / ∆ t
explanation:-
let us consider a body whose velocity v1 at any instant t changes to v2 in further small time
interval ∆ t or v changes to v + ∆v. the two velocity vectors v1 and v2 and the change in velocity, v2 –
v1 = ∆v are represented in fig. the average acceleration can be given as
a = v2 – v1 / ∆t = ∆v / ∆t
instantaneous acceleration:-
definition:-
the accerlation of the body at any particular instant during its motion is said to be an
instantaneous acceleration.
OR
Whebn time interval ∆t appraotes zero, the average acceleaton will approach the value known as
instantaneous acceleration at the instant t.
Symbol:-
Symbol:-
It is denoted by a symbol “ ains”
Mathematical form:-
Let ains be the instantaneous acceleration, ∆t be the time interval ad ∆v is the change in the
velocity when the time interval approaches to zero, then instantaneous acceleration is given as
a = lim ∆t → 0 ∆ v / ∆t
dimension:-

the instantaneous and average acceleration will be equal when the body is moving with
uniform acceleration.
Uniform acceleration:-
Definition:-
Uniform acceleration is defined as the acceleration of the constant magnitude and
unchanging direction.
` OR
if the velocity of the body changes by equal amount in equal time interval, then the acceleration is
said to be uniform.
Explanation:-
Condtion for uniform acceleration:-
For a body to have uniform acceleration, it is essential that it move in a straight line with constant
speed.
When a body is moving with uniform speed, its instantaneous and average acceleration are
equal.
Positive acceleration:-
Definition:-
If the veloctity of the body increase with time interval then acceleration is said to be postiove
acceleration.
Negative acceleration:-
Definition;-
If the velocity of the body decrease with the time interval then acclertation is said to be
negative acceleration or deceleration or redardation.
Graphs remaining.

Projectile motion:-
Definition:-
A motion in two dimensional motion under constant acceleration due to gravity is called projectrile
motion.
OR
When a ody is thrown upward maiking a ceratin angle 0 with the horizontal and it moves freely inder
the action of tgravity, ist is called a projectile motion.
OR
When a body in thrown in such a away that during motuion, only forve of gravity act on a body
where all the other forces are equal to zero. Then that body is called projectile and the motion is
called projectile motion.
Explanation:-

Let us consider a body, which is projected from point A. this body willl move only unfer the force of
gravity where all the other forces are equal to zero. Then this body is called projectile and its motion
is called projectile motion. Point A is called projection point where point B is called the landing point.
Since there is no force acting on projectile along X-axis, so X-component of velocity will remain
consytant through out projectile motion, so X component of acceleration eill be equal to zero.
i.e.,
Fx = 0
Vx = constant
ax =0
Since forve of gravity will act on a body in downward direction.
i.e.
 → →
Fy = Fg
Due ot which Y-component of velocity will change. As a result, Y-component of accerleration will be
equal to acceleration due to gravity, that is
Fy = Fg
Vy = change
ay = - g
+
that is in upward motion, g will be negative and in down ward motion g will be positive.
Components of initial velocity of projectile:-
B ytaking a cooridinate system with the point of projection as origin ) and taking the direction
OX and OY as positive, the initial velocity can be resolved in to its componets as:
Vox = vo cos0
Voy = vosin0.
It is assumed that air resistance does not act on the projectile.
Ciomponents of the instantaneous velocity:-
As the x components of the acceleration is zero, so x component of the velocity remains
constant through out the motion, so it is given as
Vx = vo cos0
But there is y components of accleratton = -g diring upward motion in negative y direction,
so y component of the instantaneous velocity is given as
Vy = voy – gt = vosin0 – gt
Magnitude of instantaneous velocity:-
Since vx and vy are perpendicular to each other, the instantaneous speed (magnitude of
velocity is given as
v = √ v x + vy

direction of instantaneous velocity:-

the direction of the instantaneous velocity can be found as
0 = tan -1 vy / vx
position of projectile;-
the instantaneious position of the projectile, difined by its coordinates (x, y), time t, and the
distance of the projectile form the origin are given by
r=√x +y
where
x = vocos0t
y = vosin0t – ½ gt2

Examples:-
1. motion of bullet fired from the gun.
2. motion of ball when air resistance is zero in the air.
3. a football kicked off by a player.
4. a ball thrown by a crickter.
5. a missile fired from a launching pad.
These are examples of projectiles because all of them are projected at some angles with the
horizontal.
Trajectory:-
The path followe by the prohectile is called its trajectroyu. The trajectory of the projectile is
usually a parabola.
Properties of projectile:
Speed of the projectile:-

Let us consider a body, which is projected with initial speed V0 . let 0 is the angle of projection. Let v
is the speed of the body at ant point during its motion.
X-component of speed:-
Height of projectile-
Definition:-
The distance coveted by the ptofectile on Y-axis is called height of the profectile.
Explanation;-
Mathematical form:-

From 3rd equation of motion in Y-component.

Maximum hewight:-
Definition:-
The greatest vertical distanece convered by the projectile meausure from the horizontal
projection plane is called maximum height or summit.
Explanation:-
Mathematical form:-
As we know that

This equation give maximum heightl of the projectile:-

Time to reach the maximum height:-
Definition:-
Time taken by the projectile from projection point to peak point is called time to reach
maximum height.
Explanation:-
Mathematical form:-
From 1st equation of motion in Y-component,

This equation geve the time taken by the projectile to the maximum height.
Time of flight:-
Definition:-
The time for whch projectile remain in air is called time of flight
OR
Time taken by the projectile from projection point yo landing point point is called time of flight.
Denoted by:-
It is denoted by a symbol “t”.
Explanation:-
Mathematica form:-
Frm second equation of motion, Y-component of distance is given as

This equation give time of flight.

Time for maximum height:-
Definition:-
the time taken by the projectile to reach maximum height is called time for maximum height.
Explanation:-
Mathematical form:-

Putting this value in equaton 2, we get,

This equation shows that time of flight is double to that of time taken by the projectile to reach its
maximum height.
Range of projectile:-
Definition:-
The distance covered by the profectile on X-axis is called range of projectile.
Explanation:-
Mathematical form:-
As we know that X-component of distance by second equation of motion is geiven as
This equation give range of projectile.
Maximum range:-
Definition:-
The maximum distance which a projectile can cover is called maximum range.
Explanation:-
Mathematical form:-
As we know that
Same range for two angles:-
Range of profectile will be same for two angles where sum is 90.
such angles whose sum is 90 are called supplementary angles.
The range of projectile will be same for following pair of angles.
(90,0), (80,10), (70,20), (60,31), (50,40).

Chapter 3b
Force and Motion
Dynamics of translatory motion
Newton laws of motion:-
First law of motion:-
Statement:-
A body at rest willl temian at rest and a body moving with uniform velocity will constrnuw to
do so, unless acted on by some unbalanced or resultant external force.
Given by:-
This law was given by sir Isaac Newton in 1687.
Mathematical form:-
If ∑ F n = F net = 0 then
a=0
explanation:-
this law consists of two parts.
1. the fors t part is that a bofy at rtest ewill remain at rest unless acted upon by some
unbalanced force. This part is according to our common experience. For examples, a book lying on
tanbele remains at rest unless it is lifted or pushed by exerting a force.
2. the second part of the law states that a body in motion with uniform velocity will constiunie to
do so unless a certain unbalanced force is apploed on it to stop the motion.
This part is not clear because a rolloing vall pushed once does not continue its motion
forever. For example, a rolling on the ground comes to rest after covering some distance. The ball
has not contradicted the first law of motion because the ball has been stopped sue to the friction of
ground and resistance of air. If we remove these frictional forces, once the ball set in to the motion
will continue its motion for ever.
The property of matter to maintain its state of rest or uniform motion and requiring a net
force to change that state is called intertia. In other words, intertia of a body is its reluctance to start
moving and its reluctance to stop after it has begun moving. Newton’s first las is therefore often
called the law of inertia.
Second law of motion:-
Statements:-
This law states that a force applied on a body produces acceleration in its own direction. The
acceleration produced is directly proportional to the appled force and inversely proporiona lto the
mass of the body.
Explanation:-
Consider a body of amss m on which a force F is applied. The body will be accelerated in
the direction of force and let the acceleration produced be a. if we double the applied force, the
acceleration will be doubled, and increasing force three times, the corresponding acceleration will
be three times of the initial value. It means that acceleration produced in a body is directly
proportional to the applied force and we can write,
a F …………………….. 1 (for constant mass)
if now we apply a constant force F on bodies having different masses. The acceleration
produced on heavier bodies will be smaller as compared the lighter body. It means that the
acceleration produced by a force is inversely proportional to the mass of body. Thus
a 1/m ……………. ……. 2
mathematical form:-
according to the statement of second law
a F ……… 1
 a 1/m …….. 2
combining the equation 1 and 2 we can express the second law of motion as
a F/m
or a = constant . F/ m
or a=k.F/m
or F = k ma ……………..3
where k is the constant of proportionality, whose value can be calculated as
let F = 1 N which produces acceleraton of I m / s in a mass of 1 kg.
thus
1N = k x 1 kg x 1m/s
or k=1
hence equation 3 can be written as
F = ma …….. 4
This is the mathematical expression of newton’s seconds law of motion, where F is the net
force applied on the body, a is the resulting acceleration of the body and m is the inertial mass of
the body. In equation 4 m appears as proportionality constant.
Force:-
Definition;-
Force is that agency which moves or tends to move an object at rest and stops or tends to
stop a moving object.
Symbol:-
It is denoted by a symbol F.
Type of physical quantity:-
It is a vector quantity.
Unit:-
Its SI unit is Newton.
Definition of Newton:-
One Newton is defined as “the force which produces an acceleration of 1 m / s in a mass of
1 kg.
It is denoted bt a symbol N.
Since Newton = kilogram x meter / s
= kgm/s
hence 1 N = 1kg m / s
dimenstion of force:-
Force = mass x acceleration
= mass x distance / time 2
= [M] x [L / T2]
= [MLT-2]
[F] = [MLT-2]

