ANALYSIS

Anything that is in motion produces something that is known to be as ‘wave’.

In physics, as mentioned in the Wikipedia, a wave is a disturbance that transfers
energy through matter or space, with little or no associated mass transport (Mass
transfer). Waves consist of oscillations or vibrations of a physical medium or a field,
around relatively fixed locations. From the perspective of mathematics, waves, as
functions of time and space, are a class of signals. There are two main types of
waves: mechanical and electromagnetic. Mechanical waves propagate through a
physical matter, whose substance is being deformed. Restoring forces then reverse
the deformation. For example, sound waves propagate via air molecules colliding
with their neighbors. When the molecules collide, they also bounce away from each
other (a restoring force). This keeps the molecules from continuing to travel in the
direction of the wave. Electromagnetic waves do not require a medium. Instead, they
consist of periodic oscillations of electrical and magnetic fields originally generated
by charged particles, and can therefore travel through a vacuum. These types vary
in wavelength, and include radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible
light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma rays.

Waves are described by a wave equation which sets out how the disturbance
proceed over time. The mathematical form of this equation varies depending on the
type of wave. Further, the behavior of particles in quantum mechanics are described
by waves. In addition, gravitational waves also travel through space, which are a
result of a vibration or movement in gravitational fields.

A wave can be transverse, where a disturbance creates oscillations that are

perpendicular to the propagation of energy transfer, or longitudinal: the oscillations
are parallel to the direction of energy propagation. While mechanical waves can be
both transverse and longitudinal, all electromagnetic waves are transverse in free
space. In this experiment, Experiment No. 108: Transverse Waves: Frequency of
Vibration, transverse waves were denoted as waves that are oscillating
perpendicularly to the direction of propagation. If you anchor one end of a ribbon or
string and hold the other end in your hand, you can create transverse waves by
moving your hand up and down. Notice though, that you can also launch waves by
moving your hand side-to-side. This is an important point. There are two
independent directions in which wave motion can occur. In this case, these motions
are the Y and Z directions mentioned above, while the wave propagates away in the
X direction. The other type of waves is the longitudinal wave, which oscillates in the
direction of its propagation.

A simple transverse wave can be represented by a sine or cosine curve, so

called because the amplitude of any point on the curve, for instance, its distance from
the axis—is proportional to the sine or cosine of an angle. The sine curves of various
amplitudes are shown. These curves represent how a standing transverse wave might
look at consecutive intervals of time. The time required for a point on the wave to
make a complete oscillation through the axis is called the period of the wave motion,
and the number of oscillations executed per second is called the frequency.
Wavelength is considered to be the distance between corresponding points on the
wave, for example, the distance between two adjacent peaks or troughs of the wave.
Transverse waves may also be complex, in which the curves representing them are
composed of two or more sine or cosine curves.
 A transverse wave is a moving wave that consists of fluctuations occurring
sheer to the direction of energy transfer or the propagation of the wave. If a
transverse wave is moving in the positive x-direction, its oscillations are in up and
down directions that lie in the y–z plane. Light is an example of a transverse wave,
while sound is a longitudinal wave. A ripple in a pond and a wave on a string are
easily visualized as transverse waves. A transverse wave is a moving wave that
consists of oscillations occurring perpendicular (or right angled) to the direction of
energy transfer. If a transverse wave is moving in the positive x-direction, its
oscillations are in up and down directions that lie in the y–z plane, as defined by the
Wikipedia.

The objectives for this experiment were given as: 1To determine the
relationship between tension on a string and the frequency of vibration and 2to
determine the relationship between length of a string and the frequency of vibration.
In the experiment we have conducted, we will see the relationship of velocity,
frequency and wavelength. But since transverse wave is difficult to see, what the
experiment shows is a standing wave where a standing wave pattern is a vibrational
pattern created within a medium when the vibrational frequency of the source causes
reflected waves from one end of the medium to interfere with incident waves from
the source.

The required materials for this experiment were the following: string vibrator,
sine wave generator, iron stand with clamp, pulley, weight, mass hanger, extension
cord, meter stick and guitar strings.
STRING VIBRATOR
- This was used to produce the
vibration in the experiment.

