Section 1

Basic Principles of
Communications m 2Pc m 2Pc
PLSB PUSB
4 4
Engineering

Section 2
Amplitude
Modulation

Section 3 m2Pc
Angle Modulation PLSB PUSB 0
4

Section 4
Noise Analysis and
dB Calculations

Section 5
Transmitters & m 2Pc
PLSB PUSB 0
Receivers 4

Introduction to
Electronics
Communication

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Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 1-1

Section Basic Principles of Read it

till it
1 Communications Engineering Hertz!

DEFINITION. Electronic Communication is the transmission, reception, and

processing of information between two or more locations using electronic
circuits.

DEFINITION. Allocation: Entry in the Table of Frequency Allocations of a

given frequency band for the purpose of its use by one or more terrestrial or
space radio communication services or the radio astronomy service under
specified conditions.

DEFINITION. Allotment: Entry of a designated frequency channel in the

agreed plan, adopted by the ITU, for use by one or more nations for a
terrestrial or space radio communication services in one or more identified
countries or geographic areas and under specified conditions.

DEFINITION. Assignment: Authorization given by a nation for a radio

station to use a radio-frequency channel under specified conditions.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

1820 Hans Christian Oersted discovered the relation between electricity and
magnetism, later known as electromagnetism.

1821 Andre Marie Ampere already observed momentarily the phenomenon

we now call electromagnetic induction and hypothesized the existence
of magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor.

1822 Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction, the reverse of

Oersted discovery.

1830 An American, Joseph Henry, demonstrated telecommand by sending

an electronic current over one mile of wire to activate an
electromagnet which caused a bell to strike, thus wire telegraphy was
born.

Samuel F.B. Morse, successfully exploited Henry s invention

commercially.

1866 James Clerk Maxwell put together the principles of Oersted, Faraday
and hypothesized the existence of electromagnetic waves.

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1-2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATIONS Engineering

1886 German physicist, Heinrich Hertz performed an experiment on spark

gap transmission verifying Maxwell statement. Hertz experimentally
showed the existence of such waves which he called radio waves that
paved the way for wireless communication.

1896 An Italian, Guglielmo Marconi developed the first wireless telegraph

and successfully sent a message over a distance of few kilometers
using a spark gap transmitter.

1900 Reginald Aubrey Fessenden, invented AM and successfully transmits a

few words using spark gap transmitter.

1936 Major Edwin Armstrong developed the first successful FM radio

system.

A. .NOMENCLATURE OF RADIO FREQUENCY BAND.

Based on ITU-R Recommendations V.431-6

Adjectival
Frequency Range Metric Subdivision
Designation
0.03 to 0.3 Hz Gigametric ELF
0.3 to 3 Hz Hectomegametric ELF
3 to 30 Hz Decamegametric ELF
30 to 300 Hz Megametric ELF
300 to 3400 Hz Hectokilometric ULF (Voice)
3 to 30 kHz Myriametric VLF
30 to 300 kHz kilometric LF
300 to 3000 kHz Hectometric MF
3 to 30 MHz Decametric HF
30 to 300 MHz metric VHF
300 to 3000 MHz decimetric UHF
3 to 30 GHz centimetric SHF
30 to 300 GHz millimetric EHF
300 to 3000 GHz decimillimetric EHF
3 to 30 THz centimillimetric EHF
30 to 300 THz Micrometric EHF
300 to 3000 THz Decimicrometric EHF
Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 1-3

B. .ELEMENTS OF BASIC COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM.

1. Transmitter
A collection of electronic components and circuits designed to convert
the information or intelligence into a signal suitable for transmission
over a given communication medium.

2. Channel
The medium by which the electronic/electromagnetic signal is sent
from one place to another.

2 General Categories

i. Wire Medium
The signal is confined within the proximity of the channel or
medium.
a.k.a. Bounded or Guided medium
ii. Wireless Medium
The signal is not subjected to limits, boundaries, or channel
restrictions.
a.k.a. Unbounded or Unguided Medium

Noise
Noise is a random, undesirable electrical energy that enters the
communications system and interferes with the transmitted message.

3. Receiver
The receiver is another collection of electronic components and circuits
that accept the transmitted message from the channel and convert it
back into a form understandable by humans.

