John Pickle Middle East

A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

HISTORY OF TOFD

1960s and 1970s the construction of nuclear

plants required new metallurgy and the service
conditions NDT standards were based on
radiography.

Pulse- echo ultrasonic testing used to locate

flaw indications in the vessels and piping
Question: how big are these flaws?
So there was a need to better assess the
size of these flaws became the origin of the
time-of-flight diffraction technique (TOFD).

Dr. Maurice G. Silk and his staff at the National NDT

Centre, in the UK are credited with developing the TOFD
technique in the early 1970s.
 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

GENERAL PRINCIPLES

Ultrasonic inspection methods using pulse – echo uses a “mirror-like” reflection of sound
Requires beam to strike the flaw perpendicular to the plane with the flaw’s major
dimensions. This is intended to provide the maximum amplitude response in pulse-echo
mode.

Diffraction occurs when an obstacle distorts a wave, e.g. if the wave travels through a
gap it may be diffracted. It is the ability of a wave to spread around corners. Hence,
diffraction occurs at the edge of an obstacle.

It is the fact that TOFD relies on the detection of diffracted waves that it differs radically
from pulse-echo ultrasonic methods. Perhaps not obvious to all, is an underlying
problem. Unlike a reflected wavefront, the diffracted wavefront is very weak.
Whereas a large amplitude signal from a reflected wave is generally (although not always
correctly) assumed to have originated from a large flaw, no such assumption can be
made in TOFD since the amplitude of the main diffracted beam will always be relatively
weak.

Detection and timing of the low amplitude signals diffracted from the tips of defects forms
a basis for absolute position and size measurement and has little to do with amplitude
response.
 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

Diffraction as it Applies to TOFD

The basic TOFD setup is now accepted to be achieved by using two separate transducers in a directly opposed
ptandem configuration. The probes should be well matched with a short pulse (i.e. broadband), wide beam (i.e.
generally small element sizes) of the same refracting angle. One is connected as a transmitter and the other as a
receiver.
This results in a characteristic signal attern when testing welds in plate that is not excessively thick. The setup and
the associated signals are drawn schematically in Figure.

The transmitter produces a single pulse which provides all the signals detected at the receiver.
Lateral wave is just the term given to the compression mode that is just below the test surface and has shortest
metal distance between the transmitter and receiver.
Flaws within the plate thickness will be seen at points between the lateral wave and back-wall signals.
The signals are viewed in un-rectified mode so as to provide phase information. Assuming the lateral wave is a
reference phase, it is illustrated as having a positive rise time. The diffracted upper tip and reflected back-wall
signals then have negative phase with respect to the lateral wave. When diffraction is detected from the lower
tip its phase will be the same as the lateral wave.
 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

Data Visualisation

Each A-scan then become a line of shading with the zero voltage indicated by a mid-range grey and maximum
positive and negative voltages indicated by the extremes (i.e. black and white).

It must be noted however, the grey scale display is used for the overall display when a scan is completed but it
is a requirement of the TOFD system to store the underlying A-scans that made up the grey scale image!
A single line of grey scale is not very informative. The great strength of this display is seen when motion is
added and an A-scan is capture and converted to grey-scale at regular intervals along the scan. The effect of
adding motion to this display is seen in Figure.
 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

Probe motion in TOFD always maintains a constant separation of the probes and they must be
constantly aligned facing each other. Since most (but not all) TOFD inspections involve weld
inspection it is normal for probe motion to be made along the length of the weld (as in Figure 2-9).
However, in some situations the operator may find it useful to move the probe-pair perpendicular
to the weld centreline. Of course this motion may be limited if the weld cap has not been
removed.
John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

TOFD ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS

Advantages:-
¾Repeatability
¾Accuracy
¾Data Storage
¾Detection Speed
¾Volume Coverage
¾Sensitivity
¾Easy discrimination of defects and geometry
¾Flaw orientation
¾Coupling Status
¾Reduced Operator Reliance

Limitations:-
‰Weak Signals
‰“Dead” Zones
‰Flaw Classification Limitation
 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

Equipment used in TOFD

Basic components of a TOFD configuration are shown in the schematic diagram shown in Figure.