third law of motion:-

statement:-
action and reation are equal and opposite.
OR
To every action there I always an equal and opposite reaction.
Explanation:-
When ever an interaction takes place between two bodies each body exerts the same force
on he other, but in the opposite direction and for the same length of time.
For example when a body A exerts a force on another body B, it is called the action of the
body a on the body B. the body B will also exert a force on body A, which will be equal in magnitude
but opposite in direction. This force is called the reaction of body B on body A.
Forces in nature always occur in pairs. An action reaction paor consists of forces equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction acting on two different bodies. It menas that each force in action
reaction pair acts only on one of the two bodies, the action and reaction forces never act on the
same body. So they never neutralize each other. In order to neutralize each other, the forces must
act on the same body.
Mathematical form:-
Ler us consier the interactin between two bosies A and B. the force exerted by A and B is
given as FAB and the force exerted by B on A is FBA.
Since FAB is opposite to FAB in direction, so according to newton’s third law,
FAB = -FBA
Action and reaction forces never balance each other because ther act on two different
bodies. But the forces acting on the same body can balance each other.
Linear momentum:-
Definition:-
The momentum of a body is defined as the product of mass and linear velocity of the body.
OR
The quantity of linear motion of a body is called its linear momentum.
Symbol:-
It is denoted by P.
Mathematical form:-
 Let m be the mass of the moving body with velocity v, its linear momentum is given by
P = mv
Type of physical quantity:-
Since velocity is a vector quantity, so linear momentum is also a vector quantity.
Direction:-
Its direction is the same as that of velocity.
Explanation:-
As the momentum depends upon the mass and velocity, therefore the momentum of a
massive boyd with slow velocity may be equal to the momentum of the lighter body moving fast, for
exapmmple, a road roolar and a fire bullet may have the same momentum.
Unit of momentum:-
In SI system, SI unit of momentum is kgm/s.
The unit can be expressd as
Kgm/s = kgm x sec / sec x sec
= kgm/s -2 x s
but kgm/s2 = Newton = N.
Kgm/s= N s
Dimensions:-
Momentum = Mass x velocity
= mass x distance / time = mass x length / time
= [M x L / T]
= [M L T -1]
so dimensions of momentum are [M L T-1].
Change of momentum and second law motion:-
Statement:-
The rate of change of momentum of a body equals the applied force.
OR
The rate of change in momentum of a body si equal to the applied force and the change of
momentum takes plance in the direction of force.
Proof:-
Consider a body of mass m moving with velocity vi. suppose and external force F acts upon
it for time t after which velocity becomes vf. thus
Initial velocity of body = vi
Final velocity = vf
Change in velocity = vf - vi
Time interval = ∆t
From, the definition of acceleration, we can write,
a = change in velocity / time interval
OR a = vf – vi /∆t ………. 1
By newton’s second law of motion the accelatation is given by
a = F / m ……….. 2
comparing the two equation 1 and 2, we have
F / m = Vf – Vi / ∆t
Or F ∆t = mvf - mvi
Or F∆t = ∆p
Or F = ∆p / ∆t
This equation shows that “force applied on a body is equal to the rate of change of momentum”. It
proves the second law of motion in terms of linear momentum.
Impulse:-
Definition:-
When a force acts on a boyd fro a very short time, the product of the force and the time for
which the force acts, is called the impulse or impulse of force.
Symbol:-
It is some time denoted by a symbol “I’.
Mathematica lform:-
Let F be the force actingon the body for a short time ∆t, then inpluse is given as
Impulw = force x time
Or I = Fave x ∆t ………. 1
Where F is considered as the average forc4 htat acts during time ∆t even when the variation in the
force is very large.
Impulsive force:-
When a force acts on a boyud for a bery short interval of time , it is called as an impulsive
force, for example, the force of blow of a hammer, hiting of teninis ball by a racket and hitting of
cricket ball by a bat.
Type of quantity:-
It is a vector quantity.
Unit:-
In SI system, unit of impulse is N s (Newton x second) or Kg m /s
Need for impulse:-
There are many natural phenomenons in the nature in which the momentum of the body
reduced or increase suddenly. For example collision of vehicles, striking of a ball with a bat etc. the
forces involved in such shor-loved change of momentum phenomenon are much large, non
constant, varying over wide limits and instantaneously not measureable. But change in momentum
can be measured. For this purpose impulse is used which is product of force and time.
Show ath impulse in equal to change of momentum:-
Accoriding to newtons second law of motion, th force is defined as the arate of change of
momentum .
Thys if a force Fave acting on a body for time, ∆t changes its momentum from pi to pf, then the
force in written as
Fave = pf – pi / ∆t ………… 2
Where pf and pi are final and initial momentum respectively. The equation 2 can be written as
Fave x ∆t = pf – pi
OR Fave ∆t = mvf – mvi …….. 3
But Fave x ∆t is known as impulse ’I’. there fore equation 3 is written as
I = mvf - mvi
OR I = change of momentum
OR impulse = change of momentum
Second definition of impulse:-
It can be defined as the change in momentum produced by the force of impulse.
Force due ot water flow:-
Let us suppose a horizontal pipe through which water us flowing. In front of this pipe, there
is a wall at which water strikes a wall normally. A force is exertd on the wall.
Let v be th velocity of te water striking the wall normally and xomes to rest on striking the
wall. Thus,
Change in velocity = final velocity – initial velocity
=0–v
or change in velocity = - v
the change in momentum of water = -mv
if mass m of the water strikes the wall in time ∆t, then according to Newton’s second law of
momentum , the force F on the water is given by
Fave = change in momentum . time
= m x ( - v) / ∆t = -mv / ∆t
or F ave = -(m) v / ∆t ………….. 1
or force = - (mass per second) x ( change in velocity)
this is formula for the force exerted by the wall on water.
According to newton’s third law of motion, the reaction force exerted by the water on the wall
is equal but opposite.
Thereforce , equation (1) can be written as
Fave = -(-mv) / ∆t
Hence Fave = mv /∆t ……….2
This formula gives the force exerted by the water on the wall.
Thus, force can be calculated from the product of mass of water striking normally per second and
change in velocity.
Law of conservation of momentum:-
Statement:-
The total linear momentum of an isolated system remains constant.
OR
If there is no external force applied to a system, the total linear momentum of that system
remains constant.
Mathematical form;-
P total = constant, when F = 0
Or
pi = pf F=0
where pi is initial momentum and pf is final momentum.
Prove:-
Let us consider a body or system of bodies constituting an isolated system. the external net
force acting on the isolated is zero, so
F=0
According to the newton’s second law, force is the rate of change of momentum, so
F = ∆p / ∆t
Here
F=0
So,
0 = ∆p /∆t
OR ∆p = 0
Where ∆p = pf – pi, therefore,
pf – pi = 0
pf = pi.
So proved.
Validity:-
This principle is universally valid. It is trie for collosion of objects, firing of a gum, interaction
of gas molecules in a closed system, explosion of bombs, propulsion of rocket, decay of nuclei,
collision of atoms or molecules etc.
Explanation:-
The law of conservation of momentum holds for an isolated system.
Isolated system:-
Definition:-
When a number of bodies are such that thet can exert force upon one another and no
external agency exerts a force on them, they are said to form an isolated system of interacting
bodies.
OR
When there is no external force applied to the system, then it is termed as isolates system.
But truly isolated system are not possible in the physical world but a set of objects whose
internal mutual interation is greater much greater their interaction with other objects can be termed
or treated as isolated system.
Examples of isolated system:-
the molecules of a gas enclosed in a vessel of constant temperature form an isolated
system of ineractin bodies. The enclosed molecules collide with each other due to their rando
motion but no external force acts on the them or externally acting forces like gravity are two small
as compared to internal forces.
Similarly in the explosion of bomb, internal forces are much larger as compared to the external
gravitational force.

collisions:-
definition;-
when two bodies came very close to each other such that they can feel forces of eacxh other and
divert from its actual path, then the two bodies are said to ve in collision.
OR
When two or more bodies come very close to each other, so that there is some kind of interaction
between the, with or without the presence of external force, we say that collision ha taken place
between the bodies.
Collisions based upon law of conservation of momentum and law of conservation of total
energy and law of conservation of kinetic energy.
Types of collisions:-
There are tqo types of coolisons.
Elastic collision.
In elastic collision.
The elastic collision:-
The collision in which total energy, and momentum remain conserved, is called elastic collision.
OR
When no K.E is lost, the collision is said to be perfectly elastic.
Explanation:-
The above statement menas that two consition must be satisfied for elastic collsion. Firlsy,
total momentum before and after collision must remain the same and secondly , total kinetic energy
before and after collision must also remain the same.
In elastic collision two bodies before collision and after collisaion behave as isolated system,
e.g. collision between gas molecules.
Example:-
When a hard ball is dropped on a hard smooth marbvle floor from a certain height, it
rebounds to vary nearly the initial height from where it was fropped. Thus, the ball loses neglibgible
amount of energy in the collision with the floor.
In elastic collision:-
Definition:-
The collision in which the totat energy and momentum remains constant where k.E will
change such collision is called in elastic collision.
In case of in elastic collision two bodies become single system after collision in in elastic collision
energy will change in to heat energy and sound energy or other form of the energy, e.g. collision
between mud bolls.
They can be separate after collision but during collision they lost some of their kineric
energy which can be converted in form of sound, heat or light, e.g. collision between two tennis
balls.
Example:-
When two tennis balls collide then after collision, they will rebound with the velocities less
than the velocities before the collision. during the collision, some kineric energy is lost, partly due to
firction as the molecules in the ball move past one antoerh and some of the energy is lost due to its
change in to heat and sound energies.
Elastic collision in one dimension
The collision the K.E and total energy and momentum remina conserve is called elastic collision let
us consider two bodies, of mass m1 and m2 moves with velocity v1 and v2 before collision let
collision between two bodies take place due to which velocity of the both bodies will change let v1`
and v2` are the velocities of two bodies after collision as show in fig.
This equation is called law of relative velocity.
This equatiojn give the velocity of 1st body after collision.
Since
This equation hive velocity of secod body after collision.
Case 1
When two bodies have same masses.

Mow let us condier two bodies having same masses i.e. m1=m2=m
Put this value in the equation A.

This equation shows that when two bodies of same masses coolide wirh eaxh otherl, then they will
exchange their velocity.
Case 2:-
When a heavy body strike wirh ligher vody whichg is at rest.

Let m m2, and v2 = 0 and m2 ≈ 0

Put in equation A,
This shows that when a havier body strike a lighter body such that the mass of the lighter body is
almost zero w.r.t to the heavier body and it is at rest, then after collision it will attain speed double of
the speed of the havier body before collision.
Case 3
When light body strike with the haeavy body which is at rest

Let m1 m2
Then
m2 ≈ 0 and V2 = 0
put in equation A.
This shows that when the light vody strike wirh keaviy body which is at rest, then light body will
bounce back eith the same speed where heavy body will remain at rest.
Momentum and explosives:-
There are many examples which prove that momentum changes are prodiced by explosice
forces within an isolated system.
But here are two examples only.
Explosion of a bomb:-
When a shell explodes in air, its pieces fly off in different directions. The numerous internal
forces which occur in the explosion have zero resultat, since action and reaction are equal and
opposre and the forces can all be paired. So according to the law of conservation of momentum
that Total momentum of all its pieces = initial momentum of the shell.
Special case:-
Of we suppose that the falling bomb explodes in to two ppiesces as shown in the fig. then
the momentum of the two pieces of a bomb combine by vector addition to equal the original
momentum of the falling bomb.
Firing of a rifle:-
We consider antoher example of firing a gum. Let m be the mass of a bullet fired form a rifle
of mas M with a velocity V. before firing the gum and buller are at rest. Therefore the momentum of
the both is zero. That is
Total momentum before firing = 0 …………. 1
After firing, suppose th velocity of the bullet of mass m moves in the forward direction and
the rifle recoils back, so the final momentum also become zero and is therefore, conserved. That is,
total momentum after firing = 0
Suppose that after firing the velocity of the bullet becomes v and the velocity of the rifle
become v/.
Total momentum after firing = mv + Mv/ …………….. 2
Then according to the law of conservation of momentum,
Total momentum before firing = total momentum after firing
Putting the values form equation 1 and 2 we get,
0 = mv + Mv=/
Or Mv/ = -mv …. ……. 3
OR v/ = - mv / M ……… 4
Equation 3 shows that the momentum of the riflle is equal but opposite to the momentum of the
bullet.
Since mass of the rifle is much greater than the buller, it results that the rifle moves back or
recoils with only a fraction of the velocity of the bulltet.
Rocket propulsion:-
Principal of rocket propulsion:-
 The motion of a rocket is an application of the law of conservation of momentum and
Newton’s third law of motion. A rocket has a combustion chamber in which liquid or solid fuel I burnt
and jets of hot gases are ejected of the rocket. The gases rushed out forn the rocjket gain a
downward momentum and the rocktet moves upward to balance the momentum of the gases as
shown in fig.
Working:-
The rocket gains momentum equal to the momentum from the backwards of the engine but
in opposite direction according to the law of conservation of momentum . the rocket engines
continue to expel gses of the rocket when the rocket has started moving. As this process
constinmues, the rockter gains more amd more momentum with the time ans speed of the rocket
goes on increasing till the engines operate.
Fuel in the form of liquid or solid and oxygen is strored in a rocket engine. Therefore, it can
work at great heights whre no air is present. In order to provide enough upward thrust, a typical
rocket consumes about 10000 kg / s of the fueo to overcome gravity and ejects the burnt gases at
speed of 4000 m/s. this shows that most of the mass of rockter, that is 80 % is due to its fuel. In
order to solve the problem of mass of fel, several rockter joined together are used. Thus if one
rocket finishes its fuel, then it is discarded and ar the same time other rockter srats working to carry
the space craft further up at very great speed.
Formula for the acceleration of rocket:-
Let
After writing from hand.
hapter 4:-
Work:-
Definition:-
Product of force and displacement covetred by the bdoy in the direction of the force is called
work.
OR
Dot product of force and displacement is called work.
OR
The work done on a boyd by a constant force is defined as the product of the magnitude of the
displacement and the component of the force in the direction of the force.
Type of physical quantity:-
It is a scalar quantity and has no direction.
Explanation:-
Let us consider a body of mass m. let a force F act on a body which moves the body from A
to B. let 0 is the angle of the force wirh ground. Then there are two components of the force i.e.
Fcos0 and Fsin0. the component Fcos0 will move the body from point A lto B. this means that wirk
done directly depend upon the Fcos0 that is
i.e.
W Fcos0-----------------1
This work directly depend upon displacement
i.e.
W s ----------------------2

Combining 1 and 2 we get

W (Fcos0) s
W Fscos0
Or
→ →
W=F . S
This equation is the mathematical form of the work.
Special Cases of work:-
Case1:-
Positive or maximum work:-
When 0 = 0
W = FsCos0
Where Cos0 = 1
W = F. S
i.e. maximum.
Result:-
When the force has a non zero component in the direction of displacement, then displacement is
maximum.
Case 2:-
Zero work:-
When 0 = 90
W = FsCos90
Where Cos90 = 0
F = F.sx0
W=0
i.e minimum.
Result;-
When the non zero component of force is perpendicular to the displacement, then work is
minimum or equal to zero.
Case 3:-
Negative work:-
When 0 = 180
W = FsCos180
Where Cos180 = -1
F = F . s x -1
W = -F . s
i.e negative.
Result:-
When the non zero component of force is opposite in direction to the displacement, then
work done is negative.
Examples of work:-
Work done on the pail:-
If a person golding the pail in his hand walks along a level sufgacem no work is done,
because the force has no xomponent in the direction of motion.
Since the angle between the force and displacement is 90, so work can be found out by
using the formula,
W = F s cos0
Or W = F s cos90
W = F s (0) since cos90 = 0
W=0
Thus the work done by the force acting on the pail is zero.
Work done on the wall:-
When a wall si pusjed by a person as shoen in the fig, it means that the displacement of the
wall si zero in spite of the applied force by the person. The value of work done can be calculated as
W = F (0) cos0
W=0
Hence woek done by the man on the wall is zero.
Work done by frictional force:-
When the frictional force of a object act on the body moving on it in the direction opposite to
the frictional force, then force is applied in opposite direction to the displacement, so the
displacement will be negative. It can be calculated as under,
W = F s con0
W = F s cos180
W=-Fs hence cos180 = -1
Work done by the graphical method:-
Work done by a constant force can also be calculated by graphical method, in theis method,
the istance is plotted along x-axis and the force along y-axis. In this case, the graph will be a
horizontal straight line because the force dies not change. The shape of the graph is shown as in
fig.
Fi the constant force F (Newton) and the displacement d (meter) are in the same direction,
then the work dine is F d (joule). The fig showns that shaded area si Fd. The area under the straight
line PQ gives the sahape of rectangle OPQR. This area is indicated by (OP) x (OR), where OP is
the value of the applied force F and OR is the value of displacement d. Hence, the area under a
force – displacement curve can be taken to represent the work done.
Area OPQR = Fd = work done (W).
Or Area (OPQR) = W
Henve, work done by the constant force is equal to the area under force – displacement
curve by a graph.
In the other case, if the force is not in the dirextion of displacement bur makin a certain
angle, 0 with the displacement, the graph is plotted between the various values of displacement d
and component of force. Fcos0.
Characteristics:-
From the above explanation of work, we conclude that:
1. work is a scalar quantity.
2. if angle – is less than 90, work done is said to b epositive work. Its values is given
with positive sign.
3. if 0 = 90, no work is done, i.e. work done is equal to zero.
4. if angle 0 is greater than 90 the work done is said to be negative work. Its value is
given with negative sign. This is because cosine of an angle grater than 90 is negative.
 5. SI unit of work is Nm which is known as Joule (J).