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1-4 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATIONS Engineering

Read it till it Hertz jma

Noise SPECTRUM

White Noise - White noise is defined as a noise that has equal amount
of energy per frequency.
This means that if you could measure the amount of white noise energy between
100 Hz and 200 Hz it would equal the amount of energy between 1000 Hz and
1100 Hz.

Pink Noise - Pink noise is noise that has an equal amount of energy
per octave.
This means that pink noise would have equal power in the frequency range from
40 to 60 Hz as in the band from 4000 to 6000 Hz.

Brown noise - Brown noise is similar to pink noise, but with a power
density decrease of 6 dB per octave with increasing frequency (density
proportional to 1/f2) over a frequency range which does not include
DC.

Blue Noise - Blue noise is noise that is the opposite of pink noise in
that it doubles the amount of energy each time you go up 1 octave.

Purple noise - Purple noise's power density increases 6 dB per octave

with increasing frequency (density proportional to f2) over a finite
frequency range.

It is also known as differentiated white noise or violet noise.

Orange noise - Orange noise is quasi-stationary noise with a finite

power spectrum with a finite number of small bands of zero energy
dispersed throughout a continuous spectrum.

Black Noise - Noise that has a frequency spectrum of predominately

zero power level over all frequencies except for a few narrow bands or
spikes.
Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 1-5

C. .MODULATION.

Modulation is the process of varying a carrier signal, typically a sinusoidal

signal, in order to use that signal to convey information. The three key
parameters of a sinusoid are its amplitude, its phase and its frequency, all
of which can be modified in accordance with an information signal to
obtain the modulated signal.

Three General Subdivisions

1. Analog modulation

Amplitude modulation (AM)

Double-sideband Full Carrier (A3E)
Single-sideband Full Carrier (H3E)
Single-sideband Suppressed Carrier (J3E)
Single-sideband Reduced Carrier (R3E)
Vestigial-sideband Modulation (C3F)

Angle Modulation
Frequency modulation (FM)
Phase modulation (PM)

2. Digital Modulation

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

On Off Keying

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Audio FSK (AFSK)
Continuous Phase FSK (CP-FSK)
i. Minimum-shift keying (MSK)
ii. Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK)
iii. Very minimum-shift keying (VMSK)

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
Trellis Code Modulation (TCM)

3. Hybrid Modulation (combined analog digital techniques)

Pulse modulation
Pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM)
Pulse-code modulation (PCM)
i. Differential PCM (DPCM)
ii. Delta Modulation (DM)
iii. Adaptive DM (ADM)
iv. Continuously Variable Slope Delta (CVSD)
v. Sigma-Delta Modulation ( )

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1-6 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATIONS Engineering

Pulse Frequency Modulation (PFM)

Pulse Time Modulation (PTM)
i. Pulse-width modulation (PWM)
ii. Pulse-position modulation (PPM)

D. .WAVEFORM REPRESENTATION.

1. Time Domain Representation

A standard oscilloscope is
used to display the amplitude
versus time representation of
the input signal.

i. Frequency (f)
The number of times a particular phenomenon occurs in a given
period of time expressed in Hertz.

ii. Wavelength ( )
Wavelength is the distance between two points of similar cycles of
a periodic wave or the distance traveled by an electromagnetic
wave during the time of one cycle typically expressed in meters.

iii. Period (T)

The time required for one complete cycle of a repetitive system, or
simply the reciprocal of frequency.

Relation between Wavelength, Frequency, and Period

c c 1
f T
f f

where:
wavelength in meters
c speed of light
3 x 108 m/s
f frequency in Hertz
T period in sec
Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 1-7

ECE Board Exam: APRIL 2005

Determine the wavelength of radio waves propagated using a frequency of 30
MHz.

Solution:

Wavelength :
c 3 x 108
f 30 x 106
10 m

2. Frequency Domain Representation

A spectrum analyzer is
used to display the
amplitude versus
frequency representation
of the input signal.

The time and frequency domain representation of three sine waves

A
A

t
f

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1-8 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATIONS Engineering

DOPPLER EFFECT
A perceived change in the frequency of a wave as the distance between
the source and the observer changes.

