COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (CAD)

UNIT – I Fundamentals of Computer Graphics

Presented by
C. P. Goldin Priscilla,
AP/MECH,
Kamaraj College of Engineering and Technology,
Virudhunagar.
 CAD
• CAD also known as Computer Aided
Drafting/Design.

• There are 3 different types of CAD (2D, 2.5D

and 3D).

• The software is used to create and design

models of these types and test them.
 Uses of CAD
CAD is used to design a variety of different products
for a variety of fields such as
• Architecture
• Electronics
• Automotive engineering
• Industrial Design
• Machinery
• Visual Art
• Medical Design
 The Product Cycle and CAD/CAM
• The product begin with a need which is
identified based on customers and market
demands.
• In order to establish the scope and definition
of CAD/CAM in an engineering environment
and identify existing and future related tools,
a study of a typical product cycle is necessary.
 Typical Product Life Cycle
The Design Process
Design Collecting
Design definitions, relevant design
needs specifications, information and
and requirements feasibility study
Synthesis
Analysis The CAD Process
Design Design
Design Design Design Design
documentation and modeling and
evaluation optimization analysis conceptualization
communication simulation

The Manufacturing Process

Production
planning
The CAM Process
Design and
procurement
Process
of new tools Quality Packaging
planning Production Shipping
control
Order
materials

NC, CNC, DNC

programming

Marketing

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• Inspection to finished product
– Two main process
– Design Process
» Synthesis
(Sketches, Layout drawings- CAD/CAM system)
» Analysis
(Design Modeling & Simulation)
– Manufacturing Process
(Process Planning & Production)
(Outcome Production Plan, tools procurement,
material order, CNC Programming)
 Concurrent Engineering
• It is a strategy where all the tasks involved in
product development are done in parallel.

Collaboration between all individuals, groups and

departments within a company.
– Customer research
– Designers
– Marketing
– Accounting
– Engineering
 Concurrent Engineering
Suppliers R&D Customers

Commercial
Design Process Competitors Idea
Generation Marketing

Product or Service concept

Feasibility
Study

Performance Specifications

Linear Process
Preliminary
Form Design
Design
Revising and testing
prototypes

Functional Production
Design Design
Design Manufacturing
Specifications Specifications

Pilot run and final

tests

Final Design
and process
plans

Product Launch
Sequential Vs Concurrent Engineering

Traditional Process = Linear

Vs
Concurrent Engineering = Team collaboration
 Benefits of Concurrent Engineering

• Reduces time from design concept to market

launch by 25%.
• Reduces Capital investment by 20%.
• Supports total quality from the start of
production with earlier opportunities for
continuous improvement.
• Simplifies after-sales service.
• Increases product life-cycle profitability
throughout the supply system.
The Design Process : Then and Now

Before CAD After CAD

 CAD/CAM Systems
1. Hardware
2. Software

GUI
Client/Standalone
Database
Works on all OS [ Unix,Linux,Windows,Macintosh]
 CAD/CAM Applications
• Geometric Module  Modelling/editing, documentation
• Application Module  Utilize model for Design Analysis.
• Programming Module  Customization by programming
• Communication Module  IGES, STEP file
• Collaborative Module  collaborative design via internet
2D Transformations
Basic 2D Transformations

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Basic 3D Transformations

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Example:
Two Dimensional Viewing
• The Viewing Transformation/ Pipeline
• Line Drawing
– Several Algorithms
• Clipping
– Point clipping
– Line clipping
– Area (Polygon) clipping
– Curve clipping
– Text clipping
Viewing Transformation
Windowing
When we display a scene only those objects
within a particular window are displayed
Window
wymax

wymin

wxmin wxmax
World Coordinates
Windowing
Because drawing things to a display takes time
we clip everything outside the window
Window
wymax

wymin

wxmin wxmax
World Coordinates
Clipping

• Remove objects that are outside the world window.

• For the image below consider which lines and points
should be kept and which ones should be clipped
P4

Window P2
wymax
P6
P3
P1
P7 P5

P9
P8
wymin
P10

wxmin wxmax
Point Clipping
Easy - a point (x,y) is not clipped if:
wxmin ≤ x ≤ wxmax AND wymin ≤ y ≤ wymax
otherwise it is clipped
P4 Clipped
Clipped

Window P2
wymax
Clipped
P5
P1
P7 Points Within the Window
are Not Clipped
P9 P8
wymin
Clipped P10

wxmin wxmax
 Line Clipping
Harder - examine the end-points of each line to
see if they are in the window or not
Situation Solution Example
Both end-points inside
Don’t clip
the window

One end-point inside the

Must clip
window, one outside

Both end-points outside

Don’t know!
the window
Cohen-Sutherland Clipping Algorithm
Dr. Ivan E. Sutherland co-developed
the Cohen-Sutherland clipping
algorithm. Sutherland is a graphics
giant and includes amongst his
achievements the invention of the
head mounted display.