Unit:-
The standatd or SI unit of the work is joule.
Joule:-
Definition:-
When a force of one Newton act on a body and mives a body through a diatnce of one
meter then work dome will be equal to one joule.
i.e.
1 J = 1 N . 1m
inC.G.S system of units, unit of work is erg.
Where 1 erg = 10-7 joule.
Dimenstion of work:-
Work = Force x distance
= mass x acceleration x distance
next from ilmi guide with hands.
Conservative field:-
Definition:-
A field in which work done along a close firld is zero, is called conservative field.
OR
A field in which work done is independent of the path followed is called conservative field.
Examples:-
Thus, gravitational field is a conservative field, electrostatic field and magnetic field are the
other examples of conservative fields.
Conservative forces:-
Gravitational forces, electric force, elastic spring force are called the conservative forces.

Q. show that work done in gravitational field independent of the path. It only depend upon position
of initial and final point.
Ans:- gravitational fireld
The space around the earth in which its gravitational force acts on a body is called
gravitational field.
When a boyd is moved or displaced in the gravitational firld, work is dones by the
gravitational force. if the gravitational force and siplacement are in the same direction, the work
done will be positive. If the gravitational force and the displacement are in the opposite direction,
the work done will be negative.
Proof:-

Let us consider a body of mass m, which moves from point A to C along the path as shown in the
fig.

Let W1 is the work done in moving a body from point A to C and is gaven as
W1 = FS1Cos0 ------------------- 1
From ∆ABC
Cos0 = AB/AC
Cos0 =S2 / S1
S2 = S1 Cos0
Put in equation 1 we get,
 W1 = FS2
Now work done along path 1 is given as
WP-1 = W1

WP-1 = FS2 ---------------- A

Now let W2 is the work done in moving a body from point A to B and is given as
W2 = FS2Cos0
W2 = FS2 x 1
W2 = FS2 ------------- 2
Let W3 is the work done in moving a body from point B to C and is given as
W3 = FS3Cos90
Where Cos90 = 0
W3 = FS3 x 0
W3 = 0 ----- 3
Now work done along path 2 is given as
WP-2 = W2 +W3
Putting values
WP-2 = FS2 + 0
WP-2 = FS2 ------- B
Now by comparing equation A and B, we get,

WP-1 = WP-2
Conclustion:-
This equation shows that woek dine in garavitational field is independent of path. Ot only depend
upon position of initial and final point.
Work done by a variable force:-
A variable lforce is that force whose magnitude, direction or both vhange as it acts.
There are so many cases in which the force does not remain constant during the process of
doing work.
Examples:-
i. when a rockter moves up from the earth, work is done against the force of gravity,
this force varies as the inverse square of the distance from the centre of the earth, so work
done will be different for different intervals of displacements.
ii. if some body tries to strectch te sproing , the force exterted by a spring increase with
the amount of strect. So the work done will be different at different intervals of displacement.
Calculation of work done:-
Let us consider the path of a paricle in the x-y plane whebn it moves from point a to point b
as shown in fig, 4.4. the total path is divided into large number of small interval. Let it may be n
intervals.
These samm intervals are represented yb short displacements.
∆d1. ∆d2. ∆d3 ……….. dn
and F1 . F2 . F3 …………… Fn are the forces acting during these intervals. During each short interval
of displacement the force is supposed to be practically constant in magnitude.
Thus, the work done for the first interval can be written as
W1 = F1 . ∆d1 = F1 cos01∆d1
similarly in the second, third and nthe interval work can be expressed as follows:
W2 = F2 . ∆d1 = F2 cos02∆d2
W3 = F3 . ∆d3 = F3 cos03∆d3
And so on ………………………………
Wn = Fn . ∆dn = Fn cos0n∆dn
The total work done in moving the boyd from the position a to b is calculated by adding all the
above said values of work.
W total = ∆ W 1 + ∆W1 + ∆W3 + …………….. + ∆Wn
Or
W total = F1cos01∆d1 + F2cos02∆d2 + F3cos03∆d3 + ………….. + Fncos0n∆dn

Writing in summation form,

W total = ilmi guide se
This equation shows the formula for the work done by the variable force.
From here the edition by naheed saab notes.
Power:-
Definition:-
The rate of doing work Is called power.
OR
Power is also defined as the scalar or dot product of forece and velocity.
Mathematical form:-
Let ∆W be the work done at constant rate in time interval ∆t, then the average power Pav
during the interval ∆t is given by
Power = Work / Time
Or
Pav = ∆W / ∆t
Instantaneous power:-
Definition:-
It is defined as the work done in an extremenly small interval of time (tending to zero).
Explanation:-
If the rate of doing work is not uniform (constant), the power at any instant will not be equal to the
average power. So the power at any instant is called as instantaneous power.
Mathematical form:-
Let ∆W be the work done in a small time interval ∆t following the instant t then the
instantaneous power at any instant is given by
Instantaneous Power = Limit ∆ t → 0 ∆W / ∆t
Or
Pins = limit ∆ t → 0 ∆W / ∆t
The average power and instantaneous power become equal if the work is at a uniform rate.
Units of Power:-
In SI system;-
In SI system the unit of power is watt (w) after James Watt.
Watt:-
Definition:-
I tis defined as the rate of doin one jhoule of worl in one second or per second. That iw,
Watt = 1 J / 1 s = J s -1
In british engineering system:-
The unit of power in this is known as Hose Power (hp).
Definition of horse power L-
Power is equal to one horse power when work is being deone at the rte 550 ft – lb in one
second(per second).
1hp = 550 ft . lb = 746 watt.
Or
1 hp = 746 watt.

Dimension of power:-
from ilmi guide

Relation between power and velocity:-

Some times, it is easy to express power in terms of a constant force F acting on a body at
constant velocity v.
In order to prove it, we give an example of a motor boat whose propeller caused the water to
exert a constant force F on that boat, it moves with a constant velocity v. the power supplied by the
motor at any instant is given by
P = limit ∆t →0 ∆W / ∆t
Let ∆d be yhe displacement of bnoat produced by the constat force F in time interval ∆t then by
definition of worl in vector form, we can write work as
∆W = F . ∆d
putting the value of ∆w in equation 1, we get,
P = limit ∆t →0 F . ∆d / ∆t
P = limit ∆t →0 F . ∆d
∆t
P = limit ∆t →0 F . ∆d
∆t
since,
∆d / ∆t = v
there fore,
P=F.v
This equation shows the relation between power, velocity and force.
Biggier definition of power:-
1 kilowatt (Kw) = 1000 watts = 10 3 wat
1 mega watt (Mw) = 10 6 watt.
1 giga watt (Gw) = 10 9 watt.
Relation between work or energy and power:-
We know that
Power = Work / time
Or
Work = Power x time
Thus the unit of work or energy is kilowatt hour. It is a commericial unit of electrical energy.
Kilowatt:-
Definition:-
It is the amount of work done, when a power of one kilowatt is maintained for one hour.
This unit of energy is also known as Board Of Trade Union (BOTU).
Relation between kilowatt and joule:_
1 kilowatt – hour = 1000 w x 1 hour
= 1000 J / s x 3600 s
= 36 x 10 5J
or 1 kWh = 3.6 x 10 6 J
1 kWh = 3.6 MJ.
Power of some devices:-
An electric heater has power of 2 x 10 3 watt, a colour T.V has power of 120 watt, and flash
light of two cells has power of 1.5 watt etc.
Energy:-
Definition:-
Energy of a body is defined as its copacity to do work.
OR
The energy of a body is difined as its ability to do work.
Explanation:-
When work is done on a body, energy is stored in it, and the body self uses this energy to do
work.
Type of physical quantity:-
It is actually a stored work, so it is a scalar quantity.
Units of energy:-
Its units are the same as that of work.
In SI system:-
The SI unit of energy is joule.
Joule:-
Definition:-
When a force of one Newton act on a body and mives a body through a diatnce of one
meter then work dome will be equal to one joule.
i.e.
1 J = 1 N . 1m
other units:-
oyther units of energy are foot – pound and kilowatt – hour etc.
different forms of energy:-
there are many forms of enrgy. For example,
1. mechanical energy
2. nuclear energy
3. electrical energy
4. magnetic nergy
5. heat energy
6. chemical energy
7. light and sound energy and so on.
Types of mechanical energy:-
There are two tupes of mechanical energy
1. kinetic enrgy
2. potentical energy
kinetic energy:-
definition:-
the enrgy possessed by a body due to its state of motion is called kinetic energy.
Mathematical form:-
K.E = ½ m v 2
K.E = ½ m ( v. v. )

Type of physical quantity:-

As it is a form of mechanical energy, and also a scalar product, so it is a scalar quantity.
Explanation;-
All the moving bodies like moving truck, ship, rotating fan all have the energy and they can
work on some body. So they have the ability to do work. This ability of doing work or enegy is called
kinetic energy.
Formual for kineric energy:-
Let us consider a mass m moving with tinial velocity v i. suppose a constant force F is appled
to the body over a distance s against the. Let the velocity of the body changes to Vf.
The work done on the body which cause the change of velocity, appears as the change in
the kinetic energy of the body,
Work done = ∆(K.E)
So,
∆ (K.E) = F . s ………….. 1
For force:-
Accoding to Newton’s second law of motion,
F = ma
For distance “s”:-
From 3rd equation of motion we get,
2as = Vf 2 - Vi 2
and
s = vf 2 – vi 2 / 2a
putting values of F and s in equation 1 we get,
∆K.E = ma next from ilmi guide.