Doppler Frequency of Sound Waves

fo Observed frequency in Hz
o o Velocity of observer in m/s
fo fs
s s Velocity of source in m/s
fs Source frequency in Hz

The top sign apply if the source and/or object are moving toward each
other and the bottom sign apply if they move away from each other.

Sample Problem:
An ambulance travels down a highway at a speed of 75.0 mi/h with its siren
emitting a sound with a frequency of 400 Hz. What frequency is heard
(a) by someone standing still when the ambulance approaches?
(b) by a passenger in a car traveling at 55 mi/h in the opposite direction as
it approaches the ambulance?
(c) by a passenger in a car traveling at 55 mi/h in the opposite direction as
it moves away from the ambulance? 75 mi/h = 33.5 m/s, 55 mi/h =
24.6 m/s.

Solution:

(a) 345 m s , s 33.5 m s, o 0 (observer is not moving)

o 345 0
fo fs 400 443 Hz
s 345 33.5

(b) 345 m s , s 33.5 m s , o 24.6 m s

o 345 24.6
fo fs 400 475 Hz
s 345 33.5

(c) 345 m s , s 33.5 m s , o 24.6 m s

o 345 24.6
fo fs 400 339 Hz
s 345 33.5
Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 1-9

Doppler Frequency of Electromagnetic Waves

c r
fo fs
c r

fo Observed frequency in Hz
c Speed of light
3 x 10 8 m / s
r Velocity of source relative to observer in m/s
fs Source frequency in Hz

The top sign apply if the source and/or object are moving toward each
other and the bottom sign apply if they move away from each other.

Sample Problem:
A LEO communications satellite is orbiting the earth at 27,000 kph
(7,500 m/s). Calculate the frequency received by a mobile station antenna
due to Doppler shift 450 km below if the satellite is operating at 1.28 GHz.
Also compute the Doppler shift. (Assume the satellite is moving away from
the subscriber)

Solution:
c r
fo fs 27,000 kph
c r

c 7500 m
s
1.28 GHz m
c 7500 s
450 km
1.279968 GHz

For the Doppler Shift :

fD fs fo 1.28 GHz 1.279968 GHz
31.99 kHz

E. .ENGINEERING DEFINITIONS OF BANDWIDTH.

1. Absolute bandwidth
Absolute bandwidth is the difference between the upper and lower
frequency limits (f2-f1), where the spectrum is zero outside the interval
f1<f<f2 along the positive frequency axis.

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1-10 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATIONS Engineering

2. -3dB bandwidth (Half-power BW)

-3dB bandwidth is f2-f1, where for frequencies inside the f1<f<f2 the
magnitude spectra fall no lower than 0.707 times the maximum value
magnitude, and the maximum value occurs at a frequency inside the
band.

3. Null-to-null bandwidth (zero-crossing BW)

Null-to-null bandwidth is f2-f1, where f2 is the first null in the envelope
of the magnitude spectrum above f0 and, for bandpass system, f1 is
the first null in the enveloped below f0, where f0 is the frequency
where the magnitude spectrum is maximum.

4. Bounded spectrum bandwidth

Bounded spectrum bandwidth is f2-f1 such that outside the band
f1<f<f2, the power spectrum density (PSD) must be at least a certain
amount, say 50 dB, below the maximum value of the PSD.

5. Power bandwidth
Power bandwidth is f2-f1, where f1<f<f2 defines the frequency band in
which 99% of the total power resides.

Read it till it Hertz jma

2 LEGAL DEFINITIONS OF BANDWIDTH

FCC bandwidth
FCC bandwidth is an authorized bandwidth parameter assigned by
the FCC to specify the spectrum allowed in communication
systems.

ITU Necessary Bandwidth

Necessary bandwidth for a given class of emission is defined as
the width of the frequency band that is just sufficient to ensure
the transmission of information at the rate and with the quality
required under specified conditions.