Salient Features
•An efficient line clipping algorithm
•The key advantage of the algorithm is
that it vastly reduces the number of line
intersections that must be calculated
Cohen-Sutherland: World Division

World space is divided into regions based on the

window boundaries
– Each region has a unique four bit region code
– Region codes indicate the position of the regions with
respect to the window

1001 1000 1010

4 3 2 1

above below right left 0000

0001 0010
Window
Region Code Legend

0101 0100 0110

Cohen-Sutherland: Labelling
Every end-point is labelled with the appropriate region
code

P11 [1010]
P4 [1000]

Window
wymax
P6 [0000]
P3 [0001]
P5 [0000] P12 [0010]
P7 [0001]
P9 [0000] P8 [0010]
wymin
P10 [0100]
P13 [0101] P14 [0110]

wxmin wxmax
Cohen-Sutherland: Lines In The Window
Lines completely contained within the window
boundaries have region code [0000] for both end-
points so are not clipped.
P11 [1010]
P4 [1000]

Window
wymax
P6 [0000]
P3 [0001]
P5 [0000] P12 [0010]
P7 [0001]
P9 [0000] P8 [0010]
wymin
P10 [0100]
P13 [0101] P14 [0110]

wxmin wxmax
Cohen-Sutherland: Lines Outside The Window
Any lines with a common set bit in the region codes of
both end-points can be clipped
– The AND operation can efficiently check this

P11 [1010]
P4 [1000]

Window
wymax
P6 [0000]
P3 [0001]
P5 [0000] P12 [0010]
P7 [0001]
P9 [0000] P8 [0010]
wymin
P10 [0100]
P13 [0101] P14 [0110]

wxmin wxmax
Cohen-Sutherland: Other Lines
Lines that cannot be identified as completely inside or outside
the window may or may not cross the window interior
These lines are processed as follows:
– Compare an end-point outside the window to a boundary
(choose any order in which to consider boundaries e.g.
left, right, bottom, top) and determine how much can be
discarded
– If the remainder of the line is entirely inside or outside the
window, retain it or clip it respectively
– Otherwise, compare the remainder of the line against the
other window boundaries
– Continue until the line is either discarded or a segment
inside the window is found
Cohen-Sutherland: Other Lines (cont…)
We can use the region codes to determine which window
boundaries should be considered for intersection
– To check if a line crosses a particular boundary we
compare the appropriate bits in the region codes of its
end-points
– If one of these is a 1 and the other is a 0 then the line
crosses the boundary
Cohen-Sutherland:- Examples
Consider the line P9 to P10 below
– Start at P10 wymax
Window

– From the region codes

of the two end-points we
know the line doesn’t P [0000]
9

cross the left or right wymin

P ’ [0000]
10

boundary P [0100]
10

– Calculate the wxmin wxmax

intersection of the line with the bottom
boundary to generate point P10’
– The line P9 to P10’ is completely inside the window so is
retained
Cohen-Sutherland Examples (cont…)

Consider the line P3 to P4 below

– Start at P4 P ’ [1001]
4
P4 [1000]
Window
– From the region codes wymax
of the two end-points P [0001]
3

we know the line

crosses the left
boundary so calculate wymin
the intersection point to
generate P4’
wxmin wxmax
– The line P3 to P4’ is completely
outside the window so is clipped
Cohen-Sutherland Examples (cont…)

Consider the line P7 to P8 below

– Start at P7
Window
– From the two region wymax

codes of the two

end-points we know P7 [0001]
P7’ [0000]
P8 [0010]
the line crosses the P8’ [0000]
wymin
left boundary so
calculate the
intersection point to wxmin wxmax
generate P7’
Cohen-Sutherland Examples (cont…)

Consider the line P7’ to P8

– Start at P8 Window
wymax
– Calculate the
intersection with the P7’ [0000]
right boundary to P7 [0001]
P8’ [0000]
P8 [0010]

generate P8’ wymin

– P7’ to P8’ is inside

the window so is wxmin wxmax
retained
Area Clipping
• Similarly to lines, areas
must be clipped to a
window boundary

• Consideration must be
taken as to which portions
of the area must be clipped
 Sutherland-Hodgman: Area Clipping Algorithm

• A technique for clipping areas developed by

Sutherland & Hodgman.
• Put simply the polygon is clipped by
comparing it against each boundary in turn.

Original Area Clip Left Clip Right Clip Top Clip Bottom
 Sutherland-Hodgman:
Area Clipping Algorithm (cont…)
To clip an area against an individual boundary:
– Consider each vertex in turn against the boundary
– Vertices inside the boundary are saved for clipping against the
next boundary
– Vertices outside the boundary are clipped
– If we proceed from a point inside the boundary to one
outside, the intersection of the line with the boundary is saved
– If we cross from the outside to the inside intersection point
and the vertex are saved
Sutherland-Hodgman Example
Each example shows the
point being processed (P) S
and the previous point (S)
S
Saved points define area P
I
clipped to the boundary in
P
question Save Point P Save Point I

P S
I P

S
No Points Saved Save Points I & P
Other Clipping

Curve clipping
• Use bounding rectangle to test for overlap with
a rectangular clip window.
Text clipping
• All-or-none string-clipping
• All-or-none character-clipping
• Clip the components of individual characters

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Thank You