Cases:-
Case 1:-
When initial velocity is zero:-
Whenever the initial velocity is zero, then equation 2 become
K.E gain = ½ m vf 2
Case 2:-
When final velocity is zero:-
K.E loss = - ½ m vi 2
General Case:-
Thus in general case, a body of mass m moving with velocity v is given as
K.E = ½ m v 2
Work – energy principle:-
Statement:-
This principal states that work done on the body is equal to the change of energy of the
body.
The changed energy can be both potential and kinetic energy. But here will prove only
kinetic energy equal to the work done on the body.
Proof:-
It should be noted that when ever work is done on a body, it increases its kineric energy.
Let us consider a body of mass mass “m” moving with a velocity vi.
Suppose a force F acts on the body through a distance “s”, so that its velocity increases v f.
the given data can be written as
Initial velocity = vi
Final velocity = vf
Distance = s
Force = F
Acceleration = a
Result:-
Hence, proves that
Work done on the body = change in K.E of the body.
This us known as work – energy principle.
Other examples:-
1. When a body is lifted up form the earth’s surface, the work done changes the
gravitational potential enrgy.
2. If a spring is compressed, the work done on the spring in equal to the increase inits
elastic potential energy.
Potential energy:-
Definition:-
The energy possessed by a body due to its position in a force field like gravitational field or
elastic spring field or due to its constrained state or configuration is called potential energy.
Mathematical form;-
Let m be the mass of the body, and h is the heright of the body form a relative position or
refrence point, then potential energy is given as
P.E gravitational = mgh
Explanation:-
If a body is raised to a cetain height in a gravitational field, work is done on it. This work
done is stored in the body as potential energy.
Similarly,l when work is done in compressinf and stretching a sprting against the elastic
forlce, potential enrgy is stored in it. Such a potential enrgy is called elastic potential enrgy.
Hence we shall duscuss only gravitational potential enrgy.
Formula for gravitional P.E:-
Suppose a boyd of mass m is lifted through a vertical height h above the ground with
constant slow velocity. This mens that the force required to lift the body is just equal and opposite to
its weifht i.e.
F = W = Mg
Thus work done against the force of gravity is given by
Work = F x h = W x h
Work = mgh
this work is due to the change in position of the body, and it will be stored in the body as its
potential energy. This potential enrgy is called gravitational potential energy.
Work = P.E
Hence, gravitational potential enrgy or simply P.E is mathematically given by
P.E = mgh
Refrence point for gravitational point:-
The gravitational potential energy is always determined relative to some refrence point or
orbitary level, when the height h is taken zero. For example, sea level, floor level, table level etc. a
point at infinity from the surface of the earth, can be taken as zero refremce point of gravitational
potential energy.
Potential energy in the earth’s gravitational field:-
after making form hands.
Conservation of energy:-
Law of conservation of energy:-
Statement:-
Enrgy cannot be created, nor destroyed during any process. It can only transformed from
one form to anther, but the total amount of wnrtgy remains constant.
This is called law of conservation of energy.
Explanation:-
The kinetic enrgy and potenitla enrrgy are both different forms of the mechanical enrgy. Total
mechanical enrgy of a body is the sum of the K.E and P.E. As we know in the cas of falling bodies
that P.E may change in to K.E but total amount of energy remains constant.
Mathematically it can be written as
Tota energy = P.E + K.E = constant
We onbserve in our daily life there are manuy kinds of enrgy, for example potential enrgy,
kinteirc enrgy, electrical enrgy, chemical energy, light enrgy, sound enrgy and etc. thery can be
converted from one form in to antoehr.
For example, the potentical energy of the falling bodyies changes to kinetic energy but
On striking the groun, the kinetic enrgy changes into heat and sound enrgy.
Electrical enrgy and chemical enrgy are more easily transferabvle thatn other.s. all enrgy
transfers result in heating fo the environment and thus the enrgy is wasted. It seems in the case of
enrgy transter that some enrgy has disppeeare, as a matter of fact, this lost nergy is oftern
converted in to heat.
Energy mass conversion:-
It is also found that under certain cirumtansces mass and energycan also be interchanged in
to each other. A dextease in the amount of enrgy can result in the increase of the mass and a
increase in amount of enrgy can result in the decrease in the mass by Einstien equation,
Eqauton:-
E = mc 2
Where c is the speed of the light.
This eqauation give the interchange relation of mass in to enrgy. This proves the
conservation of both mass and energy.
Interconversion of potential energy and kinetic enrgy.
Whenever a body is fallig, its potential enrgy is converted in t the potential enrgy but the total
enrgy remains same.
Example:-
When a hammer is lifted in to position, the work done on the hammer is stored in the
hammer as its potential energy. This potential energy is conveted in to the kinetic enrgy before it
strikes the nail etc. On striking the nail, its kintiec energy is changed in heat and sound energy but
the total momentum remains the constant.
Escape velocity:-
Definition:-
The minimum initial velocity which is necessary for a body to escape from the earth’s
gravitational field is called escape velocity.
Symbol:-
It is denoted by a symbol ves.
Explanation:-
We see in ou diaily life that if an onject isthrown upward from the surface of earth, it comes
vacj to the earth after goig up to certain height. Ti falls down due to force of ggravity actif downward,
of initial velocity of the objdetct is intcreses , te object will rise to the greater herigh. Of we go on
increasingf the intial vcelocity, a stage will come when this onject will not come back to the earth, it
will escape out of the gravitational field of the earth.
Derication fo foumula form escape velocity:-
The escpe velocity correspond to the initial kinetic enrgy gained by the body, which carries it
to an infinite distance from the surface of Earth.
Thus,
Initial K.E = ½ m ves 2
It is known that work done in lifting a body from earth’s surgace to an infite distance is equal to the
absolute potential energy of the body at earth’s surfave. That is,
Absolute P.E = G Me m / Re
Here Me is the mass and Re is the radius of the earth.
The boyd will escape out of the gravitiatona fied If the initlal kinetic energy of the boyfd is
equal to the absolyte potential enrgy. Then
½ m v es 2 = G Me m / Re
Or
v es 2 = 2 G Me / Re
v es = √2 G Me / Re
alternative method:-
by law of conservation of ernegy, the initial total enrgy at the surgave of the earth
must be equal to the final total enrgy at infinite distance from the cente of the earth,
Ei = Ef
this is the formual for the escape velocity of a body.
Second forumual for escape velocity:-
When a boyd of maass m is lying on th esurface of the earth, there will be a gravitianal force
f of erath acting on the body, thus

This is anther foruma for escape velcotu.

Value of escape velocity on earht’s surface;-
Puttingg the value of g and R in the second formula, we get the value of escape velocity as
follows,
V es = √ 2gr , we have
V es = √ 2 x 9.8 x 6.4
V es = 11 x 10 -3 m / s
 V es = 11 km / s
Chapter 5:-
Circular motion:-
Angular motion:-
Motion in an angular path is called angular motion.
Angular displacement:-
Definition;-
The angle through which a particle moves with respect to a chosen refrence direction in a
certain interval of time, while moving along a cirecel, is called its angular displacement.
Symbol:-
It is denoted by 0.
Type of physical quantity:-
For very small values of ∆0, the angular displacemtn is a vector quantity.
Explanation:-
Consider the motion of a single particle P f mass m in a circular path of radius r. let the
motion be taking plae by attacing the particle P at the end of a massless rigid rod of length r whose
other ened is pivoted at the centre O of the circular path as shown in fig.
As the particle is moving aong the circular path the rod OP rottes in the plane of the cricel. The axis
of rotation passes through the oiviot O and is nnorma to the plane of rotation.
We Consider a system of axes as shown in fig. the z-axis is taken along the aixs of rotaion
with pivot O as origin of coordinates. Axes x and y are taken in the plane of rotation.
While OP is rotating, let OP1 be its position at any instant t making an able 0 with x-axis.
After some time t + ∆ t, let its position be OP2 making angle 0 + ∆0 with x-axis as shown in fig.
Thus,
Angle ∆0 defines the angular displacement of OP during the time interval ∆t.
if the rotation of OP is counter clockwise, the angular displacement ∆0 is taken as positive.
If the rotation is clockwise, ∆o is taken as negative.
For very small values of ∆0, the angular displacemtn is a vector quantity.
Direction of angular displacement:-
The diretion of angular displacement is along the axis of rotation and is given by the right
hand rule.
Right hand rule:-
Statement:-
When we grasp the axis of rotation in rihght hand side woth fingers cultling in the directon of
rotation, the thumb points in the direction of angular displacement as shown in fig.
Units of angular displacement:-
Angular displacement is measured in three units, namely,
1. degrees
2. revolution
3. radian
degree:-
when a rotating object completes one revolution, it subtends and able of 360 degrees at the
centre of its circular path and thus its angular displacement is 360o. so, whole circle is divided in to
360 equal divisions and each division is called one degree i.e. 1o.
revolution:-
if a body completes one round trup along the circumference of a circle, then one round trip is
said to be one revolution I.e. 1 revolution = 360 or 2 pie.
Radian;-
It is the angle subtended at the centre of a cirvel by an arc equal in length to its rauds as in
fig.
Arc AB is equal in llength ot othe radus of cirvle and it makes an angle <AOB at centre q
which is one raidian.
Advatages of radian:-
Of we know the angle in radian, we can easily find the length of an arc which subtends theis
angle at the centre.
Relationm between arc length, angle subtended by it and radius (s = r0):-
To prove:-
S=r0
Proof:-
Let us consider an arc of length S of a circle of raduius r (as shown in fig), which subtenes and
angle 0 at the centre of the circle given in radians(rad).
As
0 = arc length rad
radius
or 0 = s / r rad
or s =r 0 ………. 1
where 0 is in radians
relation between radian and degree:-
if OP is rotating in the above fig, the point P covers a distance S = 2 r in one revolution of P
in radian, it would be by using the relation
 0 = S / r = 2 r / r = 2 radians
so
1 revolution = 2 radiab = 360o
or
1 radian = 360 / 2 pie
= 180 / 22 / 7
= 180 x 7 / 22 = 57.3 o
hence 1 radian = 57.3 o
the equation gives method of converting degrees in to degrees.
Angular velocity:-
Definition:-
It is defined as the time rate of change of angular displacement about an axis.
Mathematical form:-
Let ∆0 be the angular displacement during the time interval ∆t ( as in fig.), the average
angular velocity during during this interval is given by
wav = ∆ 0/ ∆t ……. 1.
Need for angular velocity:-
Some times we want to know how fast or how slow a boyd is rotating, it is found by its
angular velocity.
Type of physical quantity:-
It is a vector quatity and has direction which can be obtained by right hands rule.
Instantaneous angular velocity:-
If th anular velocity is not uniform during the time interval of time ∆t, then we can fing the
instantaneous angular velocity at any instant.
Definition:-
It is difiend as the angulr displacement in a very samm interval of time.
OR
The instantaneous angular velocity w is defined as the limit of the ration ∆0 / ∆t as ∆t
following instant t, approaches to zero.
Mathematical ezpressition;-
If ∆0 is the angle described by the body during vergy short interval of time ∆t approaching
zero, then its instantaneous angular velocity is given by the relation
w ins = limit ∆t → 0 ∆0 / ∆t
in the limit when ∆t approaches zero, the angular displacement would be infinitesimally small. The
above equation shows that ∆t is so small, that ∆0 and ∆t approaches zero.
Average angular velocity;-
Definition:-
The total angular displacement coverned by the boyd dived by the total time is called
average angular velocity.
Mathematical form:-
Let ∆0 is the total angular displacement convered by the body and ∆t is the total time
interval than average angular velocity is given as
<w> = ∆ 0 / ∆ t
when angular acceleration is uniform:-
when angular acceleration is uniform than in this case, average angular velocity is given as
<w> = wi + wf / 2
Direction of angular velocity:-
As angular velocity and instantaneous velocity are vector quantities. Their direction is along the axis
of rotation and is given by the right hand rule.
Right hand rule:-
Statement:-
When we grasp the axis of rotation in rihght hand side woth fingers cultling in the directon of
rotation, the thumb points in the direction of angular velocity as shown in fig.
The magnitude of the angular velocity, that is thae angular speed is represented by the
lengrh of the line along the axos of rotation.
Units of angular velocity:-
The Si unit of angular vecloti is radian per second or written as rad / s
Sometimes, other units of angular velocity are also expressed as
1. revolutions per second or written as rev / s .
2. degrees per second or written as deg / s.
relation between angular and linear velcitues OR To prove v = r w
in order to firnd the relation between linear and abgular velocityes we must conseder a rigid
boyd rotating about z-axis with an angular velocity w as shown in fig.
let us consider a point P in the tigid body at a perpendicular distance r from the axis of
rotation. Here OP indicates the reference line of the rigid boyd. When the rigid body rotates, the
point P alos moves in a circle of radis r with a linear velocity v while the fegerence line OP rotates
with angular velocity w as shown in fig.
as we know that axis of rotation is fixed, then the direction of w always remains the same.
Therefore we shall deal with the magnitudes of angular velocities w and linear velocity v.
now during the vircular motion, the point P moves through a distance P 1P2 = ∆ S in a time
interval ∆t while the referece line OP has an angular displacement ∆ 0 radian this interval.
 As we know the relation,
S = r0
Let ∆0 is the change in the angular displacement which will cause a change in the linear
displacement wheich is given as
∆S = r∆0
dividing both sides by ∆t we get
∆S / ∆t = r∆0 / ∆t
taking its limits as ∆t → 0, we get
limit ∆t → 0 ∆S / ∆t = r limit ∆t → 0 ∆0 / ∆t ………….. 3
using the definitions of instantaneous linear and abgular velocityes, as the limit limit ∆t → 0, the
ratio ∆S / ∆t represents the instantaneous linear velocity v and the ratio ∆0 / ∆t represents the
instantaneous angular velocity w. thus we can wrote
lim ∆t → 0 ∆S / ∆t = v
or
lim ∆t → 0 ∆0 / ∆t = w
prtting these values in equation, get
v = rw
the equation shows the relatin between the magnitudes of linear and angular velocities.
In fig. it can be seen theat the point P is moving along the ar P 1P2 in the limit when lim ∆t →
0, the lenth of the arc P1P2 becomes very small and its drectin represents the firection fo tangent to
the circle at point P1. thus the velocity with which point P si moving alongt the cirvle has magnitude v
and it is fdirection is always aling the tangent to the cirvel. That is wht the linear velocity of the point
P is also known as tangent velocity.
Angular acceleration:-
When we switch on an electric fan in our room, we see that angular velocity of the fan goes
o increasing slowly. In our general talk, we say that it has an angular acceleration.
Definition:-
Angular acceleration is defined as the time rate of change of angular velocity.
Symbol:-
It is denoted by alpha .
Mathematical form:-
Let wi and wf be the values of instantaneous velocity of a rotating boyd at instant t i and tf, the
average angular acceleration during the interval (tf – ti).
It is given as
Average angular acceleration = change in angular velocity / time interval
Or
a av = wf – wi / (tf – ti) = ∆w / ∆t
a av = ∆w / ∆t
instantaneous angular acceleration:-
definition:-
it is defined as the angular velocity ∆w during a very small interval of time ∆t
approaching zero.
OR
Instantaneous angular acceleration is defined as the limit of the ratio ∆w / ∆t as ∆t approaches zero.
Mathematically, it is given by
Ains = limit ∆t → 0 ∆w / ∆t
Corollary:-
If angular accleleration is uniform, both average and instantaneous acceleration are equal.
Direction of angular acceleration:-
Angular acceleration is a vector quantity shows direction along axis of rotation is given by
the right hand rule.
Right hand rule:-
Statement:-
When we grasp the axis of rotation in rihght hand side woth fingers cultling in the directon of
rotation, the thumb points in the direction of angular acceleration as shown in fig.
Negative and positive angular acceleration:-
Angular acceration can be positive or negative. If the angular acceleration is increasing or is
in the direction of angular velocity then it is positive and if it is slowing down and opposite in
direction of the angular velocity then it is negative.
Relation between linear and angular acceleration:-
The relation v = rw shows that if the reference line OP is rotating as shown is fig. with an
abgular acceleration a, then point P will have a linar or tangential acceleration.
As we know the relation
V = rw
Let ∆v is a change in the linar velocity, then there will also a change ∆w in the angular velocity that
is given as
∆v = r ∆ w
dividing both sides of the equation by ∆t we get,
∆v / ∆t = r ∆ w / ∆t
taking limit ∆t → 0 on both sides, so that ∆ t approaches to zero, we get
limit ∆t → 0 ∆v / ∆t = r limit ∆t → 0 ∆w / ∆t ……….. 1
but we know that
lim ∆t → 0 ∆v / ∆t = a
or
lim ∆t → 0 ∆w / ∆t = a (angular)
putting these valuses in equation 1 we get
a = r a …….. 2
where a is the angular acceleration of point P.
the equation 2 shows the relation between the magnitudes of linear and angular
accelerations.
In vector form:-
The equation 2 can be written as
a=axr
curvilinear motion:-
the motion in a curved path is called curvilinear motion and a outer force is must needed in
this type of motion.
Centripetal force:-