ITU Necessary Bandwidth

Between 0.001 and 999 Hz shall be expressed in hertz H

Between 1.00 and 999 kHz shall be expressed in kilohertz K
Between 1.00 and 999 MHz shall be expressed in megahertz M
Between 1.00 and 999 GHz shall be expressed in gigahertz G
Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 1-11

Example:
What is the necessary bandwidth designation for 180.5 kHz?
A. 181K B. 180K5
C. 181K5 D. 180.5K

Answer. A

.HInt. The necessary bandwidth shall be expressed by 3 numerals and one

letter. The letter occupies the position of the decimal point and represents
the unit of bandwidth.

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The ITU divides the world into three regions, with each region having
its own allocations although there is much commonality between the
regions.

Philippines frequency allocations belong to Region 3 of the ITU Radio

Regulations.

F. .ITU EMISSION DESIGNATION.

According to ITU (Article 4; Radio Regulations, Geneva, 1982 revised

1985), emission shall be designated according to their necessary
bandwidth and their classification.

DEFINITION Classification of the signal is given by three alphanumeric

symbols.

FIRST SYMBOL
Type of Modulation of the Main Carrier
(1.1) Emission of unmodulated carrier N
(1.2) Emission in which the main carrier is AMPLITUDE MODULATED
(1.2.1) Double Sideband A
(1.2.2) Independent Sideband B
(1.2.3) Vestigial Sideband C
(1.2.4) Single Sideband, full carrier H
(1.2.5) Single Sideband, reduced or variable-level carrier R
(1.2.6) Single Sideband, suppressed carrier J

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1-12 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATIONS Engineering

(1.3) Emission in which the main carrier is ANGLE-MODULATED

(1.3.1) Frequency Modulation F
(1.3.2) Phase Modulation G
(1.4) Emission in which the main carrier is amplitude and D
angle-modulated either simultaneously or in a
pre-established sequence.
(1.5) Emission of PULSES
(1.5.1) Sequence of unmodulated pulses P
(1.5.2) A sequence of pulse
(1.5.2.1) PAM K
(1.5.2.2) PDM/PWM L
(1.5.2.3) PPM M
(1.5.2.4) in which the carrier is angle-modulated
during the period of the pulse. Q

(1.5.2.5) which is a combination of the foregoing or

is produced by other means V

SECOND SYMBOL
Nature of Signal(s) Modulating the Main

(2.1) No modulating signal 0

(2.2) A single channel containing quantized or digital information 1
WITHOUT the use of a modulating subcarrier
(2.3) A single channel containing quantized or digital information 2
WITH the use of a modulating subcarrier
(2.4) A single channel containing analog information 3
(2.5) Two or more channels containing quantized or digital information 7
(2.6) Two or more channels containing analog information 8
(2.7) Composite system with one or more channels containing 9
quantized or digital information, together with one or more
channels containing analog information
(2.8) Case not otherwise covered X

THIRD SYMBOL
Type of Information(s) to be transmitted

(3.1) No information transmitted N

(3.2) Telegraphy (manual) A
(3.3) Telegraphy (automatic) B
(3.4) Facsimile C
(3.5) Data transmission, Telemetry, Telecommand D
(3.6) Telephony (including sound broadcasting) E
(3.7) Television (video) F
(3.8) Combination of the above W
(3.9) Case not otherwise covered X
Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 1-13

Read it till it Hertz jma

Two or more optional symbols can be added to the basic

characteristics described above for a more complete description of an
emission (Appendix 6, Radio Regulation, ITU; Geneva, 1982).

T N T D N

FOURTH SYMBOL Details of Signal(s)

FIFTH SYMBOL Nature of Multiplexing

FOURTH SYMBOL
Details of Signal(s)

(4.1) Two-condition code with elements of differing numbers A

and/or conditions
(4.2) Two-condition code with elements of the same number and B
duration without error correction
(4.3) Two-condition code with elements of the same number and C
duration with error correction
(4.4) Four-condition code in which each condition represents a D
signal element (of one or more bits)
(4.5) Multi-condition code in which each condition represents a E
signal element (of one or more bits)
(4.6) Multi-condition code in which each condition or combinations F
of conditions represent a character.
(4.7) Sound broadcasting quality (monophonic) G
(4.8) Sound broadcasting quality (stereophonic or quadraphonic) H
(4.9) Sound of commercial quality J
(4.10) Sound commercial quality with the use of frequency inversion K
or band splitting
(4.11) Sound commercial quality with separate frequency-modulated L
signals to control the levels of demodulated signal
(4.12) Monochrome M
(4.13) Color N
(4.14) Combination of the above W
(4.15) Cases not otherwise covered X