SINE WAVE GENERATOR

- This was used to dictate the amount
of frequency to be used.

IRON STANDS WITH CLAMP

- These were used to hold the strings.

PULLEY
- This was used to hold the weights that
was used to differentiate the results.
WEIGHTS
- These were placed on the mass
hanger to have a comparison in the
experiment.

MASS HANGER
- It was where the weights were placed
during the experiment.

METER STICK
- This was used to measure the length
of the strings.

GUITAR STRINGS
- These were used as the main material
in the experiment where the results
will be drawn from.
 The formulas used for the performance of this experiment to get the results
were the following:

1. 𝑣 =𝑓𝜆
Where:

v – Velocity

f – frequency

𝜆 - wavelength

𝑇
2. 𝑣=√
𝜇

Where:

T – tension

𝜇 – linear mass density

1 𝑇
𝐹= √
𝜆 𝜇

𝑛 𝑇
3. 𝑓 = √
2𝐿 𝜇

Where:

n – number of segments

L – length of vibrating string

 TABLE 1. Frequency of Vibration and Tension
Diameter of wire = 0.010 in
Linear mass density of wire, 𝜇 = 0.0039 g/cm
TRIAL T n L Fexperimental Fcomputed % error
1 63, 936.5752 dynes 4 62.5cm 110 Hz 119.0034 Hz 7.5657 %
2 73, 549.8752 dynes 3 62.5cm 114 Hz 104.2245 Hz 9.3577%
3 96, 163.1753 dynes 3 62.5cm 116 Hz 117.3008 Hz 1.1089 %
4 112, 776.4753 dynes 2 62.5cm 118 Hz 86.0393 Hz 37.1466 %
5 132, 389.7754 dynes 2 62.5cm 122 Hz 93.2212 Hz 30.8715 %

The table above shows the data that were acquired after the performance of
the first part of this experiment. The table was entitled, ‘Frequency of Vibration and
Tension’. For the first part of the experiment, we set up the apparatus by connecting
the sine wave generator to the string vibrator and then attached a guitar string that
will be used for the five trials here in part one. A constant frequency was set by
adjusting the amplitude and the frequency of the sine wave generator.

The guitar strings provided by the laboratory technicians were already given
with the indicated diameters. For the wire that we used for this experiment, the
diameter was given as 0.010 in. The linear mass density, 𝜇, was computed and then
yielded a value of 0.0039 g/cm. The length for all the trials was constant and has a
value of 62.5 cm.

The first trial was done by having a 63, 936.5752 dynes of tension. The string
was noticed to have 4 segments during the experiment. With this in mind, the
experimental value of the frequency was 114 Hz, while on the other hand, the
computed value of the frequency was 119.0034 Hz. These values were used to
compute the percentage error that might have occurred in the performance, and
resulted to a 7.5657 % of error.

Next, the second trial was done by using a 76, 549.8752 dynes of tension on
a string. In this trial, the number of segments were observed to have a value of 3.
The frequency in this part was 114 Hz which was considered as the experimental
value. However, the computed frequency was 104.2245 Hz. These values were
computed and a discrepancy of 9.3577 % was achieved.

Succeeding is the third trial, which was conducted with 96, 163.1753 dynes
of tension. The number of segments in this trial had a similar value with the prior
one, which is 3. Having an experimental value of the frequency which is 116 Hz and
a computed value of frequency of 117.3008 Hz, produces a 1.1089 % of error.

Following to this is the fourth trial, which was done by using a tension of 112,
776.4753 dynes. This tension was able to produce 2 segments on the wire. The
experimental value for this one was 118 Hz, while the computed one was 86.0393.
These data yielded the greatest amount of error which was 37.1466 %, throughout
this part of the experiment.

Lastly, the fifth trial was performed with a 132, 389.7754 dynes of tension.
This amount of energy was able to produce 2 segments on the string. The
investigational value of this was 122 Hz, while the computed was 93.2212 Hz. In
result, an amount of 30.8715 % of discrepancy was produced.