Centripetal acceleration

Deriving equiation;-

Moment of intertia;-
Definition:-
The moment of inertia of a body abou an ais is equalto the sum of the products of the
masses of the particles in the body and the squares of their respective distances from the axis of
rotation.
OR
It is defined as the product of mass of particles and square of its perpecducular distance from axis
of rotation.
OR
The property of the body due to which body shoe any reluctance to change tis state of unifirin
circular motion is called rotational inertia.
Symbol:-
It is denoted by I.
Mathematically:-
Let us consider a body of mass m moves in a circular pathe of radius r. let I is the moment of inertia
of the body. Then this rotational inertial directly depend on the mss the the boyd and square of the
radius of circular path.
i.e.
I m ……….. 1
I r2 ……….. 2
Combining 1 and 2 we get,

I m r2
I = constant m r2
I=mr2 Where constant = 1.
This equation is the mathematical from of rotational inertia.
Moment of inertia is also called angular inertia or rotational inertia.
Explanation:-
Relation of torque and moment of inertia:-
Let us consider a mass attached to a light rod, it can rotate abour the pivot point O which I
frictionless a shown in fig.
The mass of the rod is negligible. Let this system is in horizontal plane.
A force F is acting on the mass perpendicuolar to the rod and thence, this will accelerate the
amms accrding to the law of motion,
F = ma
a=F/m
The force will rotate the mass about O. since tangential acceleration a is related to the angular
acceleration a by the equation
a = r a ……… 1
putting the values of a in equation 1 we get,
F/m = r a
F = m r a …… 2
Multiplying both sides of the quation 3 by r, we get,
 F x r = m r2 a
Where F x r = T or torque.
T = m r2 a
Where m r 2 = I so,
T=Ia

Which is analogue of th newton’s second law of motion,

F = ma
Here F is replaced by t, a by a(alpha) an m by m r 2.
Here quantity m r 2 is known as moment of inertia.
This moment of inertia of inertia plays the same role in angular motion a the mass in linear
motion.
Unit:-
The standard unit of rotational inertia is kg m 2
Moment of inertia of a rigid body:-
In most of the rigid bodues, the mass distribution is not uniform. The rigid body is made up
of n small pieces of masses m1,m2 ………. m n distances r1, r2 ……… rn from the axis of rotation O
as shown in fig.

Let the body be rotating with the angular acceleration a so the magnitude of the troque acting on m1
given by
T1 = m1 r12 a1(alpha)
Similarly, the torque on m2 and further on is
T2 = m2 r22 a2(alpha)
……………………..
……………………..
Tn = mn rn2 an (alpha)
Since the body is rigid, so all the masses are rotating with the same angular acceleration a, thus
Total force T is then given by torque,
T total = (m1 r12 + T2 = m2 r22 + ………… Tn = mn rn2 ) a
Writing in the summation ∑ form, we get
Ttotal = ( n∑ i = 1 mi ri 2 ) a
Or Ttotal = I a
Where I is the moment of inertia of the body and is written as
I = n∑ i = 1 mi ri 2
Moment of inertia for some bodies:-
As the moment of inertia not only depends on the mass and the size of the body but also on
the position of the axis of rotation, so it is different for different bodies. The moment of inertia is
given here for some symmetrical bodies,
Ring or thin walled cylinder:-
I = mr2
Disc or solid cylinder:-
I=½mr2
Solid sphere:-
I = 2/5 m r 2
Angular momentum:-
Definition;-
A partile is said to possess an anular momentum about a reference axis if it so moves hat its
angular position changes relative to the reference aixs.
OR
The angular momentum of an object is defined as the cross product of postion vextro r woth respect
to the aixs of rotation and linear momentum p of an object.
OR
Quantity of motio in angular path is called angular momentum.
Symbol:-
It is denoted by L.
Type of physical quantity:-
It is a vector quantity.
Explanation:-
 Let us consider a body of mass m moving in a circular path of radius r. let p is the linear
momentum of the body directly depends upon radius of circular path i.e.
L r ……… 1
And this angular momentum also depend upon p sin 0
L p sin 0 ………. 2
Combining 1 and 2 we get,
L = r p sin 0
L = constant r p sin 0
L = r p sin 0 where constna = 1
OR
L=rxp
This equation gives the mathematical from of angular momentum.
Direction;-
The direction of angular momentum is normal to the plane formed by r and p in the sense
defined by the right hand rule of the cross product.
The direction of the angular momentum L is perpendicular to the plane formed by r and p as
shown in fig below:

In the fig, r and p line in the x y – plane and L is along the z – axis of rotation.
Unit of angular momentum:-
The SI unit of angular momentum is kg m2 s -1 or J s.
Derivation:-
It can be found by
L = m v r = kg x m / s x m
Unit of L = kg m 2 /s or kg m 2 s -1
Alternative unit:-
As the unit of L is kg m2 s-1
It can be written as under
kg m2 s-1 = (kg m s-2) x m s
where
kg m s-2 = N
so the above result becomes
kg m2 s-1 = N m s
where N m is joule,
so
kg m2 s-1 = J s
so the alternative unit of angular momentum is J s.
dimensions:-
as we know the unit of angular momentum is
L = kg m2 s-1 = mass x (distance)2 x (time) -1
Dimensionally it can be written as
[ L ] = [M][L2][T-1]
or
[ L ] = [M L2 T-1]
angular momentum of a particle:-
if the particle is moving in a circle of radius r with uniform angular velocity w then angle
between r and tangential velocity is 90o. hence magnitude of angular momentum becomes,
L = r p sin 90o
Where sin 90 = 1, so
L=rp
Or
L = m r v ………. 1
But
V = rw
Hence equation 3 can be written as
L = mr ( r w ) = m r 2 w
L = m r 2W
Where the quantiry m r 2 is the moment of inertia and represented by I, thereforce
L=Iw
Examples:-
Examples of particle having angular momentum are electron revolving around the nucleus, a
stone whirling around in a circle by a string, and a planet revolving around the sun etc.
Planet is a giant body although, but it appears as a point in front of sun.
Angular momentum of a rigid body:-
 Let us consider a symmetric rigid body rotating about a fixed axis through the centre of
mass as shown in fig. as the rigid body is made up of n small pieces of masses m1, m2
……………….. m n at distances r1, r2 ………. r n from the azsis of totation O. each particle of the
rigid body rotates about the same axis in a circle with angular velocity w.
The magnitude of angular momentum due to mass m1 = L1 = m1 r1 v1
The magnitude of angular momentum due to mass m2 = L2 = m2 r2 v2
……………………….
………………………
the magnitude of angular momentum due to mass, m n = L n = m n r n v n
as the direction of Ln is the same as that of q, therefore,
vn = rn w
the angular momentum of the nth particle becomes
L n = m n rn2 w
Total angular momentum of the rigid body is given as
Ltotal = L1 + L1 + ……………… Ln
Ltotal = m1 r1 v1 + m2 r2 v2 + ………………. mn rn vn
But v = r w
thus above equation can be written as
Ltotal = m 1 r12 w + m 2 r22 w + ………….. m n rn2 w
Writing in summation form we get ,
Ltotal = ( n∑ i = 1 mi ri2) w = I w
Hence
L=Iw
Where I is the moment of intertia of the rigid body about the axis of rotation.
Difference between spin angular momentum and orbital angular momentum:-
Physicist usually descrive a distictio between spin angular momentum Ls and orbital angular
momentum Lo
The spin angular momentum is the angular momentum of a spinning body, while orbita
angular momentum is associated with the motion of a body along a circular path.
The difference is shown in fig. in the usual circumstances concerning orbital angular
momentum, the orbital radius is large as compared to the size of the body.
There fore , the boddy is considered to be a point size.
Dimensions:-
As we know that unit of angular momentum is
L = kg x m2 s -1 = mass x (distance) 2 x (time) -1
Dimensionally, it can be written as
[L] = [M][L2][T-1]
or
[L] = [ML2T-1]
relation between torque an angular momentum:-

After
Law of conservation of angular momentum:-
As in the case of linear motion, linear momentum remains constant if no external force acts
upon. Similarly in rotatory motion, angular momentum remains constant if no external torque acts
upon it.
Statement:-
It states that if no external torque acts on a system, that total angular momentum of the
systm remains constant.
OR
It states that the anular momentm about an axis of a given rotating body or system of bodies is
constant, if no external torque axts abour that axis.
Mathematical form:-
Mathematically, it is expressed as
Ltotal = L1 + L2 + L3 + ……….. = cosntant
As we know that the time rate of change of angular momentum is torque, that is
∆L / ∆t = T
when there will no torque acting on the body then,
∆L / ∆t = 0
∆L = 0
where ∆ L = Lf – Li, therefore,
Lf – Li = 0
Lf = Li
So law of conservation of angular momentum is proved.
The law of conservation of angular momentum is one of the fundamental principal of
physics.
Explanation:-
The effect of the law of conservation of angular momentum is apparent if a single isolated
spinning body chnges its momenti of inerta. This can be explaned by taking the axample of a diver
in the fig.
Examples:-
Example # 1:-
The diver pushes of f th board with a small angular velocity abour a horizontal axis through the
ventre of gravity G. upon jumping off the board the divers legs and arms are fully extended which
means that diver has a larfgfe moment of interta about the axis. The moment of inertia is
considerable reduced to a new value I2 when the legs and arms in to the closed tuck position.
As we know that
L = m r2 w
In this cas, the value of r is reduce hus th valu of mr2 (moment of inertia) decreases. Hence the
vaue of w2 must increase to keep the angular momentum constant .
As the angular momemtum is conserved, so
I1 w1 = I2w2
Hence the diver must spin faster ehen moment of inertia becomes smaller to conserve angular
momentum. In this way the diver can make more somersaults before entering the water.
Example # 2:-
The fig shows a man standing on a turntable and holding heavy wietghs in his hands. With
arms fully strectched horizontally he is fors t set rotainf slowly. Upon drawing the hands and weights
in toward the chest, the angular velocity is considerably increased.
He can slow down his spinning speed by stretching his hands again. This feat is due to the
conservatioj of angular momentum. Here is no external torque acting on the system an the angular
momentum is conserved.
If wf = Iiwi
Let us consider R be the stretched and r the unstreched distances of the masses from the
symmetry axis of rotation. Expressing I in terms of mass and distance:
m r 2 wf = m R 2wi
r 2 wf = R 2wi
since R > r thereforce wi < wf. turning speed increase by folding the arms.
Direction of angular momentium:
The angular momentum is a vector quantity with direction aloing the axis of rotatin. The
direction of angular momentum along axis of rotation alos remains constat. This is illustrated by the
fact given below,
Fact:-
The axis of rotation of an object will not change its oerintation unless an external torque
causes to di so
This ffact is of great importance for Earth as it moves around the sun. no other sizeable
torque is experienced by the earth, bacuase the major force acting on it is the pull of the sun. the
earth’s axis of rotation, therefore remains ficxed in one direction with reference to the universe
around us.
Applications:-
The law of conservation angular momentum has manu applications from creation of stars
down to subatomic pailes such as electrons, protons and neutrons., dicvers, ice skaters, baler
dancers and actrobates and other make use of this law to show spectacular feats.
This principal us used y expert snow skaters on the ice. Thery start in to a whrl with their
arms and perhaps one leg extended. And thern upon drawing the arms and leg in ontain a gratly
increased angular velocity.
Rotational kinetic enrgy:-
Definition:-
The energy due to the spinning of a body about an axis is called rotational kinetic energy.
Expression for rotational kinetic energy;-
Let us consider a body spinning about an axis with constant angular velocity w each pint of
the body is moving in a circular path and therefore has some K.E.
In order to determine the total K.E of a spinning body we suppose that the body is made up
of a large number of tiny pieces of masses m1, m2, m3 ………… which are situated at distances r1,
r2, r3……….. respectively from the axis of rotation. As the body rotates with constat angylar velocity
w so the angular speeds of all the particles will be the same w bt there linear speed v will be
different.
If a piece of mass mi is at a distance r i from the axis of rotation as shown in fig, the
piece is moving in a circle with speed
Vi = r i w
Thus the kinetic energy of the piece is
(K.E)i = ½ mi vi 2
as v = r w so,
(K.E)i = ½ mi(riw) 2
(K.E)i = ½ mi ri 2w2
similarly the kinetic energies of other pieces m1, m2, m3 ……………………… are
½ m1 r1 2w2, ½ m2 r2 2w2 , ½ m2 r2 2w2 ……………..
the rotational K.E of the whole body is the sum of the kinetic enrgy of all the pieces.
So we have
K.E = ½ (m1 r1 2w2 + m2 r2 2w2 + m2 r2 2w2 ……………..)
= ½ w 2 (m1 r1 2 + m2 r2 2 + m2 r2 2w2 …………….. )
where
I = m1 r1 2 + m2 r2 2 + m2 r2 2w2 ……………..
Hence rotional kinetic energy is given by
K.E rot = ½ I w 2
This sexpression for the kinetic enrgy of totion is analogous to the expression for the
K.E of liear motion i.e. ½ m v 2. keanear speed v hhas been replaced by the angular
speed w and m has been replaced by the moment of inertia I.
Practical use of rotational K.E:-
Rotational kinetic energy is put to practical used by the fly wheels, which are
essential parts of many engines. A fly wheel stores energy between the power strokes of
the pistons. So that the enrgy is distributed over th full revolution of the crankshaft and hece
the rotation remains smooth.
Kinetic energy of rolling body:-
Description:-
When a body such as cylinder or a hoop or a disc is rolling down on a plane, it has rotatory
motion as well as translatery motion. It is not rolling down the plane but also translating.
So it has rotational kinetic energy as well as translational kinetic energy.
Total kinetic energy:-
As energy is a scalar quantity, so both translational and rotational kinetic energies
can be added, to get the total rotational kinetic energy of the body
That is
K.E tot = ½ m v 2 + ½ I w 2
In this expression I is the moment of inertia, w is the angular velocity and v is the linear
velocity of the rolling body.
Rotational kinetic enrgy of a disc and a hoop:-
Here, we use the idea of rotational K.E to compare the velocity with which a disc and
a hoop reach the botton of a inclined plane.
According to the formula for the rotational K.E of a body i.e. K.E rot = ½ I w 2, we can
apply it for the rotational K.E of disc.
Disc:-
Real and apparent weight:-
Weightlessness in satellites and gravity free system:-
Satellites and planetary motion:-
Orbital velocity from ilmi guide..