Probes are indicated in Figure as being held in place with a fixture. Noted on the probe holder
(but not drawn) is the encoder used for accurate positioning of the probes.
 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

Data Acquisition and Automated Systems

Collecting information about an object or condition is generally considered “data acquisition”.
In TOFD data acquisition consists of collecting A-scans. The other parameter collected is position and
also include some means of displaying the A-scan making up the B-scans seen in TOFD.
Instrument Outputs
Electrical data can be considered a “signal” or “waveform”. This is usually a voltage varying with time.
Signals can be either analogue or digital. Computers use digital signals.
 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

SCANNING EQUIPMENT

Scanning apparatus is required for positional information.

In order to fix some sort of reference position, a probe holder and associated framework is required.
Position may be provided by some form of encoder and the probe moved by hand. Alternatively, movement may be
facilitated by motors on the framework and again, encoders may provide positional information.
Scanning Speed
In an encoded system the scanner is advanced by the motor (controlled via a motor control unit and a communication
link via the motor control card on the controlling computer). This motion caused the encoder to turn and the pulses
generated indicate a specified number of pulses per unit distance. As the encoder indicates the start of the 1mm
acquisition interval, all functions in the sequence commence;
1. The computer is instructed to record the encoded positions (calibrated in millimeters, or
perhaps Inches, as referenced from a specified origin)
2. The computer is instructed load the display on the monitor.
3. Next fire the transmitters in the correct order and delay.
4. arrange the receivers to receive the pulse from the transmitted signals
5. Apply the correct receiver. Gains to the applicable channels
6. collect the analogue waveform in the gated time interval.
7. digitise the amplitude information from the gate.
8. store the digitise waveform to memory.
9. repeat the above steps for all channels (when multiple TOFD is applicable)
10. print one line of displayed data to the monitor
11. wait for the next 1mm increment pulse from the encoder and begin again.
Some systems have scan speeds around 100mm/sec. This means that the sequence of events that are required to
carryout all the steps in a single millimeter are repeated 100 times each second. There is still a limit to what a computer
can do in a short period of time and if the scanning speed is too fast to completed all the functions required in that 1mm
interval then ALL or SOME of the information for that step is lost.
John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

TOFD Systems

More extensive systems would include:

1 or more Probe pairs

Probe holder (to maintain probe spacing)

Pulser-receiver(s)

Pre- amp system

Data acquisition system (computer with data display)

Encoder (s)

Irrigation system for couplant

DSP data analysis software

 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

TOFD SENSITIVITY REQUIREMENTS

Although TOFD does not have the same requirement for distance amplitude corrections, TOFD
does require some means of assuring a minimum sensitivity to ensure indications are seen over
the background noise level and also as a means of repeating the sensitivity used in subsequent
inspections. There are three methods by which TOFD may be configured for sensitivity
calibration:

Reference signal amplitude

Background noise level
A set amount of gain over a repeatable target

For all examination levels the sensitivity shall be set on the test object. The amplitude of the
lateral wave shall be between 40 % and 80 % full screen height (FSH).
 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

Diffracted or Reflected Signals from Machined Targets

The common targets used in ultrasonic testing are slits, notches, side drilled holes, through holes (i.e. through the thickness) or
flat bottom boles. Of these the through holes and flat bottom holes are not generally used in TOFD as they are highly
susceptible to probe skew.
Probe Selection and Placement
Factors considered include (but are not limited to):
Material tested
Geometry of Component
Instrumentation available (single or multi-channel)
Probes (size, frequency, angle(s), number of pairs)
Detection requirements
Inspection speed and accuracy requirements
EN/TS 14751 provides a table indicating the minimum number of zones that must be used to address the thicknesses of welds
tested by TOFD. That table is reproduced below.
 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

TOFD Data Displays and Analysis

TOFD systems are used with computer controlled systems that divide the activities into three
basic stages;
Ultrasonic Setup
Data Acquisition
Analysis
Set-up:
 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

Data Acquisition

Data Analysis

Having corrected any issued with image quality, the next step after data acquisition is to assess the TOFD images
for potential flaw indications. In addition to actual “flaw” identification, TOFD is also useful to help identify the
geometric condition of mismatch (or high-low) which is not generally considered a “flaw” in ultrasonic testing.
Flaw characterisation with TOFD is not as detailed as pulse-echo methods. TOFD has reduced characterisation
capabilities, but very useful scheme grouping flaw indications into one of three types:
Point-like flaws have neither length nor height (typically these are isolated pores or very small inclusions).
Thread-like flaws have length but a vertical extent cannot be assessed from the TOFD display. This means that the
lower-tip signal cannot be discerned.
Planar flaws have both vertical extent and length (meaning a lower –tip signal is discernable).
 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

Flaw Images

1. POINT DIFFRACTORS

Point flaws, such as porosity, shows as single or multicycle points between the lateral and
backwall signals.