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1-14 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATIONS Engineering

FIFTH SYMBOL
Nature of Multiplexing

(5.1) None N
(5.2) Code Division Multiplex C
(5.3) Frequency Division Multiplex F
(5.4) Time Division Multiplex T
(5.5) Combination of frequency division multiplex and W
time division multiplex
(5.6) Other types of multiplexing X

G. .FCC EMISSION DESIGNATION.

FIRST SYMBOL
Type of Modulation of the Main Carrier
(1.1) Amplitude A
(1.2) Frequency or Phase F
(1.3) Pulse P

SECOND SYMBOL
Type of Transmission
(2.1) Absence of any modulation intended to carry information 0
(2.2) Telegraphy without the use of a modulating audio frequency 1
(2.3) Telegraphy by the on-off keying of a modulating audio frequency, 2
or by the on-off keying of the modulated emission (special case:
an unkeyed modulated emission)
(2.4) Telephony (including sound broadcasting) 3
(2.5) Facsimile (with modulation of main carrier directly or by a 4
Frequency-modulated subcarrier)
(2.6) Television (visual only) 5
(2.7) Four-frequency duplex telegraphy 6
(2.8) Multichannel voice-frequency telegraphy 7
(2.9) Cases not otherwise covered 9

THIRD SYMBOL
Supplementary Characteristics
(3.1) Double sideband
(3.2) Single sideband
(3.2.1) Reduced carrier A
(3.2.2) Full carrier H
(3.2.3) Suppressed carrier J
(3.3) Two independent sideband B
(3.4) Vestigial sideband C
Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 1-15

(3.5) Pulse
(3.5.1) Amplitude modulated D
(3.5.2) Width (or duration) modulated E
(3.5.3) Phase (or position) modulated F
(3.5.4) Code modulated G
(3.6) Digital modulations Y

H. .FORMER DESIGNATION.

1. Amplitude Modulated (AM)

A0 No modulation
A1 Telegraphy; on-off ; no other modulation
A2 Telegraphy; on-off ; amplitude-modulated tone
A3 Telephony; DSBFC
A3A Telephony; SSBRC
A3J Telephony; SSBSC
A3H Telephony; SSBFC
A3B Telephony; ISB
A3Y Digital voice modulation
A4 Facsimile
A5C Television with vestigial sideband
A9B Telephony or telegraphy with ISB
A9Y Nonvoice digital modulation

2. Frequency or Phase Modulated (FM/PM)

F1 Telegraphy; FSK
F2 Telegraphy; on-off ; frequency-modulated tone
F3 Telephony; FM or PM
F3Y Digital voice modulation
F9Y Nonvoice digital modulation
F4 Facsimile
F5 Television
F6 Telegraphy; four-frequency duplex

3. Pulse Modulated

P0 RADAR
P1D Telegraphy; ASK
P2D Telegraphy; pulse-carrier tone-modulated
P2E Telegraphy; pulse-width tone-modulated
P2F Telegraphy; phase or position tone-modulated
P3D Telephony; amplitude-modulated pulses
P3E Telephony; pulse-width modulated
P3F Telephony; pulse phase or position-modulated

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1-16 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATIONS Engineering

I. .TRANSMISSION MODES.

1. Simplex
Transmissions can occur only in one direction. Sometimes called one-
way-only, receive-only, or transmit-only.

2. Half-Duplex
Transmissions can occur in both directions, but not at the same time.
Sometimes called two-way-alternate, either-way, or over-and-out
systems.

3. Full Duplex
Transmissions can occur in both directions at the same time.
Sometimes called two-way-simultaneous, duplex, or both-way line.

4. Full/Full Duplex
Possible to transmit and receive simultaneously, but not necessary
between the same two locations (i.e. one station can transmit to a
second station and receive from a third station at the same time).

J. .CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS.

1. Two-Wire Transmission

Two-wire circuits are those that

carry information signals in both
directions over the same physical
link or path. Typically, such a circuit
is provisioned through the use of a
single twisted pair, copper wire
connection.