Since the outcome of the experiment wasn't exact with the actual value of the
frequency, Errors may have arisen from the measurement of the segments. Someone
with a keen-eye and someone with a stable hand to hold the measuring device to
have a precise and accurate measurement is need in this experiment. Wrong
measurement and the wave produce near the stylus. The stylus can be the source of
error because the clip that connects the stylus to string vibrator affect the wave of
the segment produce in the first segment. The sources of error that can affect the
experiment are the amplitude, The amplitude is also a source of error because we
must allocate better amplitude to see the wave; increase in altitude will make a
different wave and uneasy to measure the length. Measurement of the length is a
source of error in the experiment. We must able to measure the length accurate to
have less error. Also, the string used by the device should be completely leveled and
free to vibrate without obstructions.

There were a lot of possible experimental errors that could cause the above
compared values not to agree within uncertainties. First, there was an inaccuracy in
adjusting frequencies to obtain an exact number of loops. As the frequency was
raised to higher value to obtain more nodes, the wave became harder to visible.
Another factor influenced the experimental result was that the loop should be
counted starting from the wave driver, but the loop was counted from the point of
the clamp where the string was tied. If the number of loops was counted from the
wave driver, the frequency could change. Therefore, these factors could contribute
to inaccurate values of frequency which then led to inaccurate wave speed. In
addition, the hanging mass did not remain stable throughout the experiment. This
vibration in hanging mass could also cause a variation of tension in the string.
Approximation in reading the length of the string also contributed to these errors.
All of these led to inaccuracy in calculations of wavelength and velocities.

Based on the results achieved in Table 1, it clearly shows that the tension is
directly proportional to the frequency and inversely proportional to the number of
segments. As tension increases, frequency also increases and also as tension
increases, number of segments decreases.
 TABLE 2. Frequency of Vibration and Linear Mass Density
Tension = 53, 936.5752 dynes
TRIAL μ n L Fexperimental Fcomputed % error
1 0.0039 g/cm 4 62.5cm 110 Hz 119.0034 Hz 7.5657 %
2 0.0112 g/cm 6 62.5cm 112 Hz 105.3353 Hz 6.3275 %
3 0.0150 g/cm 7 62.5cm 114 Hz 106.1901 Hz 7.3546 %
4 0.0184 g/cm 7 62.5cm 116 Hz 109.5753 Hz 5.8633 %
5 0.0078 g/cm 5 62.5cm 114 Hz 105.1851 Hz 8.3804 %

The table above shows the data that were acquired after the performance of
the first part of this experiment. The table was entitled, ‘Frequency of Vibration and
Linear Mass Density’. For the first part of the experiment, we set up the apparatus
by connecting the sine wave generator to the string vibrator and then attached a
guitar string that will be used for the five trials here in part one. For the second part,
a constant diameter of guitar string of 0.010 inches was used having a linear mass
density of 0.0039 g/cm. Also, a constant length was observed as 62.5 cm. The
changing factor or the variable factor here is the mass at the end of the string that is
pulling it to have clearer vision of the wave, also known as the tension.

At first, we placed a 50g weight on the mass hanger and turned on the sine
wave generator. We adjusted the amplitude to see the waves better and count the
segment created. There are a variety of patterns by which the guitar string could
naturally vibrate; each pattern is associated with one of the natural frequencies of
the guitar strings. We counted 4 segments in the model during the experiment.

Next, the second trial was done by using a 53, 936.5752 dynes of tension on
a string. In this trial, it had a linear mass density of 0.0112 g/cm which produced 6
segments in the string. The frequency in this part was 112 Hz which was considered
as the experimental value. However, the computed frequency was 105.3353 Hz.
These values were computed and a discrepancy of 6.3275 % was achieved.

Succeeding is the third trial, which was conducted with 53, 936.5752 dynes
of tension. The linear mass density that was computed for this trial was 0.0150 g/cm.
This tension was able to produce 7 segments on the wire. Having an experimental
value of the frequency which is 114 Hz and a computed value of frequency of
106.1901 Hz, produces a 7.3546 % of error.

Following to this is the fourth trial, which was done by using a tension of 53,
936.5752 dynes, with a linear mass density of 0.0184 g/cm. The number of segments
in this trial had a similar value with the prior one, which is 7. The experimental value
for this one was 116 Hz, while the computed one was 109.5753 Hz. These data
yielded the least amount of error which was 5.8633 %, throughout this part of the
experiment.