Artificial gravity:-
Geostationary satellites;-
Communication satellites:-
Newton and einstien views of gravitiaon:-
Chapter 6:-
Fluid dynamics
Introduction;-
Fluids play a very important role in many fields ofour daily life. Liquids and gases are
classified as fluids because they can flow from one point to another. An important property of fluids
is that they possess only bulk modulus and no young modulus and modulus of rigidity.
The law of conservation of mass gives us the equation of continuity while the law of
conservation of energy is the base of bernoulli’s theorem.
Fluid statics:-
It is that branch of mechanics which deals with the study of properties of fluids at rest. It is
also called hydrostatics. Like other equilibrium problems, it is based on the newton’s laws of
motion.
Fluid dynamics:-
The branch of the mechanics which deals with the study of properties of fuluds in motion is
called fluid dynamics.
It is one of the most complicatied branch of mechanics fro the mathematical treatment of
actual fluds in motion. So we shall make some simplifying assumptions. It is further simplified by the
use of two impostant conservation priniaples, the conservation of mass and conservation of energy.
The law of conservation of mass gives us the equation of continuity while the law of conservation of
energy is the base of bernoulli’s theorem.
There is a small difference between the dynamics of fluid motion and the dynamics of
particle and rigid body motion there fore we use newton’s laws of motion, conservation of massadn
conservation of energy to analyse fluid dynamics.
Viscous drag and strokes law:-
Viscosity:-
Definition:-
The property of fluids due to which tert oppose relativce motion betee their different layers is
called viscosity.
OR
An internal friction between differet layers of a flowing fluid (liquid) is called viscosity or fluid friction.
The coefficient the viscosity is the numerical value of resistance to the flow of a fluid. Fluids
not flowing easily have larger coefficients while fluids flowing easily have smaller coefficients of
friction.
Explanation:-
When one layer of flowing fluid moves relative to anther layer, an opposing force coes in to
play. This interval friction between two layesrs of a fluid in relative motion is knoen sas fluid firction
or viscosity.
It is due to the constant flow of molecules from one layer in to the other. The molecules
going from the slowly moving layer in to the fast moving layer absorb enrgy and thus apply a
retarding force on the fast moving layer. In this wat the voicites eill gradulally decreae from layer to
layer dowenwards. The apposing foree between tow layers destruoys the relative motion between
then and finally the whole of the fluid cones to rest.
This us due to the inetnal friction between the layers ot the fluid. Viscosity can meause the
fore requided to slids one layer of the liquid over another layer.
Effect of viscosity:-
Substances that do not flow easily, such as thick tar and honey etc, have large co-efficient of
viscosity. It is denoted by a greek letter eta ( ).
Substances which flow easily like water and milk have small co-efficient of viscosities.
Since liquids and gases have some viscosities (non-zero), therefore a forde is requied if an
object is to be moved through them.
Examples of viscosity;-
Some typical examples of viscosity are
1. even the samm viscosity of the air causes a large retading force on the car as it
travels at high speed.
2. when we put our hand out of the window of a fast moving car we can easily feel that
air exerts a consiederable force on our hand to move it through the air.
Mathematical forumula:-
According to Newton, the opposing force tangential force F acting on any liquid is
proportional to its surface area A, its relative velocity v and is inversely proportional to its distance x
between two layers i.e.
F -Av /x
Or
F =-nAv/x
Where n is a constant depending upon the nature of liquid and its temperature and is called as co-
efficient of viscosity.
The minus sigh shows that the direction of this force is opposite to that of velocity.
Coefficinent of viscosity:-
Definition:-
Co efficient of vesxosity of a liquid is defined as the tangential force per unit area required to
maintain a unit relative velocity between its two layers.
SI unit:-
Its unit in SI system is kg m -1 s -1
Dimensions of co-efficient of viscosity ‘n’:-
[n] = [ F x X / v A ]
= [ ma x x / vA ]
2. = [M L T -2 L / L T -1L 2]
3. [n] = [ M L -1 T -1]
drag force:-
definition:-
an object moving through a fluid experiences a retarding force called a drag force.
The drag force increases as the speed of the object increases.
Strokes Law:-
Stroke studied the effect of viscosity on a sphere ( water drop) falling through a fluid. He
stated a law for upward drag force or fluid friction on spherical bodies such as fog or mist whch are
collections of tiny water droplets. These droplets fall with very slow speed. At low speeds, the drag
force on these droplets is given by the strokes law,
Statement:-
It states that the drag force F on a sphere of radius r moving slowly with velocity V in a fluid
of viscosity n is given by the following relation.
F=6 nrv
At high speeds, the force is no longer simply proportionally to speed. The frictiohal force then
increases much faster than a linar rise in speed. It may be proporitional y to the square of the speed
v.
Terminal velocity:-
Definition:-
The maximum constant velocity, that an object attains and maintains it falling through a
resistive medium is called terminal velocity.
OR
When the wirght of the falling body and drag force becomes equal in magnitude, the velocity of the
body becomes maximum (the velocity increases no further) which is called terminal velocity.
Symbol:-
It is denoted by v t.
Mathematical from:-
Vt = m g / 6 n r
Expression for terminal velocity:--
Condider a water droplet such as that of fog falling freely downward through air. The air drag
on the water droplet increases with speed. The droplet accelerates quickly under the large force of
gravity which pulls the droplet downward. However the upward drag force (fluid friction) on it
increases as the speed of the droplet increases. The net force on the droplet is
Net force = weight – drag force ….. …………. 1
Since the speed of the droplet continues to increase, therefore, the drag force gradually approaches
the weight in the magnitude. Finally when the magnitude of the drag force becomes equal to the
weight, the net force acting on the droplet is zeo. Thus the froplet will fall with constant speed called
terminal velocity. At this poiny the acceleratin vecomes zero (a = 0) and velocity is maximum which
remains constant. This maximum velocity is called terminal velocity.
In sense of acceleration:-
As we know that
Net force = weight – drag force
or
ma = m g – 6 n r v ………………… 2
divinding both sides by m we get,
a=g–6 nrv/m
thus the acceleration of the falling body depends on the instantaneous velocity, so for v = 0, initial
acceleration will be equal to g but as the value of v increases, a point will come where both the
forces will be equal and net acceleration will be zero. After this point the droplet will fall with its
maximum or terminal velocity.
Derivation of mathematical form of terminal velocity:-
In the above case, tow forces are actong on the droplet,
1. tis weight mg acts dewoard
2. the dragging force 6 n r v upward.
There fore equation 1 can be written a s
Net force = m g – 6 n r v
As the net force acting on the droplet is zero, therefore,
` 0 = mg – 6 n r vt
or
m g = 6 n r vt
or
vt = m g / 6 n r v ……… 3
the equation 3 shows that the terminal velocity vt is directly proportional to the mass of the droplet
i.e. v t m. that is, greater is the mass of the droplet, the faster it moves through the fluid.
 The terminal velocity of bodies having different shapes can also be found but that is
complicated, that’s why a spherical shaped object is studied.
Relation between terminal velocity and radius of droplet:-
For this purpose, we introduce the mass density. Let p be the density of a droplet, then:
Mass of droplet = density x volume of droplet
As
p = mass / volume
for a spherival droplet, its volume is given as
volume = 4/3 r 3
now
m = p x 4/3 r 3 ………………. 4
putting the vaue of m from equation 4 in equation 3 we get,
vt = p (4/3 r 3 ) g / 6 n r v
or
vt – 2 g p r 2 / 9 n
since 2 g p / 9 n is consatn, therefore,
vt r2
the above relation shows that the terminal velocity of a sphere varues directly with the square of the
radius, i.e. vt r 2. it means that if we double the radius, the increase in terminal velocity is four
times.
Factors upon which viscosity or fluid friction depends:-
The fluid friction or viscosity depends on the following factor,
1. size of the object
2. shape of the object
3. velocity and orientation of the object
swimmer and shy divers control their speed and direction of motion by changing their size and
orientation by bending., twisting their arms an legs, but the study of fluid force is very simple in the
case of bodies having spherical shape
terminal velocity of paratroopers:-
when a paratrooper jumps from the plane, it faces an frictional resistance of air. This
resistance increases the speed of the paratrooper increases until his velocity reaches the terminal
velocity, at which his weight becomes equal to the air drag. At this point the terminal velocity is
about 200 km / hr. but when he opens the parachute, the air resistance increase and the terminal
velocity reduce and become about 2 km / hr.
25 km / hr is the terminal velocity with which a body falls from the 2 m height, but when
paratrooper uses the chute, it reaches the ground with the velocity of 2 km / hr even when he jumps
from height of 2000 m or 3000m.
fluid flow:-
Equation of continuity:-
Statement:-
The product of cross sectional area of the pipe and the fluid speed of any point along the
pipe is a constant i.e. Av. This is equal to the volume flow per second of the fluid or simply flow rate.
OR
It states that for an incompressible fluid in steady flow, the net rate of flow of mass inward across
any closed surgace is equal to the next rate of flow of mass outward.
Explanation:-
Consider a fluid flowing through a pipe of non-uniform size. The particles in the fluid move
along the same lines in a steady state flow as shown in fig.

If we consider the flow fro a short interval of time ∆t, the fluid at the lower end of the tube covers a
distance ∆x1 with a velocity v1, then
The equation 4 shows that in steady flow, the rate of flow inward is equal to the rate of flow outward.
This also show that the product of the cross sectional area A of the pipe and the fluid speed
v at ay point along the pipe is constna.
Volume flow rate:-
This constna A v is the volue flow rate (∆v / ∆t) of liquid, the rate at which the volume
crosses a section of the pipe i.e.
∆ v / ∆t = A v
mass flow rate:-
the mass flow rate is the mass flow per unit time. In order to get it ∆ v / ∆t is multiplied with
p. as p ∆ v is mass, so mass flow rate is obtained.
p∆ v / ∆t = A v
now it is clear from equation 4 that the vlomue flow rate has the same value at all the point
along the flow tube. When the cross section of the pipe decreases it speed increases and when the
speed decrease, cross section increases.
If a water pipe of 2 cm diameter is conneted with a pipe of 1 cm diameter, the flow speed is
four times as great in the pipe of diameter 2 cm.
Bernoulli’ s equation:-
basic introduction:-
it is a fundamentual equation in fluid dynamics concerning the steady flow of an
incompressible and non-viscouus liquid. As the fluid moves through a pipe of varying cross section
and height, the pressure will change along the pipe. This is the fundamental equation in fluid
dynamics that relates pressure to fluid speed and height.
Statement:-
Bernoull’ s equatioh staes that the sum of pressure the kinetic and potential energies per
unit volume in a steady flow of an incompressible and non-viscous (frictionless) fluid remains
constant at every point of its path.
Mathematical form:-
Mathemically, it is expressed as
P + ½ p v 2 + p g h = constant
Where p is the pressure, v is the velocity and h is the heighy of fluid under consideration at any
period of its path, p is the density of the fluid and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Discovered or given by:-
This equation was given by a Swiss scientist Daniel Bernoll (1700 – 1782).
Derivation of Bernoulli equation:-
Let us consider a steay flow o non-viscos (frioctionless) and incompressible fluid is flowing
through a pipe in time t as shown in fig. the pipe has uniform cross section area over some length at
the two ends. Let us suppose A1is the area of cross section at the upper end and A2 is th area of
cross section of lowr end. The tow oends are horizpnatla and at heights h1 and h2 .
The energy of the fluid assign through the pipe at any point cosists of the following three forms.
1. pressure enrgy
2. kinetic enrgy
3. potential enrgy
Torricelli’s theorem:-
Introduction:-
It is an application and special case of bernoulli’s equation.
Statement:-
The speed of efflux is equal to the velocity gained by the fluid in falling thrugh the distance
under the action of gravity.
Given by:-
This theorem was first given by a scientist Torricelli and therefore it is named as torrcelli
theorem.
Proof:-
Let us consider a large tand full of fluid having tow dsamll holes A and B on it as shown in
the fig.
Let us find the velocity with which he water flows out from the hole A. let this velocity is v2.
Since the holes are very small. The efflux speeds v2 and v3 will be much larger then the
speed v1 with which the top surgace f water falls down. Since the tank is very wide at the top,
therefore the velocity v1 at the top is approximately zero. i.e. v1 = 0.
Applying the bernoull’s equation to the point A and at the top surface of the tank.
The equation gives the velocity jafflux with which the awatr (fluid) flows out of the hole.
Fact:-
Actually v of the fluid is always less than √ 2 g h , due to viscosity of the fluid.
The speed of the efflux is th same as the speed of a ball that falls freely through a height ( h1
– h2).
The top level of the tank has moved down a little and the P.E has een transferred in to K.E o
f effux of fluid. If the hole had een pointed upward at B as shown in the fig, this K.E would allow the
luquid to rise to the level of warer tank. However viscous – enrgy losses would change the result to
some extent.