2. Four-Wire Transmission

Four-wire circuits are those that

carry information signals in both
directions over separate physical
links or paths, and in support of
simultaneous, two way
transmission.
Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 1-17

K. .MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUE.

Multiplexing is a technique used in communications and input/output

operations for transmitting a number of separate signals simultaneously
over a single channel or line.

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

A unique band of frequencies within the wideband frequency spectrum

of the medium is allotted to each communication channel on a
continuous time basis.

2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Each communication channel is allotted a fixed time slot within a
sampling frame, occupying essentially the entire wideband frequency
spectrum for the allocated time.

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Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM)

Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM) is much improved over
TDM, as the MUXs are intelligent. STDMs can allocate bandwidth, in
the form of time slots, in consideration of the transmission
requirements of individual devices serving specific applications.

3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

WDM resembles FDM in that the idea is to send information signals

that occupy the same frequency band of frequencies through the same
fiber at the same time without them interfering with each other.

L. .TRANSMISSION FACILITIES.

In terms of bandwidth, and in contemporary digital context, transmission

facilities can be categorized as narrowband, wideband or broadband.

1. Narrowband
A single channel (64 Kbps) or some number of 64 Kbps channels (N ×
64 Kbps), but less than wideband.

2. Wideband
Wideband is multi-channel capacity that is between 1.544 Mbps and
45 Mbps according to U.S. standards (2.048 Mbps-34 Mbps according
to European/international standards.)
Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 1-19

3. Broadband
Broadband is multi-channel capacity which is 45 Mbps according to
U.S. standards and 34 Mbps according to European/international
standards.

M. .TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENTS.

Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The
imperfection causes signal impairment. This means that the signal at the
beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal at the end of the
medium. What is sent is not what is received. Three causes of impairment
are attenuation, distortion, and noise.

1. Attenuation
A type of transmission impairment in which the signal loses strength due to
the resistance and length of the transmission medium.

A
TRANSMISSION MEDIUM

2. Distortion
The alteration of information in which the original proportions are
changed, resulting from a defect in communication system.

CHANNEL
SOURCE RECEIVER

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3. Noise
A type of transmission impairment in which an outside source such as
crosstalk corrupts a signal.

SOURCE RECEIVER

N. .CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATIONS.

1. Distress
A mobile station in distress is in need of immediate assistance.

Communication Distress Signal

--- or SOS sent as one character

Radiotelegraph
with no spacing between letters.

MAYDAY (from the French ),

Radiotelephone usually transmitted three or more
times to attract attention.

2. Urgency
Radio messages with an urgency classification refer to a situation that
requires immediate attention and might conceivably become distress
in nature.

Communication Distress Signal

Radiotelegraph XXX
Radiotelephone PAN PAN
Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 1-21

3. Safety
Radio communications with a safety classification refer to
meteorological information, particularly about storms, hurricanes, etc.

Communication Distress Signal

Radiotelegraph TTT
Radiotelephone SECURITY

O. .MESSAGE PRIORITIES.

1. Distress calls, messages, and traffic

2. Communications preceded by the urgency signal
3. Communications preceded by the safety signal
4. Communications relative to radio direction finding
5. Message relative to navigation of aircraft
6. Message relative to navigation, movements, and needs of ships
and official weather-observation messages

P. .OPERATIONAL WORDS.

Code Meaning

Roger I received your message.

I have completed transmitting and await
Over
your reply.
Go ahead Same as over.

I have completed my communication and

Out
do not expect to transmit again.
I have no further traffic. (Sometimes
Clear
used in place of )
Wait for another call or further
Stand by
instructions.
I am changing from one part of the
message to another. (Also used to
Break request the received operator to indicate
if he has received the portion of the
message transmitted thus far.)
Copy Respond to Break

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1-22 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATIONS Engineering

Q. .INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET.

A Alpha J Juliet S Sierra

B Bravo K Kilo T Tango
C Charlie L Lima U Uniform
D Delta M Mike V Victor
E Echo N November W Whiskey
F Foxtrot O Oscar X X-ray
G Golf P Papa Y Yankee
H Hotel Q Quebec Z Zulu
I India R Romeo ---