Lastly, the fifth trial was performed with a 53, 936.5752 dynes of tension. The
linear mass density was 0.0078 g/cm and this amount of energy was able to produce
5 segments on the string. The investigational value of this was 114 Hz. On the other
hand, the computed value of the frequency of vibration was 105.1851 Hz. In result,
an amount of 8.3804 % of discrepancy was produced.

Meanwhile, the result of the experiment was not exactly the same with the
actual value of the frequency, errors have arisen from the dimension of the segments.
Somebody with a sharp sight and someone with a steady hand to hold the measuring
device to have an accurate and precise measurement is needed in this experiment.
Incorrect measurement and the wave produce adjacent the stylus. The stylus can be
the foundation of error because the clip that connects the stylus to string vibrator
affect the wave of the segment produce in the first segment. The sources of error that
can affect the experiment are the amplitude, The amplitude is also a source of error
because we must allocate better amplitude to see the wave; increase in altitude will
make a different wave and uneasy to measure the length. Measurement of the length
is a source of error in the experiment. We must able to measure the length accurate
to have less error.

There were enormously likely experimental errors that could cause the above
compared values not to agree within uncertainties. There was an imprecision in
adjusting frequencies to obtain an exact number of loops. As the frequency was
raised to higher value to obtain more nodes, the wave became harder to visible.
Another influence is the experimental result was that the loop should be counted
starting from the wave driver, but the loop was counted from the point of the clamp
where the string was tied. If the number of loops was counted from the wave driver,
the frequency could change. Therefore, these factors could contribute to inaccurate
values of frequency which then led to inaccurate wave speed. In addition, the
hanging mass did not remain stable throughout the experiment. This vibration in
hanging mass could also cause a variation of tension in the string. Estimation in
reading the length of the string also contributed to these errors.
 CONCLUSION

A transverse wave is a wave in which particles of the medium move in a

direction perpendicular to the direction that the wave moves. Transverse waves are
always characterized by particle motion being perpendicular to wave motion. The
objectives for this experiment were given as: 1To determine the relationship between
tension on a string and the frequency of vibration and 2to determine the relationship
between length of a string and the frequency of vibration. Based on the results
achieved in table1, it clearly shows that the tension is directly proportional to the
frequency and inversely proportional to the number of segments. As tension
increases, frequency also increases and also as tension increases, number of
segments decreases. On the other hand, table 2 shows the relationship of the diameter
of the string, its linear mass density to the number of segments and frequency. As
linear mass density increases, number of segments increases and frequency
decreases. Therefore, linear mass density is directly proportional to number of
segments and inversely proportional to frequency. The formula in the manual was
the same to the data gathered.

Sources of error were wrong measurement of the length of the total number
of segments since you cannot place the meter stick near the string for it will affect
the movement of the wave. In addition, we must count the number of segment after
it passes the stylus because the stylus is affected by the clip that connects the string
vibrator to the stylus. Two, we must also consider the measurement of the length of
string with complete number of segment. Last, we must check the different
relationship of frequency to the segment, tension, linear mass density and length.

Guitars typically feature six strings of varying thickness. The thickness of a

string is related to its pitch. If two strings are the same length, the thicker string will
have a lower pitch than the thinner string. The tension of a string is also related to
its pitch. Guitar strings are tuned using their tuning keys. Applying too much tension
to a string tightly can raise it to the pitch of the next note, while loosening it can
easily lower it the same amount. Increasing the tension raises the pitch. The length
of a string is also important. When a string is supported at two points and plucked,
it vibrates and produces sound. However, if the length of this string is shortened, its
pitch will increase.

I therefore conclude that, the tension in the string is essentially the restoring
force in it when it is subjected to a displacement or perturbation. For example, the
tension in the string is the reason why the string of a guitar vibrates about its mean
position when you pluck it and depending on the structural damping material, the
string eventually will come back to the mean position. More importantly, if you
increase the tension in the string, you are increasing the stiffness of it. From the
concepts of Newton's second law and spring mass damper system, a stiffer system
will have a higher frequency as it can produce more force resulting in more
acceleration per unit displacement. Therefore, if you increase the tension in the
string, the frequency of the vibration increases.