Chapter 7
Oscillations
Vibratory motion:-
Definition:-
Such a type of motion in which a body moves to and fro about a mean position is called
oscillatory or vibratory motion.
OR
A body is said to have bebratory motion if it repeats back or forth motion over the same path about
its position of equilibrium.
Periodic motion:-
Such a motion which repeats itself after equal intervals of time is called periodic motion.
Examples of vibratory motion:-
Thre are some typical vibratory bodies as shown in fig.
Spring mass system:-
Let us suppose a mass be suspended from a spring. We pull it downward and then lelease.
It begins to vibrate up and dwon as shown in fig.
Motion of a pendulum:-
When we bring the bob of a simple pendulum to one side from its rest position and release,
It begins to vibrate about its middle position as in fig.
Oscillating steel rule:-
A steel ruler clamped at one end to a bench oscillates the free end is displaced side ways as
in fig.
Rolling steel ball:-
When a steel ball is roling in a curved dish, it oscillates about its rest postion as in fig.
 Production of oscillations OR explanation of oscillations:-
A vibrating body always vibrate between extreme postions and the equilibrium position.
In order to ger the oscillations, a body is pulled away on one side from its rest or equilibrium
position and then released. The body begins to oscillate due to restoring force. Under the action of
this restoring force the body accelerates and it overshoots the rest position due to inertia. The
ststroring force pulls it back. As the restoring force is always directed towards the mena position
and so the acceleration is also directed towards the rest or mean position.
These oscillations are continued until the energy gradually become dissipate due to various
frictions faced by the body.
Production of waves due to oscillations:-
It is commonly observed that the eaves are produced due to vibratingvodies i.e. oscillations.
For example a violin string produces sounds waves in air. There are many phenomenon in
nature which are explained on the concepts of vibrations and waves. There are many large
structures such as shyscrapers and bridges which appear to be rigid, they actually vibrate. In the
light of these facts, the engineers and architects desigh the building structures.
Simple harmonic moiton:-
After made from hands.

Important terms connected with SHM:-

Instantaneous displacement:-
The value of the distance of a vibrating body from the mean position at any instant is known
as instantaneous displacement.
Symbol:-
It is dented by x.
Amplitude of vibration:-
Definition:-
The maximum displacement covered by a vibrating body on the either side of its mean
postion is called its amplitude.
Symbol:-
It is denoted by xo or A.

Vibration:-
One complete round trip of a oscillating body about its mean position. i.e.
motion from one point back to the same point.
OR
The motion of a vibrating mas from its mena potion to the upper extreme position, from upper
extreme position to lower extreme position and back to its mean position is called one vibration.

Periodic Motion:-
Definition;-
The motion that is repeated in equal intervals of time is called periodic motion.
Examples:-
1. In 24 hours earth completes its periodic motion.
2. A moving pendulum has also the periodic motion.
3. The planets revolving around the earth have also the periodic motion.

Time period:-
Definition:-
The time taken by vibrating body to complete one round trip is called time
period.
Symbol:-
It is denoted by T.

Frequency:-
Definition:-
The number of cycles or vibrations undergone in one second by a
vibrating body in periodic motion.
Symbol:-
It is denoted by f.
Units:-
Its units in SI are cycle per second or Hertz. Hz.
It is a reciprocal of the time period “T “and time period and frequency are related by an
equation:-
f=1
 T
Simple harmoniv motion and the reference circle:-
After making from hands.
Frequency and time period in SHM:-
Frequency:-
The frequency f of the SHM in the reference circle is also number of cycles per second but it
is in terms of angular velocity w.
The angular velocity in the refernce circle is measured in radian per second and is given as
w=2 /T
as f = 1 / f, so
w=2 f
or
f=w/2
time period:-
in the reference circle T is the time interval in which projection P completes one round of the
circle.
As
w=2 /T
T=2 /w
This equation shows that the time period is independent of the amplitude.
Wave form of SHM:-
The instantaneous displacement of SHM is given by
x = xo cos w t
where
w=2 /T
diagrammatical proof:-
if we determine the value of x at different isntatn and plot it aginst time, we get a curve as
shown in fig. values of x fro a few typoical instant is given in the fig. this displacement – time graph
is know as the wave form of SHM. The waveforms of the velocity and accelerations are also shown
in the same graph.

Experimental proof:-
The experimental arrangement as shown in the fig. can be used to record the variationsin
displacement with time for a mass-sproing system. A sheet of paper is placed behing the mass and
there is an arrangement to move thepaer at a constat speed from rifgt to let. A time scale on the
paper is shown by dotted lines. A pen is ttached with the vibrating mass which tightly touhes the
paper. Thus the pen records the displacemtn of the mass on the paper agians thime as shwn in the
ig. The mass is raised at distance xo and then relaesd, it perfoms SHM and the wafe form produced
on the paper. It is generally as wave form of SHM. The points B and D in the curve correspond to
the extreme positons of the vibrating mass and points A, C and E show its mena position. Thus the
line ACE represents the mena position of the mass on the paper. The amplitude of vibration is thus
a measure of the line Bb or Dd in fig.
Phase:-
Definition of phase angle:-
The angle 0 = w t which specifies the displacement as well as the direction of motion of the
point executing SHM is known as phase.
This angle is obrained when SHM is coupled with cirvular motion. It is the angle which the
rotating radius OP makes with the regerence direction OO1 at any instant t.
The phase indicates the state of motion of the vibrating point. We have already explained
the wave from of SHM obtained experimentally. Now we can get the wave form of SHM analytically
by applying the concept of phase.

Next after making from hands.

Oscillation of mass attached to a spring:-

Simple pendulum:-
Definition:-
In simple pendulum a body is suspended from a fixed point so that it can swing
back and forth under the influence of gravity.
Construction:-
A simple pendulum consists of a bob (weight) suspended at the end of the light and in
extensible string.
Mean position:-
The point at which bob becomes stationary with any applied force is called mean
position.
Further Explanation:-
Motion:-
If the bob is pulled back and released, the pendulum will start to vibrate about mean
position and between extremes. This motion is repeated again and again.
Forces:-
The forces which are acting on the bob during its motion are two. One its
weight = mg and the other is the upward tension in the string.
Resolution:-
The weight can be resolve in to two components, one horizontal and the other
vertical. As it is clear from the diagram that vertical component (Y- component) is
along the string and is opposite to the tension in the string and it balances the motion
in the string. The second component is horizontal (X-component) and is directed
towards the mean position and is responsible for the oscillation of the bob.
To prove that the motion of pendum is SHM:-
Let us consider the bob at the positon B during its vibrating motion as shown in
fig. Let m be amss of the bob and x be the displacement of the body from the mena
postion B. there are two forces acting on the body in this postion
1. weight mg of the bob acting vertically
2. tension T of the string acting along the direction BC.
The weight mg of the bob can be resolved in to tw rectangular components, one
along the string in the direction of OB and the other perpendicular to the string.
Component of weight along the string CB = mg cos 0.
Componet of weight perpendicular to the string = mgsin0
As there is no motion of the bob in the direction of the string, the component
mgcos0 = T
So these two cancel each other. There fore the component mgsin0 is only
responsible for the motion of the bob which brings the bob back towards its mena
position. Thus mgsin0 represents opposing restroring force F at B, So
F = - mg sin0
If a is the accleleration of the bob at B, then according to newtons second law of
motion
F = ma

after seeing

Characteristics:-
1. When the bob is disturbed from the mean position, the horizontal component
produces acceleration in the pendulum.
2. At the mean position both force and acceleration are minimum but both are
maximum at the extreme positions.
3. On the way from extreme position to the mean position, the acceleration and
force decrease and become minimum at the mean position.
4. The velocity is maximum at the mean position but on the way towards the
extreme positions it decrease and become zero at the extremes.
5. This shows that acceleration of the pendulum is directly proportional to but
opposite in direction to the displacement, so its motion is simple harmonic motion.
6. its time period T is equal to
This shows that the time period of the small oscillations of simple pendulum does not
depend on mass and amplitude of the pendulum, but on the length of the pendulum.
Reason for oscillation:-
When the body reaches at the mean position the velocity becomes maximum
and therefore due to the inertia the bob does not stop but continue on moving. At the
extreme positions the velocity is equal to zero and due the gravity the bob falls back
and in this motion remains continued.
A pendulum taking two seconds for its one oscillation is called second's
pendulum. This pendulum is used in the clocks for recording time.
Use of pendulum:-
We can find the value with the help of simple pendulum, because both T and l can be
directly measured. If proper precautions are taken, this method is the most accurate method for the
determination of g.
Second pendulum:-
A second pendulum is a pendulum which completes one vibrations in tow seconds. Thus the
time period of such a pendulum is two seconds, i.e.
T = 2 seconds.
Free oscillations:-
Definition:-
when a body oscillates with its atural frequency without the interference of an external force,
then it is said to be performing free vibrations.
Brief explanation:-
When a pendulum is disturbed, it will oscillate with a characteristic frequency fn that is the
natural frequency of the pendulum. This frequency depends on the length l and it is given by the
equation,
fo =½ √g/l
similarly the natural frequency of a mass loaded with spring is given by
fo=½ √k/m
a body oscillating with such a natural frequency is said to have free vibrations.
Example:-
A simple pendulum vibrates freely with its natura freqneucy that depends only upon the
length of the pendulum, when it is slightly deisplaced from its mea positon. It always oscillates
freely.
Force vibrations:-
Definition:-
If a free oscillating system is forcd e to vibrate under an external force, a kind of oscillations
will be produce which are known as forced oscillations.
OR
The oscillations that occur under the influence of such an external periodic force are known as
forced oscillations.
Brief explanation:-
The body under forced oscillations does not vibrate with its natural frequency, its frequency
is the same as the frequency of the external periodic force.
The amplitude of such a oscillations depends on the frequency fe of the external periodic
force and the natural frequency of the oscillating system.
A physical system undergoing forced vibrations is known a driven harmonic oscillator.
Example:-
1. if the mass of a vibrating pendulum is struck again and again, then forced vibrations
are produced.
2. a pendulu moved to and fro by holding it in hand has forced vibrations.
3. the vibraitions of a factor floor caused by te running of heavy machinery are called
forced vibtaion.
4. all string instruments produce their loud music due to the forced vibrations of the
woodeden boards on which thery are mounted.
Resonance:-
Introduction:-
The motion of a driven harmonic oscillator causes the phenomenon of resonance. It takes
place of the period of external drivinf force is equalt to the natura time period of the oscillator.
In resonace situration even a samall driving fore causes the amplitude of motion
extraordinary lare. In the case of vibrating simple pendulum, if e blow to push the pendulum
whenever it comes in forn of our mouth, then the amplitude steadily increases.
Definition:-
The phenomenon of producing large amplitude of oscollatin by a small periodic driving force
is called resonance.
OR
The marked increase in amplitude of a vibrating body unier the periodic force whose period is equal
to the natural peiod is called resonance.
OR
Resonanace occurs when the frequency fthe papoied force is eqult to one of he natural frequency
of the oscillating system.
Experiment to demonstrate resonance:-
Let us consider a horizontal rod AB is supported by two things S1 and S2 as shown in the fig.
three pairs of pendulums a a /, b b / and c c / are suspended to his rod AB. Thre length of each pair
is the same byt is differnec t for different pairs.
Ley all the pendulums be statinaly in the bidinning. If the pendul C is disturbed in a direction
perpencicular to the plane of the paper, it stars oscillating with its natural frequency fc. a sma m
periodod force acts on all the pendulums through the rod AB. Due to slight motion of the rod, each
of the remaining pendulum (a a /, b b / and c c / ) will oscillate. But the pendulum c/ which has the
period equal to c du to the same length, will oscillate back and forth, qith steadily increasing
amplitude. The amplitude of the other penculums remains samm throught the moton of c and c/,
because their natural periods are not the same asthat of the disturbing force due to the rod AB.
Resonance has occurred between c and c/.
Conclusiton:-
This experiment shows that the principle of resonance states that a vibrating body sets
another body in to vibration if the second body has the same natural period as the first body, but it
fails to affect a body that has a different natural period.
Important point:-
 the resonance will also takes place of the period of the apploied force is any integral
multiple of the natural eriod of the body.
Applications of resonance:-
1. resonace can be used to determine the frequency of a given body. A socnd body,
whiose natural frequency is known is made to act on the given body. If it produces
resonace, it is concluded that the given body has the same frequency as the second
body.
2. it is used to find natural frequencies of different bodies.
3. it is used to determine the speed of sound with resonance tube apparatus.
4. mechanical and electrical systems show a good response unoder the phenomenon
of resonance.
Examples of resonance;-
Swing:-
A swoing is a good example of mechanical resonance. It is a pendulum with a single natural
frequency depending on its length. In the swing, if pushes are given at the correct intervals, which
coincide with the period of the swing, the amplitude of the swing can be made quite larfe. If the
pusehse are given irregularly, the swing wil hardly vibrate. The children playing with the swing apply
this device often.
March of soldiers on the bridge:-
If there is a bid sapn of bridge, then the colums of soldiers crossing the bridge are ordered
to break their steps. Because if the frequency of the ir steps coincides with the natural frequency of
the bridge, the bridge may be set in to vibrations of large amplitude. Thus the bridge may collapse
due to resonance.
Tuning of a radio set:-
Tuning of raio istje best example of electrical resonance. When we trun the knob of a radio,
to tune a station, we are changing the natural frequency of the electric circuit of the receiver, to
make it equal to the transmission frequency of the radio station. When the two frequencies coincide
with each other, energy absorption is maximum and we get the sound and transmission from the
desired station.
Cooling of food by microwave oven:-
Resonance is alos used in microwave oven which heat and cooks food evely and efficiently.
Microwave oven uss microwaves having frequency similar to the natural frequency of vibrations of
water molecules. These microwaves have wavelength 12 cm and frequency 2450 Mhz. at this
frequency waves are absorbed due to resonance of water and fat molecules in the food. So they
heat and cook the food. This is a very good example for heating and cooking the food in our homes.
Magnetic resonance scanning:-
Magnetic resonance scanning has greatly imporoved medical diagnoses. Strong radio
frequency radiations are used to cause nuclei of atoms to oscillate. When resonance occurs,
energy is absorbed by the molecules. The pattenr of energy absorption can be used to produce a
computer enhanced photograph.
Damped oscillatons:-
Introductions:-
In dealing with the oscillations we have totally ignored the resistive force and idssipaticve
effects due to frictional forces. In practice these effects cannot be neglected. As we observe that the
amplitdude of vibrating pendulum decreaseses gradually with time till it becomes zero.
Definition:-
Such type of oscillation, in which the amplitude decreases steadily with time, are called
damped oscillations.
OR
Such a process in which enrgy is dissipated from the iscillatin system is called damping and th
correspoinding oscillations are called damped oscillations.
Explanation:-
In describing the motion of a simple pendulum, frictional effect was completely ignored. As
the bodvb of a simple pnedulu mves to and rfro theree types of forces come in to existence
1. weight of the bob
2. tension in the string
3. viscous drag that is the air friction due to motion of the bob through air.
Thus simple harmonic motion is an idealization as shown in fig. this fig shows an indameld
harmonic motion. In practice, the amplitude of the motion of the bob gradually becomes smaller and
smaller dure to friociton and air resistance.
Fig b shows how the amplitude of a dampeld simple harmonicwave changes with time. Thus
we observe that dampoing is the process whre by enrgy is disspated from the oscillating system.
Applications:-
An application of damped oscillation is the shoch absorber of a car which provide a damping
force to prevent excessive osicillaitons as shown in fig. if the shoch absorbers are defect then the
car bexoems bouncy and comfortable.
The the case of running hover carg through waterm, computer are sued to control the angle
of waves through the water for the able of waves through the water for the stable movement of the
hover.
Resonant frequency:-
Definition:-
The particular frequency at which the amplitude of the vibration is maximum is called
resonant frequency.
Sharpness of resonance:-
Introduction:-
If the amplitude decreases rapidly at a frequency slightly different from the resonance
frequency, the resonance will be sharp. And this phenomenon is called sharpness of resonance.
Explanation:-
In case of resonance, the amplitude of vibraton becomes very large when damping is small.
Thus presence of damping prevents the amplitude from becoming sufficient large. The amplitude
decrease rapidly at a frequcnv slighltly different from resonance frequency. Thus,
A heavily dampled system has a fairly that resonance curve as is shown in an amplitude
frequencty graph in fig.
The amplitude as well as its sharpness both depends upon the damping. Smaller the
damping, greater will be the amplitude and more sharp will be the resonance.
Observation through experiment:-
In order to observe the damping effect, we attach a very light ball an such as a pith ball and
antohr of the same length carrying a heavy ball of equal size such as lead bob to a rod as shown in
fig. they are set in to vibrations by a third pendulum of equal length, attached to the same rod. It is
observed that the amplitude of the heavy ball (lead ball) is much larger than that of the pith ball.
This shows that the damping effect for the pith – ball due to air resistance is much greater
than for the lead bob. Thus the sharpness of the resonance curve of a resonating system depends
on energy loss due friction. That is smaller the frictional loss of energy, the sharper the resonance
curve.