There is no length and no lower tip is discernable.

 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

2. INSIDE (ID) FAR- SURFACE – BREAKING FLAWS

Figure shows no interruption of the lateral wave, a signal near the backwall, and a related
interruption or beak of the backwall (depending on flaw size). The shape and intensity of the
indication will depend on the flaw type. Illustrated is a concave root and incomplete penetration.
 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

3. OUTSIDE (OD) NEAR – SURFACE – BREAKING FLAWS

A near-surface-breaking flaw shows perturbations in the lateral wave. The flaw interrupts the
lateral wave, so TOFD can be used to determine if the flaw is surface-breaking or not. Only a
lower tip signal is present so that signal can then be used to measure the depth of the flaw.
 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

4. MIDWALL FLAWS

Midwall flaws show complete lateral and backwall signals, plus diffraction signals. For a planar
flaw both the top and bottom tip diffracted signals on the B-scan image will be seen.
 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

5. LACK OF INTER-RUN FUSION

 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

6. POROSITY

Porosity appears as a series of hyperbolic curves of varying amplitudes, depths and lateral
positions as illustrated in Figure.
 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

7. MISMATCH (HIGH – LOW)

Mismatch is not a welding flaw. It is a geometric condition whereby one side of a butt weld is
higher or lower than the other (and assumes equal thicknesses are being joined).
 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

FABRICATION TOFD
So far we have dealt with the theory of TOFD, equipment, application, types of defects and
evaluation of defects. Now we are going to discuss about the application of TOFD on higher
thickness Pressure Vessels constructed as per ASME Section VIII Div. 1 & Div.2. The process of
manufacturing thick pressure vessels is described with various pictures taken in the fabrication
shop.

1. Bevel preparation of a Heavy Wall thickness plate of a Pressure

Vessel -103 mm thickness:
John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)
 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

2. The oxides are removed by grinding and MPT

carried out on bevel preparation:
 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

3. Additional Weld joint fit up made and

before welding.

Close look at the bevel before welding

John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

4. Arrangement of burners for Pre-heating the

weld joint for welding:

Welding is in progress:
John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

5. Performing LPT after back-gouging of

the weld joint:
 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

6. View of the completed weld joint

of shell segment.
John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

7. Rolling of shell on the heavy

thk. Bending machine:
John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

8.After rolling the long seam welding is in

progress:
John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

ing of
eld ng
:
e w ati
for -he
be pre
r
sea nt fo
m
e
nti em
ere ng
al
m f r ra
cu r a
Cir urne
B
9.
 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

10. Circumferential Seam welding in

progress:
John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

11
.C
ali
br
ati
on
of
AU
Ts
et
u p
 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

12. Sketch of the Calibration block as required by ASME Section V and code case 2235-9
John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

13. AUT DISPLAY

 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

14. Scanning on a Long seam weld of a heavy wall thickness pressure vessel:
 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

15. Scanning of a Circumferential seam of a heavy wall

thickness pressure vessel:
 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

16. Comparisons of Automated UT scan report of a 45 mm thk. Pressure Vessel with

Radiography film image

RT SEGMENT 5 - 6 UT REPORT CORRESPONDING TO 5 - 6

John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

RT SEGMENT 6 - 7 UT REPORT CORRESPONDING TO 6 - 7

John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

RT SEGMENT 11 - 0 UT REPORT CORRESPONDING TO 11- 0

 John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

CONCLUSION

• AUT IS VERY SENSITIVE AND ACCURATE

• THE DEFECTS WHICH ARE ACEEPTED IN RT ARE SOMETIMES NOT

ACCEPTABLE IN AUT AS PER ASME CODE CASE 2235 DUE TO THE ASPECT
RATIO (HEIGHT TO LENGTH RATIO).

• AUT IS THE BEST ALTERNATE NDT METHOD WHERE USING COBALT 60

SOURCE IS RESTRICTED.

• MANUAL UT IS MORE OF OPERATOR ORIENTED AND AUT IS NOT

DEPENDING ON THE OPERATOR SINCE THE ACQUISITION OF DATA IS
AUTOMATIC.

• REPEATABILITY AND REPRODUCABILITY ARE GOOD.

• DATA STORAGE IS MUCH SIMPLER.

John Pickle Middle East
A Division of Kuwait Pipe Industries & Oil Services Co. ( K.S.C.)

THANK YOU
RENU ANBALAGAN
K. KALYANA RAMAN