Chapter 8
Waves
Wave:-
A wave is traveling disturbance of some kind that propagates through a medium.
Wave motion:-
In order to under stand the concept of waves, one should throw a stone on the still surfave
of water in a pond. A disturbance is produced where the stone strikes and the particles transfer their
motion to the neighbouring particles. In turn thery produce similar motion in others and so on. In this
way, the disturbance conveys the particles to the edge of the pond. This motion of the disturbance
is due to the transfer of energy from particle to particle is called wave motion.
Waves transport energy but do not transport matter. As a matter of fact, the energy is carried
by a disturbance which is moving in the form of wave from one place to another from a source.
There are different types of waves. For example water waves in an ocean or ripples formed
on a stroll pond due to rain drop. Similarly another type of wave is sound waves. When a musician
plucks a guitar string, sound waves are produced. When this disturbanve in the form of waves
reach to our ear, then there is a production of sensation of music. Wave disturbance may also come
in a doncetrated bundle such as shock waves come from an aeroplane flying of supersonic speed.
Light from the sun reaches us in the form of light waves.
Light waves are electromagnetic waves. And can travel in vaccum with out a medium. sound
waves are mechanical waves and need a medium for their travel.

Production:-
Wave can be produced by throwing a stone in the water pool of the water.
When a stone is dropped, a disturbance is produced which is not limited to that place
but also travels to the outwards.
1. The particles of the medium does not move from there position to the outward;
they only vibrate up and down. It can be seen by placing a paper piece on the surface
of the disturbed water which only moves up and down on the surface of the water.
2. When wave or disturbance is created it set the particles of the medium in to the
vibratory motion.
3. These particles set the other particles in to the vibratory motion and so until the
disturbance or the wave reaches at the end.
It is clear that no particles of the medium move from its position to any ward but only
vibrate up and down, so the water only acts as a medium for the propagation of the
wave.
Waves can also be produced by jerking a stretched string up and down which
has one free end and from other end it is attached with support. When the string is
moved up and down a wave is produced that travel along the string towards the
fastened (non free) end. If the jerking continues a series of waves produced that travel
along the string.
Propagation:-
After from book
Necessary conditions for propagation of waves:-
The necessary condition for the propagation of mechanical waves is the
elasticity of the medium. As these waves move along the medium through the
interacton of the particles of the medium that set each other in to the vibration, there
force the elasticity of medium is so necessary. If the medium is non-eleastic and the
paritcels are free from each others effect and independent of each other, then they will
not set each other in to the motion, and mechanical wave will not be able to move
thrugh the medium.\
Progressive waves:-
Definition:-
The eave which transfers enrgy in moving away from the source of disturbance
is called a progressive or traveling wave.
Example:-
We drop a pebble in to water. Ripples are produced an spread out across the
eater. The ripples are the examples o progeressive waves because they carry energy
across the water surface.
Kinds of progressive waves:-
There are two kinds of progressive waeves ( or mechanical waves).
1. transverse waves
2. longitudional waves
transverse waves:-
definition:-
transverse waves are those in which particles of the medium are displaced in a
direction perpendicular to the direction of the direction of propagation of waves.
OR
The waves in which the particles of the medium vibrate along a line perpendicular to
the direction of propagation of waves are known as transverse wavees.
Explanation:-
The waves on the surface of the water are the transverse waves. They can also be
produced in the rods, strings and other solid and liquid bodies. The transverse waves
passing through the medium form crest and trough. The part of the wave above the
surface of the medium is called the crest and the part of the waves below the surface
of the water is called the trough. One crest and trough joins to make a wave. The
number of the passing through a point is called the frequency of the waves and the
amplitude of the particles of the medium is called the amplitude of the waves. The
distance between two consecutive crest and trough is called the wave length and is
denoted by lambda
Example:-
Let us consider tow persons holding opposite ends of a rope. The rope is kept
in horizontal postion. One person gives a sudden up and dwon jerk by hand. This
disturbs the rope and creates a hump or pulse shaped waves in it which traveles along
th rope towards the other person as shown in fig. a and b.
When this hump reaches the other person, it causes his hand up as shown in
fig. c. thus the enrgy and momentum transferred to the one end of the rope by the first
person has reache the other end of the rope by traveloing through the rope. It means
that a wave has ben set up on the rope In the form of a moving hump. We ca call this
tupe of waves as pulse. The forward motion of the pulse from one end of the rope to
the other is an wxample of progressive transerverse waves. The jerk of the hand at the
at the end of the rope os the source of the wave. The rope os the medium in which the
wave moves.
Thus the particle of the rop perfom periodic motion which is perpendicular to
the rope as the wave passes along it. Hence it is proved that the waves are the
transerves waves.
examples:-
1. radio waves
2. light waves
3. microwaves
4. water waves
5. waves produced in the strings
6. waves prodced in the water when a stone is dropeed in the water,
are all the examples of the transverse waves.
Longitudional waves:-
Definition:-
The wave in which te particles of the medium are sispalce in a direction parallel
to the direction of propagation of waves are called longitudional waves.
OR
The waves in which the various particles of the medium vibrate about their mean
postitions along the direction of the waves , are known as longitudional waves.
These waves are also called compressional waves.
Explanation:-
Let us we consider a slinky spring lying on a smooth table with its one end fixed
so that spring does not hang down due to gravity as shown in fig.
If the end of the spring is moved back and forth laong the direction of the spring
itself, a wave with back and forth displacement will travel slong the spring. Such waves
in which diipalcements or vibrations of particles medium are in the direction the waves
travel are called longitudional waves.
*Both types of waves can be set up in solids. In fluids however transverse
waves die out very quickly and cannot be produced at all. This is the reason that
sound waves in air are longitudioanl waves.*
Examples:-
1. sound waves
2. compressional waves in a spring
3. railway enginee conncted to boogies with buffer springs in between
them.
Characterisitics of the waves:-
All form making with hands.

Speed of sound in air:-

The speed of sound waves epends on the following two factors.
1. the compressibility i.e. elasiticty of the medium
2. inertia i.e. density of the medium
let us consider E be modilus of eleasiticy and p be density of the medium, then the
formula for the speed v of waves in the medium is given by
v=√E/p
this formula shows that grater the eleasiticy and less the density, the grater s the
velocity of sonds waves. And the speed of sound is much higher in solids than in
gases, because solids have greater density then in gases.
This relation is good for solids an dliquids then in gases.
In case of solids rod, E is replaced by Y which is known as the Young modulus
of elasticity.
 Genrally sound waves travel more slowly in gases than in solids because
gases are more compressible due to smaller density and thus have smaller elastic
modulus ( or elasticity). As a result, the solids have greater elasticity than fluids
( liquids and gases).
Newton’s forumula for the speed of the sound in air:--
Newton was the first sicientist who proved the following formula for the sped of
sound in air. ( or fluids)
V = √ E / p ………………. 1
While deriving the above forumula Newton assumed that the temperature of the
medium (air) during a compression rises a litlle and during rarefaction falls a little. The
rise and fall of temperature balance each other and so the temperature of the medium
remains constant when the sound waves pass through it.
Thus he concluded that sound travels through air and other gases inder
isothermal condtions i.e. no change in temperature of air (obeying boyle’s law). So the
modulus of eleasticity ET is equal to the pressure P of the gas. i.e.
E T= P
Proof or derivation of formula:-
Let us consider V be the volum of layer of ari at a pressure P. when sound
waves pass through the layer, they produce changes in P and V. under the
compression of sound waves of the pressure is increase from P to P + ∆ P, volume
decreases from V to V - ∆V, temperature remaining constant. According to Boyle’s law
( P1 V1 = P2 V2)
PV = (P + ∆ P) ( V - ∆V)
Or
PV = PV - P∆V + V ∆P - ∆P∆V …… 2
If the increase in opressure is very small, the decrease in vlimue will be very small and
the product ∆P∆V is negligible quantity. PV and PV cancel each other in equation.
There fore equation 2 can be written as
P∆V = V∆P
Or
P = ∆P / ∆V x V
Or
P = ∆P / ∆ V / V
Where
∆P = forve / area = stress ( per unit area)
And
∆V / V = change in volume / original volume = volumetric strain
so
P = ∆P / ∆V / V = stress / strain = E T
Where ET is called the bulk modulus of elasiticity.
Hence
P = E T ……………… 3
Now putting this values in eqatuon 1, newton’s foruma for the speed of sound in gases
and air is given by
V = √ P / p ………… 4
Whre P is the atmospehic pressure and p is the density of the medium.

Conservative field-

The field in which worek dine around closed path is equa; to zero that field is called conservative
field.
Examples:-
Gravitational field, electric field, magnetic field etc
Conservative force:-